universiti putra malaysia impact of agroforestry...

UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY

AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR

BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE

FH 2007 11

IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON

THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR


DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

2007

IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR

By


Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

October 2007

DEDICATION

This endeavour is dedicated to my loved beloved parents - Pho Ma and Mae

Phasy Ninchaleune; my beloved wife and children - Khamnang, Bounik, Bikfa

and Chanthavisouk Ninchaleune; and my parents-in-law - Phothao Sisavath

and Maethao Xay Pouangpadith, who laid my academic career foundation. It

is also dedicated to all Ninchaleune and Pouangpadith family members for

constant moral support and inspiration.

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

IMPACT OF AGROFORESTRY PRACTICES ON THE SOCIO-ECONOMY AND ENVIRONMENT OF VIENTIANE PROVINCE, LAO PDR

By


October 2007

Chairman: Associate Professor Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, PhD

Faculty: Forestry

In Lao PDR, deforestation is mainly caused by inappropriate logging, and

shifting cultivation. These unsustainable agricultural practices and forest

utilization have resulted serious natural catastrophe in many parts of the

country.

The poverty of the three main ethnic groups namely: Lao Loum (lowlander),

Lao Theung (uplander) and Lao Soung (highlander) in the rural areas is

directly related to land degradation, limitation of agricultural land and

absence of alternative source for cash income. In addition, due to high

population growth, this people have encroached into the natural forests to

produce the food security. For example, they cleared the forest land areas for

practising of shifting cultivation. They also legally and illegally harvested the

timber forest products (TFPs), collected the non-timber forest product

(NTFPs) and hunted wildlife to generate family income, especially during the

rice shortage.

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In Vientiane Province, the hill tribes live closer to lowlander through

resettlement and land and forest allocation programs of Lao Government.

Based on this condition, Vientiane Province is suitable and meaningful for

this study. Nine villages were selected to represent the three main ethnic

groups.

The three main ethnic groups practice different agricultural practices, and

utilize the forest products. The accessibility to the study site is possible

through all-weather-road.

The general objectives of this study are to assess the impact of agroforestry

practices on socio-economic and environmental of Vientiane Province, Lao

PDR. The collection of socio-economic data applied the technique of Rapid

Rural Appraisal/Participatory (RRA/PRA). Additionally, the Braun-Blanquet

method was used for collecting of vegetation data. The main findings of this

study are summarized as follows:

There were differences in paddy rice cultivation, home garden, tree planting,

and livestock raising among these three main ethnic groups. The production

of upland rice, bananas, papaya, maize, and showed no differences. This

indicates that three main ethnic groups had similarly agricultural production.

The change in agricultural practices among three main ethnic groups was

dependent on the Lao Government Policies. The study also found that most

of Lao Theung and Lao Soung (hill tribes) preferred practicing paddy rice

cultivation. However, they still lacked capital and labour in changing their

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shifting cultivations to paddy rice cultivation. The paddy rice, home garden,

agroforestry, and fish pond are considered as good agricultural practices.

The result showed that these required relatively smaller size compared to

unsustainable practices like shifting cultivation, maize, and grazing land,

which are considered to have negative effects to the environment.

The forest utilization in terms of quantity among the three main ethnic groups

was difference of timber exploitation, and collecting of NTFPs. As a result,

Lao Soung and Lao Theung harvested more TFPs than Lao Loum. However,

utilization of bamboo, firewood, and hunting were not different. These

indicate that all three main ethnic groups utilized the NTFPs. In the 1-, 5-,

and 15-year-old fallows, logged-over and primary forests, 170, 209, 227, 236

and 237 individual species were identified, respectively. These five

vegetation types comprised of 1097 species with 909 genera and 376

families. Forty-five of relevés could be differentiated in twelve plant

communities. The natural recovery had a greater similarity to primary forests,

particularly to logged-over forests with similarity value of 0.429 (42.29%).

However, 15-, 5- and 1-year-old fallows have similarity value of 0.399

(39.90%), 0.348 (34.80%), and 0.261 (26.10%), respectively. This indicates

that three fallow types have been heavily degraded, and requires long time

for its natural recovery.

