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UNIT-3

Employee Training & Development

Introduction

 The challenges associated with the changing nature of work and the workplace

environment are as real for the Berkeley campus as elsewhere. Rapid change

requires a skilled, knowledgeable workforce with employees who are adaptive,

flexible, and focused on the future.

s a manager, one of your key responsibilities is to develop your staff.

The !hilosophy of "uman Resources #anagement $ppendix B% states that you can&

'(ncourage growth and career development of employees by coaching, and by

helping employees achieve their personal goals at Berkeley and beyond...)you candevelop* human resources by providing adequate training... encouragement of staff

development, and opportunities for growth.'

The campus recogni+es that employee development requires a shared responsibility

among the institution, you, and the employee. In this partnership&

The institution

• ensures that policies and programs facilitate the continuing development of

staff 

ou• work with staff to&

o assess and provide feedback on their skills and interests

o select learning and development activities that match their career

development ob-ectives and -ob needs• use areer /evelopment as a tool to tell employees about learning and

development opportunities on campus and to create an annual development plan• stay informed of current policies and practices that support employee

development• follow up with employees after a learning activity to integrate new skills and

knowledge into their responsibilities

The employee

• takes initiative to assess skills and interests and seek development activities

that match needs• works with you to identify learning and development ob-ectives

#ost employee learning and development programs fall under the

following categories&

• #anagement /evelopment

•

areer /evelopment• Basic 0kills

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• !rofessional 0kills

• Technical Training

• 0upervisory 0kills

• Tuition Reduction

our support of learning and development creates a 'win' for theemployee and for your workplace. ou will have&

• (mployees with upgraded skills, working to their full potential and equipped

to deal with the changing demands of the workplace• (mployees with higher morale, career satisfaction, creativity, and motivation

• Increased productivity and responsiveness in meeting departmental

ob-ectives

oncepts 1 /efinitions

Management Development 

The management and leadership development process is flexible and continuous,

linking an individual2s development to the goals of the -ob and the organi+ation.

#anagement development programs on campus give you the opportunity to develop

a broad base of skills and knowledge that can be applied to many -obs on campus.

The overarching goal is a comprehensive curriculum for managers and supervisors to

develop the necessary core competencies to become excellent leaders. The

(mployee Relations 3nit also provides training for managers and supervisors, along

with performance management tools. (xpanding management core competencies

will enable campus managers to keep pace with the demands of a changing

organi+ation.

Career Development 

areer development is the ongoing acquisition or refinement of skills and knowledge,

including -ob mastery and professional development, coupled with career planning

activities. 4ob mastery skills are those that are necessary to successfully perform

one2s -ob. !rofessional development skills are the skills and knowledge that go

beyond the scope of the employee2s -ob description, although they may indirectly

improve -ob performance.

0ince career development is an ongoing, dynamic process, employees may need

encouragement and support in reviewing and re5assessing their goals and activities.ou are in a key position to provide valuable feedback and learning activities or

resources. 6ormal training and classes away from the -ob are effective in providing

new information, but adult learners also need to practice new skills. Therefore, you

can contribute significantly to your staff member2s career development by

supporting career development activities within your department.

Management development activities can:

• (ncourage growth and career development of employees

• Improve skills and knowledge that can be immediately applied at work

• Increase motivation and -ob satisfaction• reate a network of colleagues for problem5solving and support

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• !romote communication and planning throughout campus and department

networks

How to Support Management Development 

• #odel the behavior you are encouraging7 don2t neglect your own

development.• /iscuss and create a development plan during the performance planning

cycle.• (ndorse employees attending classes and activities that support development

plans and goals.• /iscuss what the employee learned in classes and support integrating new

ideas8methods.• !rovide timely behavioral feedback on performance and discuss ways to

improve and develop further.• !rovide opportunities for your employees to develop through mentoring,

cross5training, internships, campus staff organi+ations, professional associations,committee and task force assignments, skill assessment programs, and university

degree and extension programs.

Your support for career development is importantbecause:

• urrent information about the organi+ation and future trends helps employees

create more realistic career development goals• 6ocus on skill development contributes to learning opportunities

• 9pportunities for promotion and8or lateral moves contribute to the

employee2s career satisfaction• greater sense of responsibility for managing one2s own career contributes to

self5confidence• areer planning and development clarifies the match between organi+ational

and individual employee goals• It2s cost5effective to use your own staff talent to provide career development

opportunities within your department• areer development increases employee motivation and productivity

• ttention to career development helps you attract top staff and retain valued

employees• 0upporting career development and growth of employees is mandated by the

!hilosophy of "uman Resources #anagement

"ow to 0upport areer /evelopment

• Refer to areer /evelopment for the career development competencies

assessment.• nnually, conduct an individual development plan and career discussion with

employees and require other supervisors in your department to do the same.• "old supervisors in your department accountable for supporting employee

development efforts.• reate programs and activities to provide skill development, such as -ob

rotation, cross5training, mentoring, internships, coaching, and career strategygroups.

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• Recogni+e that your role includes providing support and8or release time for

staff members2 development beyond their current -obs.• 0upport requests for flexible work arrangements from staff members.

• 0erve as a role model by participating in career and professional development

opportunities yourself.

• 0ee staff members2 applications for other positions as a healthy sign of adynamic workplace.

• 0upport lateral moves within your organi+ation.

• reate -ob vacancy listings that allow for the most diverse applicant pool

while honoring transferable skills.

