Unit 9: Unification & Politics of the 19th Century

(1815-1914)

Goals of this Unit:• To understand the rise of nationalism primarily through the

examples of Italy and Germany.• To understand the impact of nationalism on multi-ethnic

empires.• To understand the social and political reforms that occurred

in Great Britain those lead to a more democratic structure.• To understand the decline of France in the aftermath of the

Franco-Prussian War.• To understand the changes that occurred in Imperial Russia

under the Czars of the Mid to Late 19th Century.

Germany Before Unification• 39 States: The German

Confederation• Two dominant states

– Austria & Prussia• Prussia’s advantages

– Mainly German population

– Powerful Army– Industrialization

Early Action towards Unification• Zollverein (1834): German customs union

– Purpose was to stimulate trade, increase revenues of member states

• Left out Austria – why?• Wanted to weaken Austria’s power over German states• Relationship between Austria and other states deteriorate

Prussia • Frankfurt Assembly (1848)– Movement for German unification

(excluding Austria) fails• Olmutz (1850)

– Major European powers afraid of German unification

– Prussia forced to give up unification plan and accept the renewed German Confederation, still dominated by Austria

• Prussians refer to it as “Humiliation of Olmutz”

• Move towards more liberal government under King William I (ruled 1861-1888)

William I & Bismarck• William I: Conservative

– Supported by Junkers (nobles)– Allowed liberals and moderates in

government– Wanted to strengthen army and unify

Germany– Liberals refused to approve army build-up

• Calls upon Otto Von Bismarck for assistance in 1862 stalemate over budget– “Realpolitik” – politics through sheer force

and power • To gain practical results, make no moral or

ideological considerations – just do it• Ends justify the means

Bismarck’s Realpolitik

• Bismarck urges king to ignore the liberals in government– Enforce taxes, build army

• Bismarck becomes leader of unification movement – named Prime Minister by William

• Bismarck a master politician– Would wisely assess a political

scene, used cleverness and force to accomplish goals

“The great questions of the day will not be decided by speeches and resolutions, that was the blunder of 1848 and 1849 – but by blood and iron.”

Bismarck’s Main Goal:

UNITE GERMAN STATES

Bismarck unites Germany in three steps…

STEP ONE• Create alliance with Austria

– 1864 – Went to war with Denmark over bordering regions of Schleswig and Holstein

– Prussia & Austria win in six weeks

• Prussia got Schleswig• Austria got Holstein

– Bismarck knew this arrangement would cause tension – Just what he wanted…

WHY?

STEP TWO• Create conflict with

Austria– Border conflicts

between Prussia and Austria over Schleswig & Holstein

– With war looming, Bismarck isolates Austria from allies

• Convinces France to stay neutral

• Promised Italy control of Venetia (still owned by Austria)

STEP TWO• Lures Austria into war• Austro-Prussian War

– “Seven Weeks War”• Prussia defeats Austria at

Battle of Sadowa (July 1866)• Results of war:

– Austria lost Venetia to Italy (who helped Prussia)

– Prussia gained control of northern German states

STEP THREE• Needed the Catholics in

the South to feel a sense of German nationalism

• France was isolated by Bismarck’s diplomacy

• “Ems Dispatch”– Bismarck altered a telegram

sent from Prussia to France – outrages both nations

• France declares war (1870)

STEP THREE • Franco-Prussian War (1870)• France launches attack on

southern German states• Outside attack stirred

nationalism in south, desire for protection

• Prussia sweeps down and defeats French at Battle of Sedan, Siege of Paris

• French surrender

Treaty of Frankfurt (1871)• France owes compensation, forfeits Alsace

and part of Lorraine• Second Reich proclaimed

– (First Reich refers to Holy Roman Empire)• William I crowned emperor of German Empire

Mission Accomplished: Germany is United

The Second Reich

• King William I (AKA Kaiser Wilhelm I) from House of Hohenzollern– Hohenzollern monarch had ruled in Prussia and

parts of Germany for centuries• Kaiser headed federal union, 26 states, 41 million

in population• Bicameral legislature:

– Bundersat (upper house)– Reichstag (lower house)– Legislature does not have power over Chancellor…

Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck• Bismarck believes effective states have

one faith, one law, one ruler• Distrusted Catholic Church, Socialist party

– Launched: “Kulturkampf” – persecution against Catholics

– Tried to suppress socialists, Socialist Democratic Party

• Despite Bismarck’s anti-socialists laws, party gains popularity

– Eventually compromised on both issues

New Kaisers

• William I dies in 1888• His son, Frederick III is crowned new

Kaiser– More open to socialist and liberal

movements– Plans to apply more liberal ideas in

Germany…– Dies of cancer after 3 months of

ruling• His son, William II (AKA Wilhelm II)

crowned new Kaiser rules from 1888-1918– Will be last of the Hohenzollern

rulers by 1918

Kaiser Wilhelm II

• New emperor lacked finesse, intelligence of father and grandfather– Resented Bismarck’s power, pressured

him into retiring• Germany still progressed flourished

– Highly competitive industry against Britain

– Dominated world market in chemicals, electrical industries

– High literacy, vocational training, government supported industry

The Austrian Empire:What is a big problem here?

Decline of Austria• Nationalism rising throughout empire

– Problem for Austrians?– NOT Austrian nationalism: Hungarian,

Polish, Romanian, German, Czech, Italian, Slovakian, etc.

• Hungarians demanding equality with Vienna– Revolution for independence in 1848 fails

• 1864 – Defeat in Austro-Prussian War– Afterwards, King Franz Joseph I

(Habsburg) offers Hungary equal power– “Ausgleich” constitution accepted in 1867

• Creates a Duel Monarchy:• Franz Joseph now king of Hungary and

emperor of Austria

Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary• Both Austria and Hungary had own

constitution, language, flag, economies, etc• Ethnic crises in both parts of the empire

• 8 different nationalities, languages, cultures, etc…• Hungarians try to force “Magyarization”

• Forcing diverse citizens to practice only one language and culture: Hungarian

• Complete disunity and disorganization• Chaotic, weak and inefficient empire would last

until 1914

Italy Before Unification• Italy reorganized at

Congress of Vienna in 1815

• Austria ruled Lombardy & Venetia

• Spanish ruled Kingdom of Two Sicilies

• Piedmont-Sardinia was the most powerful of the Italian States, ruled by King Charles Albert – an Italian monarch

Early Action• Revolutions of 1830

– Giuseppe Mazzini attempts to organize a movement

– Takes power from fleeing Pope Pius – forms a Roman Republic

– France invades, restores Pope’s power

• Revolutions of 1848– Many states granted temporary

liberal constitutions• Both Mazzini and Giuseppe

Garibaldi involved in this movement

Piedmont-Sardinia Takes Control• King Victor Emmanuel II

– Monarch of Sardinia• Prime Minister Camillo Cavour

aristocrat– Liberal, uses diplomacy against

Austria– Gains support of Britain & France– Uses “Realpolitik”

• Together will lead unification– Goal at first: strengthen Sardinia’s

power, not to necessarily unify Italy

– Focused on Northern Italy

What empire was in their way in Northern Italy?

Austria Out Of Italy!• Made secret arrangement with

Napoleon III to provoke a war with Austria

• 1858 – Austria is lured into attacking Sardinia, France comes to defense and Austrians are driven out– France will get Nice and Savoy – Italians get part of Northern Italy but

not Venetia• They will get Venetia later by helping the

Germans fight Austria in 1866

Things worked out well so Cavoursets his sights on southern Italy.

…Unification?

Meanwhile in the South…• Garibaldi & his Red Shirts captured

Sicily in 1860, inspiring Sicilians to join the cause for unification

• Cavour secretly supports Garibaldi– Why is he helping?

• Garibaldi marches north toward Rome and the Vatican– Cavour afraid of implications, calls for

vote in conquered territories• Voted to unite southern areas with

Sardinia– Garibaldi stepped aside

Italy Unified!

…almost.What’s the problem?