The result of regression analysis shows that the farmer’s income from agro

and non-agroforestry activities was affected by AG, EDU, FS, HLB, LS and

LEX. The AG, EDU, and LS had relationship with income. However, there

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were not statistically significant. The FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD, LLD, LTD and

LSD had relationship with farmer’s income in both models, which had

positively expected sign. Therefore, government should consider these

factors such as FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD LLD, LTD and LSD when

implementing an agroforestry project to increase farmer’s income. The result

of the regression analysis of farmer’s agricultural production function shows

that the farmer’s agricultural production function was affected by LAB, CAP,

LLD, LTD and LSD. This function also had relationship with LAB, CAP LLD,

LTD and LSD in both models, which possessed positively expected sign.

Based on this result, the Lao Government should consider LAB, CAP, LLD,

LTD and LSD when increasing the agricultural production in this study area.

In conclusion, all farmers are in need of financial and technical support to

practice permanent agriculture. In responding to this need, Lao government

should encourage them by providing financial and technical support. In

addition, degraded forestland should be rehabilitated with commercial tree

and NTFPs species through technical support of the local authorities.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk ijazah Doktor Falsafah

KESAN AMALAN PERHUTANAN-TANI TERHADAP SOSIAL-EKONOMI

DAN PERSEKITARAN DI DAERAH VIENTIANE, LAO PDR

Oleh


October 2007

Pengerusi: Profesor Madya Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, PhD

Fakulti: Perhutanan

Pada kelazimannya, pengurangan hutan di Lao PDR adalah disebabkan oleh

ketidak sesuaian teknik pembalakan dan pertanian pindah. Ketidaklestarian

amalan-amalan pertanian dan penggunaan hutan telah menyebabkan

masalah alam sekitar yang serius di banyak tempat di dalam negara.

Kemiskinan tiga kumpulan etnik yang utama, iaitu Lao Loum (Penduduk

tanah pamah), Lao Theung (Penduduk tanah tinggi) Lao Soung (Penduduk

pergunungan) adalah berkait secara terus dengan penyahgredan tanah,

keterbatasan tanah pertanian dan ketiadaan sumber kewangan alternatif.

Tambahan pula, dengan peningkatan penduduk secara mendadak, mereka

telak mencerobohi hutan dara untuk memastikan sumber makanan terjamin.

Dalam kejadian sedemikian, mereka menebang dan membersihkan kawasan

tanah hutan untuk mengamalkan pertanian pindah. Mereka juga menuai

sumber hutan berkayu (TFPs), memungut hasil bukan kayu (NTFPs) dan

memburu hidupan liar secara sah dan tidak untuk menambahkan

pendapatan keluarga terutamanya apabila bekalan padi tidak mencukupi.

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Penduduk bukit tinggal di Wilayah Vientiane berhampiran dengan penduduk

tanah pamah melalui program-program penempatan semula dan

pembahagian semula tanah dan hutan oleh kerajaan Lao. Oleh itu Vientiane

merupakan satu kawasan kajian yang amat sesuai dan bermakna bagi kajian

ini. Sebanyak sembilan perkampungan telah dipilih sebagai sampel dalam

kajian ini. Perkampungan dalam kajian ini menggambarkan ketiga-tiga

kumpulan etnik utama ini yang mempunyai perbezaan dalam kegiatan

pertanian dan penggunaan produk hutan. Kawasan kajian ini adalah mudah

dihubungi melalui jalan yang sedia ada dapat diakses sepanjang tahun

dalam semua keadaan cuaca.

Secara amnya objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai impak amalan

perhutanan tani ke atas sosio-ekonomi dan aspek-aspek persekitaran di

wilayah Vientiane, Lao PDR. Pengumpulan data sosial-ekonomi adalah

menggunakan teknik Rapid Rural Appraisal/Participatory (RRA/PRA).

Manakala, kaedah Braun-Blanquet digunakan untuk mengumpul data

vegetasi. Berdasarkan pada hasil kajian, penemuan utama telah

diringkaskan seperti berikut:

Terdapat perbezaan di antara tiga kumpulan etnik utama dalam penanaman

padi, tanaman halaman, pokok tanaman, dan pemeliharaan ternakan.

Manakala, pengeluaran padi bukit, pisang, betik, jagung dan sayur-sayuran

di tanah tinggi tidak menunjukkan perbezaan. Ini menunjukkan ketiga-tiga

kumpulan etnik mempunyai pengeluaran pertanian yang hampir sama.