Roles ou an !lay

9"& "elps employees identify strengths, weaknesses, interests, and values by

maintaining open, effective communication and ongoing encouragement. ou can

improve your coaching by&

• (ncouraging two5way dialogue

• 0howing employees how to identify their skills, interests, and values

• 0cheduling uninterrupted career development discussions

/:I09R& !rovides organi+ational information, realities, and resources to

employees. ou can improve your advising by&

• "elping employees develop realistic career goals based on your department2s

needs and their individual development plans• "elping employees understand the current opportunities and limitations on

the campus• dvising employees on the feasibility of various career options

!!RI0(R& (valuates employees2 performance in an open, candid way and relates

this to potential opportunities. ou can improve your appraisal skills by&

• !roviding frequent feedback in a way that fosters development

• onducting performance appraisals that define strengths, weaknesses, and

career development needs• Relating current performance to future potential in realistic ways

•

3sing an individual development plan as a tool for continual feedback anddevelopment

R(6(RR; <(=T& "elps employees meet their goals through contacts with people

and resources. ou can improve your referral agent skills by&

• "elping employees formulate development plans and consulting on strategies

• !roviding opportunities for experience, exposure, and visibility, such as

committees and task forces%• 3sing personal resources who you know and what you know to create

opportunities•

ssisting in seeking employees2 placement lateral or vertical

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Career Planning and Development

Career planning is an ongoing process that can help you manage yourlearning and development.

 You can use the four step planning process whether you are:

• still at school;

• a school leaver;

• an adult adding on skills; or

• an adult changing your job or career.

Career planning is the continuous process of:

• thinking about your interests, values, skills and preferences;

• exploring the life, work and learning options available to you;

• ensuring that your work ts with your personal circumstances;

and

• continuously ne!tuning your work and learning plans to help you

manage the changes in your life and the world of work.

 You can revisit and make use of this process all the way through your

career.

Start at the step that is most relevant for you now.

 "he career planning process has four steps:

Step 1: knowing yourselfStep 2: nding out

Step 3: making deisions

Step !: taking ation

Step 1: knowing yourself 

#egin by thinking about where you are now, where you want to be and

how you$re going to get there.

%nce you have thought about where you are at now and where you

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want to be, you can work on getting to know your skills, interests and

values.

#egin by asking yourself the following &uestions:

• 'here am ( at now)

• 'here do ( want to be)

• 'hat do ( want out of a job or career)

• 'hat do ( like to do)

• 'hat are my strengths)

• 'hat is important to me)

*t the end of this step you will have a clearer idea of your work or

learning goal and your individual preferences. You can use this

information about yourself as your personal +wish list$ against which

you can compare all the information you gather in tep -: nding out.

 Your personal preferences are very useful for helping you choose your

best option at this point in time, which you can do in tep : making

decisions.

Step 2: nding out 

 "his step is about exploring the occupations and learning areas that

interest you. %nce you have some idea of your occupational

preferences you can research the specic skills and &ualications

re&uired for those occupations.

• /xplore occupations that interest you and ask yourself how do my

skills and interests match up with these occupations)

•

'here are the gaps)• 'hat options do ( have to gain these skills or &ualify for these

occupations)

• 'hat skills do ( need)

• 'here is the work)

*t the end of this step you will have a list of preferred occupations

and0or learning options.

Step 3: making decisions

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 "his step involves comparing your options, narrowing down your

choices and thinking about what suits you best at this point in time.

*sk yourself:

• 'hat are my best work0training options)

• 1ow do they match with my skills, interests and values)

• 1ow do they t with the current labour market)

• 1ow do they t with my current situation and responsibilities)

• 'hat are the advantages and disadvantages of each option)

• 'hat will help and what will hinder me)

•'hat can ( do about it)

*t the end of this step you will have narrowed down your options and

have more of an idea of what you need to do next to help you achieve

your goals.

Step 4: taking action

1ere you plan the steps you need to take to put your plan into action.

2se all you have learnt about your skills, interests and values togetherwith the information you have gathered about the world of work to

create your plan.

#egin by asking yourself:

• 'hat actions0steps will help me achieve my work, training and

career goals)

• 'here can ( get help)

• 'ho will support me)

*t the end of this step you will have:

• a plan to help you explore your options further 3eg work

experience, work shadowing or more research4; or

• a plan which sets out the steps to help you achieve your next

learning or work goal.

5ecide which step is relevant for you right now and start from there.

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UNIT-4

Performance appraisal

A performance appraisal (PA), also referred to as a performance review,performance

evaluation,[1] career! "evelopment "iscussion,[2] or employee appraisal[3] is a method by which

the job performance of anemployee is documented and ealuated! Performance appraisals are a

 part of career deelopment and consist of re"ular reiews of employee performance

within or"ani#ations!

Main features

A performance appraisal is a systematic and periodic process that assesses an indiidual

employee$s job performance and productiity in relation to certain pre%established criteria and

or"ani#ational objecties![&]['] ther aspects of indiidual employees are considered as well, such

as or"ani#ational citi#enship behaior , accomplishments, potential for future improement,

stren"ths and weanesses, etc![&][*][+]

o collect PA data, there are three main methods- objectie production, personnel, and jud"mental

ealuation! .ud"mental ealuations are the most commonly used with a lar"e ariety of

ealuation methods![1] /istorically, PA has been conducted annually (lon"%cycle appraisals)0

howeer, many companies are moin" towards shorter cycles (eery si months, eery uarter),

and some hae been moin" into short%cycle (weely, bi%weely) PA ![][4] he interiew could

function as 5proidin" feedbac  to employees, counselin" and deelopin" employees, and

coneyin" and discussin" compensation, job status, or disciplinary decisions5![] PA is often

included in performance mana"ement systems! PA helps the subordinate answer two ey

uestions- first, 56hat are your epectations of me75 second, 5/ow am 8 doin" to meet your

epectations75[19]

Performance mana"ement systems are employed :to mana"e and ali"n5 all of an or"ani#ation;s

resources in order to achiee hi"hest possible performance![1] :/ow performance is mana"ed in an

or"ani#ation determines to a lar"e etent the success or failure of the or"ani#ation! herefore,

improin" PA for eeryone should be amon" the hi"hest priorities of contemporary

or"ani#ations5![11]

<ome applications of PA are compensation, performance improement, promotions, termination,

test alidation, and more![12] 6hile there are many potential benefits of PA, there are also some

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 potential drawbacs! =or eample, PA can help facilitate mana"ement%employee communication0

howeer, PA may result in le"al issues if not eecuted appropriately, as many employees tend to

 be unsatisfied with the PA process![1][13][1&] PAs created in and determined as useful in the >nited

<tates are not necessarily able to be transferable cross%culturally![1']

 Applications of results

A central reason for the utili#ation of performance appraisals (PAs) is performance improement

(5initially at the leel of the indiidual employee, and ultimately at the leel of the or"ani#ation5)!