Italian Unification• Ruled by Victor Emmanuel II• 1866 – added Venetia as a result of the

Seven weeks War (also called the Austro-Prussian War)

• 1870 – added Papal States– Pope still governed Vatican City

Challenges: • Regional conflicts

– Industrialized north vs. agricultural south– Peasant revolts, economic problems

• Political conflict leads to violence• Mass emigration to United States

Italy enters 20th century a poor and struggling nation

France’s Second Empire and Third Republic

1848-1870

Napoleon III (1808-1873)• No experience in politics• Nephew of Napoleon I• 1848 elected to four year term;

share power with National Assembly– Somewhat influenced to Marx’s ideas– Still suppressed workers & peasants

who opposed him– Strengthened his power

• 1851 illegally dismissed Assembly; people voted to make him president for ten years

• 1852 – declares himself emperor Napoleon III

The Second Empire of France(1852-1870)

Successes:• Improved industrialization• Helped build the Suez

Canal• Improved railways• Allowed for some local

government• Legalized labor unions

– Right to strike guaranteed• Haussmannization – urban

renewal in Paris

The Second Empire of France(1852-1870)

Failures:• Rigged elections• Secret police• Failed puppet regime in

Mexico through Maximilian I

• 1870 – Defeated In Franco-Prussian War– Ends Napoleon III’s rule

and Second Empire

Third Republic of France• Bismarck imposes harsh peace terms

– The French bankrupt & in disarray – humiliated• Assembly of wealthy royalists formed• Paris Commune (1871)

– Coalition of resistance – lower classes wanted better rights & a republic

– Commune savagely repressed,• Assembly can’t agree on king, facing pressure from

lower classes– Choose a republic as least disagreeable compromise:

• The Third Republic of France (1871)– Constitution approved by 1875

• Despite weak Republic, France stable and prosperous by 1914

Reform in Great Britain

Legislation can solve problems

19th Century England: Undemocratic?

• What was going on in England in the 1800s?– Industrialization – many problems for poor

• Problems need to be fixed by government• What type of government was ruling in England?

– Parliament – representative democracy• “Power to the people”

• Politically, who ruled in Parliament?– The Conservatives – “The Tory Party” (since 1770s)

• Led by Duke of Wellington• Severely repressed poor with laws and harsh tactics

• Unfair representation:– Manchester & Birmingham had no representation in

government

Reform in England• Problems growing, not being fixed:

– Tories forced out by 1830• Whig Party takes over – more liberal

– Led by Lord Charles Grey– Help lower classes

• “Chartism” – movement to reform:– Ends capital punishment, modern police force– Labor union restrictions removed, right to strike, worker

insurance– Reforms in public housing, education– Voting reforms:

• Universal manhood suffrage, secret ballot, end to property requirements, pay for members of Parliament

• Working class men 1867, rural workers 1884, women 1919

Names of British Reform• 1820s – Robert Peel and George Canning• Reforms increased in 1830s and 40s

– Chartist movement, regulation of working conditions and hours, repeal of the Corn Laws

• Corn laws (1815) – prohibited imported grain, benefit landowners

• 1867-1880 Gladstone & Disraeli– Alternated as Prime Ministers of England– Gladstone was a Liberal; Disraeli a

Conservative– Both achieved immense reform during reigns

• 1900 – The Labour Party – Political party demanding social and economic

reforms– Both Liberals and Conservatives felt

threatened– Pushed through a number of social insurance

reforms as a result

What direction did the reforms move in?

• 1828 & 1829 Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants

• 1832 Middle class suffrage• 1833 Abolished slavery• 1847 Women and children• 1848 Public Health• 1830s & 40s Chartists• 1870s Education• 1875 Strikes allowed

“The Irish Dilemma”

• England ruled Ireland since 1603• Oppression of Irish Catholics• Irish Economic hardships

– Potato famine of 1845• “Chartism” brings small reform:

– Some protection from eviction– No longer pay dues to Anglican Church

• Irish nationalism causes independence movements led by Charles Parnell:– Gladstone agrees to home rule (1914)

• Postponed when WWI begins– Easter Uprising (1916)– Ireland gains independence by 1921

• Excludes Protestant-heavy Northern Ireland

Anti-Semitism & Europe• Anti-Semitism has been nurtured by periods of social

instability and crisis. Anger is deflected onto scapegoats such as an available, isolated minority such as the Jews