Perubahan corak penggunaan tanah dikalangan ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik

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utama ini bergantung kepada dasar kerajaan Lao. Kajian ini mendapati

kebanyakan Lao Theung dan Lao Soung lebih gemar mengamalkan

penanaman padi. Walau bagaimanapun, mereka masih kekurangan modal

dan tenaga buruh untuk bertukar dari pertanian pindah kepada penanaman

padi. Penanaman padi, tanaman halaman, hutan tani dan pemeliharaan ikan

kolam telah dikenalpasti sebagai amalan pertanian baik. Keputusan

menunjukkan amalan ini memerlukan saiz tanah yang lebih kecil secara

relatifnya berbanding kepada amalan yang tidak lestari seperti pertanian

pindah, penanaman jagung dan padang ragut. Amalan-amalan ini

dikenalpasti mempunyai kesan buruk terhadap persekitaran.

Terdapat perbezaan dalam penggunaan hutan dari segi kuantiti di antara

ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik dalam penggunaan kayu dan mengutip hasil

bukan kayu. Keputusan menunjukkan Lao Soung dan Lao Theung menuai

lebih banyak sumber kayu daripada Lao Loum. Walau bagaimanapun, tiada

perbezaan di antara kumpulan etnik dalam penggunaan buluh, kayu api dan

memburu. Ini menunjukklan ketiga-tiga kumpulan etnik menggunakan

sumber bukan kayu. Sebanyak 170, 209, 227, 236 dan 237 spesies telah

dikenalpasti terdapat di dalam tanah rang 1 tahun, 5 tahun, 15 tahun, hutan

yang sudah dibalak dan hutan primer. Kelima-lima jenis vegetasi

mengandungi 1097 spesis yang tergolong dalam 909 genus dan 376 famili.

Empat puluh lima sampel vegetasi boleh dibahagi kepada dua belas komuniti

tumbuhan. Keputusan menunjukkan pemulihan semulajadi mempunyai

persamaan yang lebih dekat dengan hutan primer, terutamanya pada

masing-masing hutan yang sudah dibalak dengan nilai persamaan 0.429

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(42.29%). Walau bagaimanapun, 15 tahun, 5 tahun dan 1 tahun tanah rang

dedah masing-masing mempunyai nilai persamaan iaitu 0.399 (39.90%),

0.348 (34.80%), dan 0.261 (26.10%). Ini menunjukkan tiga jenis tanah rang

dedah ini mempunyai tahap kerosakan yang tinggi dan memerlukan masa

yang lama untuk pemulihan secara semulajadi.

Keputusan analisis regresi menunjukkan pendapatan para petani daripada

kegiatan aktiviti perhutanan tani dan bukan perhutanan tani telah dipengaruhi

oleh faktor AG, EDU, FS, HLB, LS dan LEX. Faktor-Faktor AG, EDU, dan LS

adalah berhubung kait dengan pendapatan tetapi tidak ketara dari segi

statistik. Dalam kedua-dua model, faktor FS, HLB, LEX, AGROD, LLD, LTD

dan LSD mempunyai hubung kait yang positif dengan pendapatan para

petani. Oleh itu, kerajaan haruslah mengambil kira faktor-faktor seperti, FS,

HLB, LEX, AGROD LLD, LTD dan LSD apabila melaksanakan projek

perhutanan tani untuk meningkatkan pendapatan para petani. Keputusan

analisis regresi bagi fungsi pengeluaran pertanian menunjukkan fungsi ini

adalah dipengaruhi faktor-faktor LAB, CAP, LLD, LTD dan LSD. Fungsi ini

juga mempunyai hubung kait secara positif dengan LAB, CAP LLD, LTD dan

LSD di dalam kedua-dua model. Berdasarkan keputusan ini, dalam kajian

meningkatkan pengeluaran pertanian kerajaan Lao haruslah mengambil kira

faktor LAB, CAP, LLD, LTD dan LSD. Kesimpulannya, kesemua petani ini

memerlukan sumber kewangan dan bantuan teknikal untuk mengamalkan

pertanian tetap. Kerajaan Lao haruslah memberi galakan kepada mereka

dengan menyediakan bantuan kewangan dan juga teknikal. Tambahan pula,

kawasan tanah hutan yang telah dinyahgred haruslah dipulihkan dengan

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spesis pokok komersial dan spesis tumbuhan bukan kayu dengan bantuan