[12] ther fundamental reasons include 5as a basis for employment decisions (e!"! promotions,

terminations, transfers), as criteria in research (e!"! test alidation), to aid with communication

(e!"! allowin" employees to now how they are doin" and or"ani#ational epectations), to

establish personal objecties for trainin"5 pro"rams, for transmission of objectie feedbac for

 personal deelopment, 5as a means of documentation to aid in eepin" trac of decisions and

le"al reuirements5[12] and in wa"e and salary administration![1]Additionally, PAs can aid in the

formulation of job criteria and selection of indiiduals 5who are best suited to perform the

reuired or"ani#ational tass5![&] A PA can be part of "uidin" and monitorin" employee career

deelopment![1*] PAs can also be used to aid in wor motiation throu"h the use of  reward

systems![&]

Potential benefits

here are a number of potential benefits of or"ani#ational performance mana"ement conductin"

formal performance appraisals (PAs)! here has been a "eneral consensus in the belief that PAs

lead to positie implications of or"ani#ations![1+] =urthermore, PAs can benefit an or"ani#ation$s

effectieness![1*] ne way is PAs can often lead to "iin" indiidual worers feedbac about their

 job performance![13] =rom this may spawn seeral potential benefits such as the indiidual worers

 becomin" more productie![1]

ther potential benefits include-

• =acilitation of communication- communication in or"ani#ations is considered an essential

function of worer motiation![13] 8t has been proposed that feedbac from PAs aid in

minimi#in" employees$ perceptions of uncertainty![1*]=undamentally, feedbac and

mana"ement%employee communication can sere as a "uide in job performance![13]

• ?nhancement of employee focus throu"h promotin" trust- behaiors, thou"hts, and@or

issues may distract employees from their wor, and trust issues may be amon" thesedistractin" factors![14] <uch factors that consume psycholo"ical ener"y can lower job

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 performance and cause worers to lose si"ht of or"ani#ational "oals![13] Properly constructed

and utili#ed PAs hae the ability to lower distractin" factors and encoura"e trust within the

or"ani#ation![29]

• oal settin" and desired performance reinforcement- or"ani#ations find it efficient to

match indiidual worer$s "oals and performance with or"ani#ational "oals![13] PAs proide

room for discussion in the collaboration of these indiidual and or"ani#ational "oals!

[21] Bollaboration can also be adanta"eous by resultin" in employee acceptance and

satisfaction of appraisal results! [22]

• Performance improement- well constructed PAs can be aluable tools for

communication with employees as pertainin" to how their job performance stands with

or"ani#ational epectations![1*] 5At the or"ani#ational leel, numerous studies hae reported

 positie relationships between human resource mana"ement (/CD) practices5[13] and

 performance improement at both the indiidual and or"ani#ational leels!

• Eetermination of trainin" needs- :?mployee trainin" and deelopment are crucial

components in helpin" an or"ani#ation achiee strate"ic initiatiesF! [13][23] 8t has been ar"ued

that for PAs to truly be effectie, post%appraisal opportunities for trainin" and deelopment in

 problem areas, as determined by the appraisal, must be offered![2&] PAs can especially be

instrumental for identifyin" trainin" needs of new employees![+] =inally, PAs can help in the

establishment and superision of employees$ career "oals! [1*]

Potential complications

Eespite all the potential adanta"es of formal performance appraisals (PAs), there are also

 potential drawbacs! 8t has been noted that determinin" the relationship between indiidual job

 performance and or"ani#ational performance can be a difficult tas![23] enerally, there are two

oerarchin" problems from which seeral complications spawn! ne of the problems with formal

PAs is there can be detrimental effects to the or"ani#ation(s) inoled if the appraisals are notused appropriately! he second problem with formal PAs is they can be ineffectie if the PA

system does not correspond with theor"ani#ational culture and system![13]

Bomplications stemmin" from these is

• Eetrimental to uality improement- it has been proposed that the use of PA systems in

or"ani#ations adersely affect or"ani#ations$ pursuits of uality performance![2'] 8t is belieed

 by some scholars and practitioners that the use of PAs is more than unnecessary if there is

total uality mana"ement![21]

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• <ubjectie ealuations- raditional performance appraisals are often based upon a

mana"er;s or superisor;s perceptions of an employee;s performance and employees are

ealuated subjectiely rather than objectiely! herefore the reiew may be influenced by

many non%performance factors such as employee ;lieability;, personal prejudices, ease of

mana"ement, and@or preious mistaes or successes! Ceiews should instead be based on

data%supported, measurable behaiors and results within the performers control![2*]

•  Ge"atie perceptions- 5Huite often, indiiduals hae ne"atie perceptions of PAs5!

[1+] Ceceiin" and@or the anticipation of receiin" a PA can be uncomfortable and

distressful[1*] and potentially cause 5tension between superisors and subordinates5![1] 8f the

 person bein" appraised does not trust their employer, appraiser or beliee that they will

 benefit from the process it may become a 5tic bo5 eercise![2+]

• ?rrors- Performance appraisals should proide accurate and releant ratin"s of an

employee$s performance as compared to pre%established criteria@"oals (i!e! or"ani#ational

epectations)![2] Geertheless, superisors will sometimes rate employees more faorably

than that of their true performance in order to please the employees and aoid conflict!

[13] 58nflated ratin"s are a common malady associated with formal5 PA![24]

• Ie"al issues- when PAs are not carried out appropriately, le"al issues could result that

 place the or"ani#ation at ris![1]PAs are used in or"ani#ational disciplinary pro"rams[1*] as well

as for promotional decisions within the or"ani#ation![13]he improper application and

utili#ation of PAs can affect employees ne"atiely and lead to le"al action a"ainst the

or"ani#ation!