• Ancient Rome– Devotion of Jews to their religion and special forms of

worship were used as political discrimination; denied Roman citizenship

• Crusades & Middle Ages– Jews massacred in great numbers; segregated into

ghettoes and required to wear identifying garments

Modern Anti-Semitism• 18th & 19th centuries – Enlightenment & FR

– Increasing separation of church and state, rise of modern nation-states; Jews experienced less persecution and gradually integrated

– Legal reforms changes things but racism persisted; political party platforms

• Eastern Europe– Medieval traditions isolating Jews as an alien economic

and social class solely for reasons of religion were never broken

– Pogroms – a product of deliberate gov’t policy aimed at diverting the discontent of the workers & peasants in Russia

The Dreyfus Affair 1894-1906• Who was Dreyfus?

– Captain in the French army; one of the few Jewish officers

– Accused of selling secrets to Germany

How can nationalism contribute to the growth of anti-

Semitism?

Key Events & Players• 1894 – charged with passing military

secrets to the Germans based on handwritten evidence– Found guilty and sentenced to life in prison

• Major Esterhazy was the real author; tried and acquitted in 1898

• Emile Zola brought international attention to the case with J'accuse! in 1898

• Case reopened in 1899 with new evidence– A hasty trial found him guilty again; sentenced

to 10 years; pardoned by the President– Wasn’t officially exonerated until 1906

Impact

• Strength of Anti-Semitism– Persecution of Jews was

actually much worse in Eastern Europe

• Zionist Movement 1890s– The movement to work for a

separate homeland in Palestine

– Theodor Herzel was the leader

Dreyfus Affair Wrap Up• How did Nationalism affect Anti-Semitism?• What effects did this have on France?• Political split:

– Conservatives, Army, Church• Anti-Dreyfus

VS

– Liberal and Moderates• Dreyfus supporters

• Leads to…– Separation between Church and State (1905)– Eventually more cohesion between political factions

The Modernization of Russia• What event highlighted the backwardness of Russia

in the 1850s?– The Crimean War – battle for power of Eastern Europe

• Russia v. France, Britain, Sardinia, Ottomans• Unable to supply their armies on the Crimean peninsula• Russia needed railroads, better armaments, and to reorganize the

army

Russia: Tsarist Autocracy – The Romanovs• Alexander I (1801-1825)

– Congress of Vienna• Nicholas I (1825-1855)

– Decembrist Revolt: failed attempt at a constitution

• Alexander II (1855-1881) – Reformer: abolished serfdom– Crimean War

• Alexander III (1881-1894)– Reactionary (restored power); pogroms– Sergei Witte – Finance Minister

• Nicholas II (1894-1917)– Russo-Japanese War– Revolution of 1905; Russian Revolution

The “Great Reforms” of Alexander II

1. Freeing of the Serfs 1861• Problem: Land owned collectively

2. Establishment of the zemstvo• Local assembly elected by towns, peasant villages &

noble landowners• Very little autonomy

3. Reform of the legal system• Independent courts, equality before the law

4. Censorship relaxed, education & policies toward Jews liberalized

WHAT IS THE PROBLEM WITH REFORMS IN AN AUTOCRACY??

Industrialization• Political changes limited but

economic changes working– 1860 –1,250 miles of railroad;

1880 –15,500– Sergei Witte – Encouraged foreign

investment in Russian industry– By 1900, steel production 4th;

producing half the world’s oil; exported grain

Russo-Japanese War 1903-1905• Again, a major defeat led to turmoil at home• This defeat combined with separatist nationalist

movements (Poles, Ukrainians), liberals in the business & professional classes, disgruntled factory workers…all led to demands for change

Revolution of 1905• Bloody Sunday

– Nicholas II losing popularity fast• October Manifesto

– Nicholas II granted full civil rights and an elected Duma

• Duma– VERY limited by the “Fundamental Laws”

(Russian Constitution)– Dismissed twice; landowners assured

seats

In 1914, Russia was partially modernized, a conservative constitutional monarchy with a peasant-based but industrializing economy.