teknikal daripada pihak berkuasa tempatan.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The present research work would not have been realized and come to a

successful completion without the strong support and valuable assistance

provided by a number of institutions and honourable persons. Throughout my

five years of hard work and long sleepless nights, I have been able (with the

support of my advisor and other advisory committee members) to accumulate

a great deal of knowledge with regards to understanding the land and forest

management and its impact through the farming practices and forest

utilization of the three main ethnic groups in Laos.

First of all, I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude and my most sincere

appreciation to the chairman of my supervisory committee, Associate

Professor Dr. Mohamad Azani Bin Alias, for his helpful and valuable advice,

comments, guidance and encouragement throughout the process of my

research study at UPM.

I am also equally grateful and sincerely thankful to my advisory committee

members - Professor Dato’ Dr. Nik Muhamad Nik Majid, Associate Professor

Dr. Awang Noor Abdul Ghani, and Mr. Ismail Adnan Abdul Malek - for their

valuable advice, suggestions and constructive comments that substantially

improved my research work. My gratitude extends to the Lao government,

GTZ and UPM for providing the financial support to enable me to complete

this PhD programme. A note of gratitude goes to the Faculty of Forestry,

National University of Laos for facility and study leave, and all officials of the

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target district and province, as well as headmen and guides to the

phytosociological field survey of nine villages, who have supported me during

data collection. A special thank you goes to all field research assistants from

Faculty of Forestry.

I also would like to express my great thanks and gratitude to all post graduate

students, the staffs at Faculty of Forestry, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Lao

Ambassador, and all staffs of the Lao Embassy in Malaysia. A special thanks

to Cik Zanariah Mohd. Nor from Institute for Agricultural Extension for her

advice in socio-economic data analysing, Dr. Manohar A/L Mariapan from

Faculty of Forestry and Cik Sharifah Zainab Syd. Abd. Rahman from the

Faculty of Educational Studies, Ms. Helena Naitsuwe Amadhila and Ms.

Rattana Wongchuphan for their helps in editing my work. I would also like to

thank these particular friends: Oukham Phiathep, Savay Thammavongsa,

Manichanh Sayavong, Keomanivong Phimmasene, Bounmy Somsoulivong,

Inthavy Akkarath, Bodee Khamseekhiew, Thipsuda Tangprakhan, Arifin Bin

Abd., Zahari Ibrahim, Yip Hin Wai, Sri Rahayu, Nor Hafizah Ab. Wahab,

Duangkrai Taweesuk, Shoga’ ˚a Aldeen for helping and encouraging me

throughout the study.

Finally, I would like to express my great thanks to my family members,

especially wife Khamnang for her love, sacrifice, patience, and

encouragement, and my children Bounik, Bikfa and Chanthavisouk

Ninchaleune who have been sources of inspiration and love during my entire

study period.

I certify that an Examination Committee has met on 2nd October 2007 to conduct the final examination of Bounheuang Ninchaleune on his Doctor of Philosophy thesis entitled “Impact of Agroforestry Practices on the Socio-Economy and Environment of Vientiane Province, Lao PDR” in accordance with University Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and University Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulation 1981. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Examination Committee were as follows: Azmy Mohamed, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry University Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Anuar Abd Rahim, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Agriculture University Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Mohd Zaki HAmzah, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry University Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) Khairulmaini Osman Salleh, PhD Professor Faculty of Art and Social Science University Malaya (External Examiner) _____________________________ HASANAH MOHD. GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School and Graduate Studies University Putra Malaysia Date: 21st February 2008

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Mohamad Azani Alias, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Dato’ Nik Muhamad Abd. Majid, PhD Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Awang Noor Abd. Ghani, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Ismail Adnan Bin Abd. Malek, M.Sc. Lecturer Faculty of Forestry Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)

AINI IDERIS, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: 21st February 2008

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DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.