• Performance "oals- performance "oals and PA systems are often used in association!

 Ge"atie outcomes concernin" the or"ani#ations can result when "oals are oerly challen"in"

or oeremphasi#ed to the etent of affectin" ethics, le"al reuirements, or uality!

[39]

 Doreoer, challen"in" performance "oals can impede an employees$ abilities to acuirenecessary nowled"e and sills![14] ?specially in the early sta"es of trainin", it would be more

 beneficial to instruct employees on outcome "oals than on performance "oals![13]

• Eerail merit pay or performance%based pay- some researchers contend that the deficit in

merit pay and performance%based pay is lined to the fundamental issues stemmin" from PA

systems![2&]

8mproements

Althou"h performance appraisals can be so easily biased, there are certain steps that can be taen

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to improe the ealuations and reduce the mar"in of errors throu"h the followin"-

• Training  % Breatin" an awareness and acceptance in the people conductin" the

appraisals that within a "roup of worers, they will find a wide ran"e in difference of

sills and abilities!

•  Providing Feedback to Raters % rained raters proide mana"ers who ealuated their

subordinates with feedbac, includin" information on ratin"s from other mana"ers!

his reduces leniency errors!

• Subordinate Participation % Jy allowin" employee participation in the ealuation

 process, there is employee%superisor reciprocity in the discussion for any

discrepancies between self ratin"s and superisor ratin"s, thus, increasin" job

satisfaction and motiation![31]

pposition

 Got eeryone is in faor of formal performance appraisal systems! Dany employees,

especially those most affected by such ratin"s are not ery enthusiastic about them!

here are many critics of these appraisals includin" labor unions and mana"ers!

#a$or Unions

Iabor unions represent 11K (+K in the priate sector) of the wor force in the

>nited <tates! 8n some cases they may reuire that seniority be taen as one of the

main criteria for promotion! /oweer, len"th of job eperience may not always be a

reliable indication of the ability to perform a hi"her leel job! hat is why some

employers "ie senior people the first opportunity for promotion, but the employer

may see to further ualify the employee for that promotion because of their abilities

(not solely because of len"th of serice)! Performance appraisals may proide a basis

for assessment of employee merit as a component of these decisions! [32][33][3&]

%anagers

Dana"ers who hae had unsatisfactory eperiences with inadeuate or poorly

desi"ned appraisal pro"rams may be septical about their usefulness!

• <ome mana"ers may not lie to play the role of a jud"e and be responsible for

the future of their subordinates!

• hey may be uncomfortable about proidin" ne"atie feedbac to the

employees!

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• his tendency can lead them to inflate their assessments of the worers$ job

 performance, "iin" hi"her ratin"s than desered!

Who conducts them

/uman resource mana"ement (/CD) conducts performance mana"ement!

Performance mana"ement systems consist of the actiities and@or processes

embraced by an or"ani#ation in anticipation of improin" employee performance,

and therefore, or"ani#ational performance![3'] Bonseuently, performance

mana"ement is conducted at the or"ani#ational leel and the indiidual leel! At the

or"ani#ational leel, performance mana"ement oersees or"ani#ational performance

and compares present performance with or"ani#ational performance "oals! [2&] he

achieement of these or"ani#ational performance "oals depends on the performance

of the indiidual or"ani#ational members![2&] herefore, measurin" indiidual

employee performance can proe to be a aluable performance mana"ement process

for the purposes of /CD and for the or"ani#ation![2&] Dany researchers would ar"ue

that 5performance appraisal is one of the most important processes in /uman

Cesource Dana"ement5![1&]

he performance mana"ement process be"ins with leadership within the or"ani#ation

creatin" a performance mana"ement policy![2&]

 Primarily, mana"ement "oerns performance by influencin" employee performance input (e!"! trainin" pro"rams)

and by proidin" feedbac ia output (i!e! performance assessment and appraisal)!

[3*] 5he ultimate objectie of a performance mana"ement process is to ali"n

indiidual performance with or"ani#ational performance5![3+] A ery common and

central process of performance mana"ement systems is performance appraisal (PA)!

[2&] he PA process should be able to inform employees about the 5or"ani#ation;s

"oals, priorities, and epectations and how well they are contributin" to them5! [3+]

When they are conducted

Performance appraisals (PAs) are conducted at least annually,[2&] and annual employee

 performance reiews appear to be the standard in most American or"ani#ations!

[] /oweer, 5it has been acnowled"ed that appraisals conducted more freuently

(more than once a year) may hae positie implications for both the or"ani#ation and

employee!5[13] 8t is su""ested that re"ular performance feedbac proided to

employees may uell any unepected and@or surprisin" feedbac to year%end

discussions![1&] 8n a recent research study concernin" the timeliness of PAs, 5one of

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the respondents een su""ested that the performance reiew should be done formally

and more freuently, perhaps once a month, and recorded twice a year!5[1&]

ther researchers propose that the purpose of PAs and the freuency of their

feedbac are contin"ent upon the nature of the job and characteristics of the

employee![3] =or eample, employees of routine jobs where performance

maintenance is the "oal would benefit sufficiently from annual PA feedbac! n the

other hand, employees of more discretionary and non%routine jobs, where "oal%

settin" is appropriate and there is room for deelopment, would benefit from more

freuent PA feedbac! Gon formal performance appraisals may be done more often,

to preent the element of surprise from the formal appraisal![][3][34]

Methods of collecting data

here are three main methods used to collect performance appraisal (PA) data-

objectie production, personnel, and jud"mental ealuation! .ud"mental ealuations

are the most commonly used with a lar"e ariety of ealuation methods![*]

bjectie production

he objectie production method consists of direct, but limited, measures such as

sales fi"ures, production numbers, the electronic performance monitorin" of data

entry worers, etc![*] he measures used to appraise performance would depend on

the job and its duties! Althou"h these measures deal with unambi"uous criteria, they

are usually incomplete because of criterion contamination and criterion deficiency!