______ _____ BOUNHEUANG NINCHALEUNE

Date: 2nd October 2007

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DEDICATION ii ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK vii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xii APPROVAL xiv DECLARATION xvi LIST OF TABLES xx LIST OF FIGURES xxiii LIST OF APPENDICES xxvi LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS xxviii

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 General background 1 1.2 Statement of problems 5 1.3 Justification of the study 9 1.4 Scope of the study 11 1.5 Objectives 12

2 LITERATURE REVIEW 13

2.1 Socio-economic aspects 13 2.1.1 Population density and trend 13 2.1.2 Ethnic and cultural diversity 15 2.1.3 Socio-economics and development 18

2.2 Utilization of land for agricultural production 31 2.2.1 Farming practices 34

2.3 Land allocation and land tenure 62 2.3.1 Land allocation 62 2.3.2 Order of precedence with respect to land and forest allocation 64

2.3.3 Land tenure 64 2.4 Resettlement programme 67 2.5 Environmental aspect 70

2.5.1 Forest utilization 70 2.5.2 Vegetation succession 75 2.5.3 Definition of succession 78 2.5.4 Natural vegetation 79 2.5.5 Economic potential of tree species density 83 2.5.6 Primary forest 85 2.5.7 Logged-over forest 87 2.5.8 Fallow 89 2.5.9 Forest conversion for agricultural production 93

2.6 Summary 95

3 MATERIALS AND METHODS 97 3.1 Introduction 97

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3.2 General approach 97 3.3 Conceptual framework 98 3.4 Research design 103

3.5 Selection of study area 103 3.6 Data collection of phytosociological study 106 3.7 Forest recovery assessment 108 3.8 Collection of socio-economic data 110 3.8.1 Introduction 110 3.8.2 Information from secondary data 111

3.3.3 Preparation questionnaire 112 3.8.4 Selection of enumerators 113

3.8.5 Questionnaire pre-testing 113 3.8.6 Selection of respondents 114 3.8.7 Data collection 115 3.9 Operational definition of variables and

their measurement 119 3.9.1 Independent variables 119 3.9.2 Dependent variables 122

3.10 Environmental aspect 126 3.10.1 Introduction 126 3.10.2 Description of study site 127 3.10.3 Forest utilization 131 3.11 Statistical analysis of socio-economic data 131 3.11.1 Analysis of variance 132 3.11.2 Chi-square test 133 3.11.3 Correlation analysis 134 3.11.4 Modelling the income of ago and

non-agroforestry 135 3.11.5 Modelling the agricultural production

function 141 3.12 Analysis of environmental data 146

3.12.1 Synthesis and vegetation classification 146 3.12.2 Table of raw data 149 3.12.3 Frequency Table 150 3.12.4 Partial Table 150

3.12.5 Forest recovery assessment 153

4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 154 4.1 Demographic profiles of three main ethnic groups 154

4.1.1 Background information of the nine villages 154 4.1.2 Socio-economic profiles 157 4.1.3 Cultural profile 169 4.1.4 Profile of the respondent’s families 175

4.2 Agricultural practices of three main ethnic groups 193 4.2.1 Current farm practices 193 4.2.2 Comparison of current farm practices 194 4.2.3 Influencing factors to changes of

agricultural practices 198 4.3 Forest recovery through vegetative succession 222

4.3.1 Introduction 222

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4.3.2 Forest utilization 223 4.3.3 Species composition 229 4.3.4 Common families 231 4.3.5 Profile diagram of vegetation relevés 238 4.3.6 Patterns of vegetation recovery (succession) 246 4.3.7 Phytosociological study 247 4.3.8 Comparison of vegetation species 282 4.3.9 Composition of vegetation succession 291 4.3.10 Forest structure and composition 295

4.3.11 Forest recovery assessment 303 4.4 Impacts of the agricultural practices on the

environment, income and agricultural production 332 4.4.1 Environmental degradation through

agricultural practices 332 4.4.2 Result of regression analysis for income of

agro and non-agroforestry 336 4.4.3 Result of regression analysis for agricultural

production function 349 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 354

5.1 Conclusions 354 5.2 Recommendations 354

REFERENCES 369

BIODATA OF THE AUTHOR 469

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page 2.1 Chemical fertilizer and insecticide use from 1990-1993 33