Briterion contamination refers to the part of the actual criteria that is unrelated to the

conceptual criteria![*] 8n other words, the ariability in performance can be due to

factors outside of the employee$s control! Briterion deficiency refers to the part of the

conceptual criteria that is not measured by the actual criteria! [*] 8n other words, the

uantity of production does not necessarily indicate the uality of the products! Joth

types of criterion inadeuacies result in reduced alidity of the measure![*] Ce"ardless

of the fact that objectie production data is not a complete reflection upon job

 performance, such data is releant to job performance!

 Happy-productive worker hypothesis

he happy%productie worer hypothesis states that the happiest worers are the

most productie performers, and the most productie performers are the happiestworers![&9] Let, after decades of research, the relationship between job

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satisfaction and job performance produces only a wea positie correlation!

Published in 2991 by Psychological Bulletin, a meta%analysis of 312 research studies

 produced an uncorrected correlation of 9!1![&1] his correlation is much weaer than

what the happy%productie worer hypothesis would predict!

Personnel

he personnel method is the recordin" of withdrawal behaiors (i!e! absenteeism,

accidents)! Dost or"ani#ations consider unecused absences to be indicators of poor

 job performance, een with all other factors bein" eual0[&9] howeer, this is subject to

criterion deficiency! he uantity of an employee$s absences does not reflect how

dedicated he@she may be to the job and its duties! ?specially for blue%collar jobs,

accidents can often be a useful indicator of poor job performance,[*] but this is also

subject to criterion contamination because situational factors also contribute to

accidents! nce a"ain, both types of criterion inadeuacies result in reduced alidity

of the measure![*] Althou"h ecessie absenteeism and@or accidents often indicate

 poor job performance rather than "ood performance, such personnel data is not a

comprehensie reflection of an employee$s performance![*]

.ud"mental ealuation

.ud"mental ealuation appears to be a collection of methods, and as such, could be

considered a methodolo"y! A common approach to obtainin" PAs is by means of

raters![1] Jecause the raters are human, some error will always be present in the data!

he most common types of error are leniency errors, central tendency errors, and

errors resultin" from the halo effect![1] /alo effect is characteri#ed by the tendency to

rate a person who is eceptionally stron" in one area hi"her than desered in other

areas! 8t is the opposite of the /orns effect, where a person is rated as lower than

desered in other areas due to an etreme deficiency in a sin"le discipline![&2] hese

errors arise predominantly from social co"nition and the theory in that how we jud"e

and ealuate other indiiduals in arious contets is associated with how we

5acuire, process, and cate"ori#e information5![1]

An essential piece of this method is rater trainin"! Cater trainin" is the 5process of

educatin" raters to mae more accurate assessments of performance, typically

achieed by reducin" the freuency of halo, leniency, and central%tendency errors5!

[1] Cater trainin" also helps the raters 5deelop a common frame of reference for

ealuation5 of indiidual performance! [&3] Dany researchers and surey respondents

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support the ambition of effectual rater trainin"![1&] /oweer, it is noted that such

trainin" is epensie, time consumin", and only truly functional for behaioral

assessments![1&]

Another piece to eep in mind is the effects of rater motiation on jud"mental

ealuations! 8t is not uncommon for ratin" inflation to occur due to rater motiation

(i!e! 5or"ani#ationally induced pressures that compel raters to ealuate ratees

 positiely5)![1] ypically, raters are motiated to "ie hi"her ratin"s because of the

lac of or"ani#ational sanction concernin" accurate@inaccurate appraisals, the rater;s

desire to "uarantee promotions, salary increases, etc!, the rater;s inclination to aoid

ne"atie reactions from subordinates, and the obseration that hi"her ratin"s of the

ratees reflect faorably upon the rater ![1]

he main methods used in jud"mental performance appraisal are- [1]

• raphic Catin" <cale- "raphic ratin" scales (see scale (social sciences)) are the

most commonly used system in PA! [1]n seeral different factors, subordinates

are jud"ed on ;how much; of that factor or trait they possess! ypically, the raters

use a '% or +%point scale0 howeer, there are as many as 29%point scales![1]

•

?mployee%Bomparison Dethods- rather than subordinates bein" jud"ed a"ainst pre%established criteria, they are compared with one another! his method

eliminates central tendency and leniency errors but still allows for halo effect

errors to occur![1] he ran%order method has raters ranin" subordinates from

5best5 to 5worst5, but how truly "ood or bad one is on a performance dimension

would be unnown![1] he paired%comparison method reuires the rater to select

the two 5best5 subordinates out of a "roup on each dimension then ran

indiiduals accordin" to the number of times each subordinate was selected as

one of the 5best5![1]

 he forced%distribution method is "ood for lar"e "roups ofratees! he raters ealuate each subordinate on one or more dimensions and then

 place (or 5force%fit5, if you will) each subordinate in a ' to + cate"ory normal

distribution![1] he method of top%"radin" can be applied to the forced

distribution method![&&] his method identifies the 19K lowest performin"

subordinates, as accordin" to the forced distribution, and dismisses them leain"

the 49K hi"her performin" subordinates!

• Jehaioral Bheclists and <cales- behaiors are more definite than traits! he

critical incidents method (or critical incident techniue) concerns 5specific

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 behaiors indicatie of "ood or bad job performance5![1] <uperisors record

 behaiors of what they jud"e to be job performance releant, and they eep a

runnin" tally of "ood and bad behaiors! A discussion on performance may then

follow! he  behaiorally anchored ratin" scales (JAC<) combine the critical

incidents method with ratin" scale methods by ratin" performance on a scale but

with the scale points bein" anchored by behaioral incidents! [1] Gote that JAC<

are job specific! 8n the $eavioral o$servation scale '()! approach to

 performance appraisal, employees are also ealuated in the terms of critical

incidents! 8n that respect, it is similar to JAC<! /oweer, the '() appraisal rate

subordinates on the frequency of the critical incidents as they are obsered to

occur oer a "ien period! he ratin"s are assi"ned on a fie%point scale! he

 behaioral incidents for the ratin" scale are deeloped in the same way as for

JAC< throu"h identification by superisors or other subject matter eperts!