2.2 Extent of forest plantation areas from 1995-2000 in Laos (ha) 60

3.1 Vegetation layers in natural forests and secondary forests 106

3.2 Total estimates of cover and abundances 107

3.3 Sociability level 107

3.4 Climate data of 3 meteorological stations in Vientiane, Phone Hong and Paklay Districts 127 3.5 Vegetation forms 152

4.1 The distribution of the age groups of the Naphung's village in 2003 159

4.2 The distribution of the age groups of the

Phonthon's village in 2003 159

4.3 The distribution of the age groups of the Phonxay's village in 2003 160

4.4 The distribution of the age groups of the Nalé's village in 2003 161


Napaphay’s village in 2003 162

4.6 The distribution of the age groups of the Pheuntay's village in 2003 162

4.7 The distribution of the age groups of the Nanhao's village in 2003 164


Namlao's village in 2003 164

4.9 The distribution of age groups of the Nontong’s village in 2003 164

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4.10 Summary of current farm size among the three main ethnic groups 194

4.11 Result of ANOVA in farm size among three main ethnic groups 195

4.12 Comparison of difference in mean of farm size among three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 197

4.13 Frequency distribution of responses of rice production among three main ethnic groups towards labour availability 199

4.14 Rice production of the three main ethnic groups with labour availability by using Crosstab 200

4.15 Frequency distribution of responses of rice sufficiency among three main ethnic groups with expansion of land size 203

4.16 Rice sufficiency of three main ethnic groups with expansion of land size using Crosstab 204

4.17 Frequency distribution of responses for changes of Agricultural practices between and within ethnic groups among three main ethnic groups 206

4.18 Changes of agricultural practices of the ethnic groups with Lao Government Policies using Crosstab 207

4.19 Difference in means of current agricultural practices by using ANOVA 217

4.20 Comparison of agricultural outputs among three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 218

4.21 Result of ANOVA in utilization of TFPs and NTFPs 227 4.22 Comparison of utilization of TFPs and NTFPs among

the three main ethnic groups by using Duncan test 228

4.23 Composition of species, genera, family of vegetation samples (relevés) at three fallows and two forest types 230

4.24 Common families in the five various vegetation types 237 4.25 Taxonomy of richness of communities at five different

vegetation types 248

4.26 Summary Table of individual species of various vegetation types 290

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4.27 Summary of canopy structure recovery 304 4.28 Result of ANOVA on canopy structure recovery 307 4.29 Result of Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) 308 4.30 Result of Duncan's Multiple Range Test (DMRT) 309 4.31 Result of the principle component analysis of

canopy structure recovery 311

4.32 Similarity matrix of the five various vegetation types 322

4.33 Dissimilarity coefficient of the recovery vegetation types 328

4.34 Result of Spearman Rho Correlation 333

4.35 Summary of statistical variables of the model 338

4.36 Result of regression analysis of OLS and WLS 340

4.37 Comparison of monthly income for agro and non-agroforestry activities within ethnic groups in the nine villages 346

4.38 Comparison of monthly income for agro and non- Agroforestry activities between ethnic groups in the nine villages 347

4.39 Summary of statistical variables of the model 350

4.40 Result of regression analysis of LLS 351

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Diagram showing a conceptual framework of agroforestry 55 2.2 This lowland rain forest at the base of the Sierra Madre Mountain of Luzon, Philippines, and home to Dumagat people who travel through the densely forested range to collect rattan 83 3.1 Conceptual framework of agricultural practices,

forest utilization and modelling of income and production 100

3.2 Reflecting relationship between governmental, socio-economic factors, agricultural practices and forest utilization and their impacts on income and production 102

3.3 Map showing the study area in Vientiane Province, Lao PDR 105 3.4 Flow chart of the entire synthesis procedure of relevé data 148 4.1 Transect of land use profile of the study area in Vientiane

Province, Lao PDR 156

4.2 Diagram showing at the organizational structure of the villages 158

4.3 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Loum (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 172

4.4 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Theung (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 173

4.5 The photos showing the traditional house styles of Lao Soung (A) with sufficiency rice production, (B) with insufficiency rice production in study area 175

4.6 The bar chart showing family size of the respondents in the study area 176 4.7 The pie chart showing composition of the three main ethnic groups 178 4.8 The bar chart showing education level of the respondents

in the study area 180

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