<imilarly, '() techniues meet eual employment opportunity because they are

related to actual behaior reuired for successful job performance!

Peer and self assessments

6hile assessment can be performed alon" reportin" relationships (usually top%

down), net assessment can include peer and self%assessment! Peer assessment is

when assessment is performed by collea"ues alon" both hori#ontal (similar function)

and ertical (different function) relationship! <elf%assessments are when indiiduals

ealuate themseles![1] here are three common methods of peer assessments! Peer

nomination inoles each "roup member nominatin" who he@she beliees to be the

5best5 on a certain dimension of performance! Peer ratings has each "roup member

rate each other on a set of performance dimensions! Peer ranking  reuires each

"roup member ran all fellow members from 5best5 to 5worst5 on one or more

dimensions of performance!

• )elf-assessments- for self%assessments, indiiduals assess and ealuate their own

 behaior and job performance![1]

• Peer assessments- members of a "roup ealuate and appraise the performance of 

their fellow "roup members![1]here it is common for a "raphic ratin" scale to be

used for self%assessments! Positie leniency tends to be a problem with self%

assessments![*] Peer assessments from multiple members of a "roup are often

called crowd%based performance reiews, and sole many problems with peer

assessments from only one member![&']

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• 3*9%de"ree feedbac - 3*9%de"ree feedbac is multiple ealuations of employees

which often include assessments from superior(s), peers, and one$s self![1]

•  Ge"otiated performance appraisal- he ne"otiated performance appraisal (GPA)

is an emer"in" approach for improin" communication between superisors and

subordinates and for increasin" employee productiity, and may also be adapted

to an alternate mediation model for superisor%subordinate conflicts! A facilitator 

meets separately with the superisor and with the subordinate to prepare three

lists! 6hat employees do well, where the employee has improed in recently,

and areas where the employee still needs to improe! Jecause the subordinate

will present his or her lists first durin" the joint session, this reduces defensie

 behaiors! =urthermore, the subordinate comes to the joint session not only

 prepared to share areas of needed improement, but also brin"s concrete ideas as

to how these improements can be made! he GPA also focuses ery stron"ly on

what employees are doin" well, and inoles a minimum of twenty minutes of

 praise when discussin" what the employee does well! he role of the facilitator is

that of a coach in the pre%caucuses, and in the joint sessions the superisor and

subordinate mostly spea to each other with little facilitator interference! [&*][&+]

8n "eneral, optimal PA process inoles a combination of multiple assessment

modalities! ne common recommendation is that assessment flows from self%

assessment, to peer%assessment, to mana"ement assessment % in that order! <tartin"

with self%assessment facilitates aoidance of conflict! Peer feedbac ensures peer

accountability, which may yield better results than accountability to mana"ement!

Dana"ement assessment comes last for need of reco"nition by authority and

aoidance of conflict in case of disa"reements! 8t is "enerally recommended that PA

is done in shorter cycles to aoid hi"h%staes discussions, as is usually the case in

lon"%cycle appraisals![citation needed]

 Gormali#ation of performance appraisal

 Gormali#ation is the process of reiew of the ratin"s each "roup as a whole to ensure

the ratin"s are as per the recommended norms and the percenta"es are "enerally

decided by mana"ement![citation needed]

Organizational citizenship behavior 

 Main article: r"ani#ational citi#enship behaior 

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Also referred to as contetual behaior, prosocial behaior, and etra%role behaior,

or"ani#ational citi#enship behaior (BJ) consists of employee behaior that

contributes to the welfare of the or"ani#ation but is beyond the scope of the

employee$s job duties![*] hese etra%role behaiors may help or hinder the attainment

of or"ani#ational "oals! Cesearch supports fie dimensions of

BJ- altruism, conscientiousness, courtesy, sportsmanship, and ciic irtue!

[&] Cesearchers hae found that the BJ dimensions of altruism and ciic irtue can

hae just as much of an impact on mana"er$s subjectie ealuations of employees$

 performances as employees$ objectie productiity leels![&4] he de"ree to which

BJ can influence jud"ments of job performance is relatiely hi"h! Bontroersy

eists as to whether BJ should be formally considered as a part of performance

appraisal (PA)!

Interviews

he performance appraisal (PA) interiew is typically the final step of the appraisal

 process![1] he interiew is held between the subordinate and superisor! he PA

interiew can be considered of "reat si"nificance to an or"ani#ation$s PA system![]8t

is most adanta"eous when both the superior and subordinate participate in the

interiew discussion and establish "oals to"ether![1] hree factors consistently

contribute to effectie PA interiews- the superisor$s nowled"e of the

subordinate$s job and performance in it, the superisor$s support of the subordinate,

and a welcomin" of the subordinate$s participation![]

Employee reactions

 Gumerous researchers hae reported that many employees are not satisfied with their 

 performance appraisal (PA) systems![1&] <tudies hae shown that subjectiity as well

as appraiser bias is often a problem perceied by as many as half of employees!

[1&] Appraiser bias, howeer, appears to be perceied as more of a problem in

"oernment and public sector or"ani#ations![1&] Also, accordin" to some studies,

employees wished to see chan"es in the PA system by main" 5the system more

objectie, improin" the feedbac process, and increasin" the freuency of

reiew!5[1&] 8n li"ht of traditional PA operation defects, 5or"ani#ations are now

increasin"ly incorporatin" practices that may improe the system! hese chan"es are

 particularly concerned with areas such as elimination of subjectiity and bias,

trainin" of appraisers, improement of the feedbac process and the performancereiew discussion!5[1&]

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Accordin" to a meta%analysis of 2+ field studies, "eneral employee participation in

his@her own appraisal process was positiely correlated with employee reactions to

the PA system![22] Dore specifically, employee participation in the appraisal process

was most stron"ly related to employee satisfaction with the PA system![22] Boncernin"

the reliability of employee reaction measures, researchers hae found employee

reaction scales to be sound with few concerns throu"h usin" a confirmatory factor

analysis that is representatie of employee reaction scales!['9]

Cesearchers su""est that the study of employees$ reactions to PA is important

 because of two main reasons- employee reactions symboli#es a criterion of interest to

 practitioners of PAs and employee reactions hae been associated throu"h theory to

determinants of appraisal acceptance and success! ['9] Cesearchers translate these

reasons into the contet of thescientist%practitioner "ap or the 5lac of ali"nment

 between research and practice!5['9]

[1] <chult# M <chult# notes that opposition to performance appraisals "enerally don;t

receie positie ratin"s from anyone inoled! 5<o employees that will be directly

affected by the Performance Appraisals are less than enthusiastic about participatin"

in them5! [2] 6hen an employee nows that their wor performance has been less

than perfect it$s nere racin" to be ealuated! Dost worers just don$t appreciate

constructie criticism or any criticism! ?mployees tend to be hostile nowin" they

could be "ien bad news on their performance! <chult#, Euane P! <chult#, <ydney

?llen (2994)! Psycholo"y and wor today (19th ed!, 8nternational ed! ed!)! >pper

<addle Cier, G!.!- Pearson ?ducation! pp! 19N194!8<JG 4+929'+9'+9! Dore

than one of Oauthor and Olast specified <chult#, Euane P! <chult#, <ydney ?llen

(2994)! Psycholo"y and wor today (19th ed!, 8nternational ed! ed!)! >pper <addle

Cier, G!.!- Pearson ?ducation! p! 194! 8<JG 4+929'+9'+9! Dore than one of O

author and Olast specified

Legal implications

here are federal laws addressin" fair employment practices, and this also concerns

 performance appraisal (PA)!Eiscrimination can occur within predictions of

 performance and ealuations of job behaiors![1] he reision of many court cases has

reealed the inolement of alle"ed discrimination which was often lined to the

assessment of the employee$s job performance!['1] <ome of the laws which protect

indiiduals a"ainst discrimination are 5the itle Q88 of the Biil Ci"hts Act of 14*&,the Biil Ci"hts Act of 1441, the A"e Eiscrimination in ?mployment Act (AE?A),

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and the Americans with Eisabilities Act (AEA)!5[1] Iawsuits may also results from

char"es of an employer$s ne"li"ence, defamation, and@or misrepresentation![1]A few

appraisal criteria to eep in mind for a le"ally sound PA is to eep the content of the

appraisal objectie, job%related, behaior%based, within the control of the ratee, and

related to specific functions rather than a "lobal assessment! ['1] <ome appraisal

 procedure su""estions for a le"ally sound PA is to standardi#e operations,

communicate formally with employees, proide information of performance deficits

and "ie opportunities to employees to correct those deficits, "ie employees access

to appraisal results, proide written instructions for the trainin" of raters, and use

multiple, dierse and unbiased raters! ['1] hese are aluable but not ehaustie lists of 

recommendations for PAs! he ?mployment pportunity Bommission (??B)

"uidelines apply to any selection procedure that is used for main" employment

decisions, not only for hirin", but also for promotion, demotion, transfer, layoff,

dischar"e, or early retirement! herefore, employment appraisal procedures must be

alidated lie tests or any other selection deice! ?mployers who base their

 personnel decisions on the results of a well%desi"ned performance reiew pro"ram

that includes formal appraisal interiews are much more liely to be successful in

defendin" themseles a"ainst claims of discrimination! ['2]

Crosscultural implications

Performance appraisal (PA) systems, and the premises of which they were based, that

hae been formed and re"arded as effectie in the >nited <tates may not hae the

transferability for effectual utili#ation in other countries or  cultures, and ice ersa!

[1'] Performance 5appraisal is thou"ht to be deeply rooted in the norms, alues, and

 beliefs of a society5!['3]5Appraisal reflects attitudes towards motiation and

 performance (self) and relationships (e!"! peers, subordinates, superisors,

or"ani#ation), all of which ary from one country to the net5! ['&] herefore, appraisal

should be in conjunction with cultural norms, alues, and beliefs in order to be

operatie![''] he deep%seated norms, alues and beliefs in different cultures affect

employee motiation and perception of or"ani#ational euity and justice! 8n effect, a

PA system created and considered effectual in one country may not be an appropriate

assessment in another cultural re"ion! ['&]

=or eample, some countries and cultures alue the trait of assertieness and

 personal accomplishment while others instead place more merit on cooperation and

interpersonal connection! Bountries scorin" hi"h on assertieness consider PA to be a

way of assurin" euity amon" employees so that hi"her performin" employees

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receie "reater rewards or hi"her salaries!['&] Bountries scorin" low on assertieness

 but hi"her in interpersonal relations may not lie the social separation and pay

ineuity of hi"her@lower performin" employees0 employees from this more

cooperatie rather than indiidualistic culture place more concern on interpersonal

relationships with other employees rather than on indiidual interests! ['&] /i"h

assertie countries alue performance feedbac for self%mana"ement and

effectieness purposes while countries low in assertieness iew performance

feedbac as 5threatenin" and obtrusie5!['&]['*] 8n this case, the PA of the hi"h assertie

countries would liely not be beneficial for countries scorin" lower in assertieness

to employ! /oweer, countries scorin" lower in assertieness could employ PA for

 purposes of improin" lon"%term communication deelopment within the

or"ani#ation such as clarifyin" job objecties, "uide trainin" and deelopment plans,

and lessen the "ap between job performance and or"ani#ational epectations!['+]

!evelopments in information technology 

Bomputers hae been playin" an increasin" role in PA for some time (<ulsy M

Reown, 144)! here are two main aspects to this! he first is in relation to the

electronic monitorin" of performance, which affords the ability to record a hu"e

amount of data on multiple dimensions of wor performance (<tanton, 2999)! Got

only does it facilitate a more continuous and detailed collection of performance data

in some jobs, e!"! call centres, but it has the capacity to do so in a non%obious,

coert manner! he second aspect is in mediatin" the feedbac process, by recordin"

and a""re"atin" performance ratin"s and written obserations and main" the

information aailable on%line0 many software paca"es are aailable for this! he use

of 8 in these ways undoubtedly helps in main" the appraisal process more

mana"eable, especially where multiple ratin" sources are inoled, but it also raises

many uestions about appraisees; reactions and possible effects on PA outcomes!

Dostly, the eidence so far is positie! [']

"ater errors

Distaes made by raters is a major source of problems in performance appraisal!

here is no simple way to completely eliminate these errors, but main" raters aware

of them throu"h trainin" is helpful! Cater errors are based on the feelin"s and it has

conseuences at the time of appraisal!['4][*9]

*arying stan"ar"s

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• Problem- 6hen a mana"er appraises (ealuates) his or her employees and the

mana"er uses different standards and epectations for employees who are performin"

similar jobs![citation needed]

• ?ample- A professor does not "rade the eams of all students in the same standards,

sometimes it depends on the affection that the professor has towards others! hisaffection will mae professor "ie students hi"her or lower "rades!

• <olution- he rater must use the same standards and wei"hts for eery employee! he

mana"er should be able to show coherent ar"uments in order to eplain the

difference! herefore, it would be easier to now if it is done, because the employee

has done a "ood performance, or if it because the mana"er perception is distorted!

+ecency Effects

•

Problem- 6hen the mana"er, accordin" only to the last performance, that has beenuite "ood, rates hi"her!

• ?ample- 6hen a professor "ies the course "rade based just in the performance of

the student, only in the last wee!

• <olution- 8n order to aoid that, the mana"er should use some methods as

documentin" both in positie and ne"atie aspects!

Primacy Effects

• Problem- 6hen the person who ealuates "ies more wei"ht accordin" to

information the mana"er has receied first!

• ?ample- 8t could be a silly eample! 6hen we are watchin" a Q ui# and conuest

hae to remember a list of thin"s, they only remember the first ones! his is apply

also in rememberin" human performance!

• <olution- performance! 6hen mana"er has to tae some decision, is better not to do it

accordin" to what he or she remembers! 8t is better to based on real actions that has

happened and are recorded!

,entral Ten"ency

• Problem- 6hen the mana"er ealuate eery employees within a narrow ran"e, as the

aera"e because he or she is dismissin" the differences in the performance that

employees hae done!

• ?ample- 6hen a professor because the aera"e of the class tends to "rade harder!

herefore, if the performance of the class aera"e is uite hi"h, the professor will

ealuate them more hi"h! 8n the contrary, if the aera"e of the class is lower, he or she

would appraise lower!

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#eniency

• Problem- Catin" of all employees are at the hi"h end of the scale!

• ?ample- 6hen the professor tends to "rade harder, because the aera"e of the class!

)trictness

• Problem- 6hen a mana"er uses only the lower part of the scale to rate employees!

• ?ample- 6hen the professor tends to "rade lower, because the aera"e of the class!

• <olution- try to focus more on the indiidual performance of eery employee

re"ardless the aera"e results!

+ater 'ias[*1]

• Problem- Cater$s when the mana"er rates accordin" to his or her alues and

 prejudices which at the same time distort (distorsionar) the ratin"! hose

differentiations can be made due to the ethnic "roup, "ender, a"e, reli"ion, se,

appearance!!!

• ?ample- <ometimes happen that a mana"er treats someone different, because he or

she thins that the employee is homoseual!

• <olution- 8f then, the eamination is done by hi"her%leel mana"ers, this ind ofappraisin" can be corrected, because they are supposed to be more partial!

alo Effect

• Problem- 6hen a mana"er rates an employee hi"h on all items because of one

characteristic that he or she lies!

• ?ample- 8f a worer has few absence but the superisor has a "ood relationship with

that employee, the superisor mi"ht "ie to the employee a hi"h ratin" in all other

areas of wor, in order to balance the ratin"! <ometimes it happens due to theemotional dependability based on the "ood relationship they hae!

• <olution- rainin" raters to reco"ni#e the problem and differentiatin" the person with

the performance they do!

orns Effect

• Problem- his is the opposite to the /alo effect and /orns effect occurs when a

mana"er rates an employee low on all items because of one characteristic that he or

she dislies!

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• ?ample- 8f a worer does a "ood performance and in some restin" times he or she

loes tellin" joes, but his or her superisor hates joes, the superisor mi"ht "ie to

the employee a lower ratin" in all other areas of wor, because they do not hae that

coneion! <ometimes it happens when they do not hae a close relationship and

mana"er do not lie the person her@him%self!

• <olution- 8s the same as in the /alo ?ffect! rainin" raters to reco"ni#e the problem

and differentiatin" the person with the performance they do!

,ontrast

• Problem- he tendency to rate people relatie to other people rather than to the

indiidual performance he or her is doin"!

• ?ample- At school, if you are sat down where all the chatty people are and you are

silent but you do not pay attention and you do not do your homewor, because youare drawin"0 when teacher "ets an"ry with the "roup, you mi"ht be ecluded of the

 bad behaior they hae just because you are silent0 but not because you are doin" a

"ood performance! herefore, accordin" to the "roup, you are not that chatty, but you

are either doin" the proper performance! /oweer the rater will only "et the idea that

your behaior is not as bad as other, thus, you will be rate hi"her!

• <olution- he ratin" should reflect the tas reuirement performance, not accordin"

to other people attitude!

)imilar-to-%e . Different-from-%e

• Problem- <ometimes, ratters are influenced by some of the characteristics that people

show! Eependin" if those characteristics are similar or different to ratters; one, they

would be ealuated differently!

• ?ample- A mana"er with hi"her education de"ree mi"ht "ie subordinates with

hi"her education de"ree a hi"her appraisal than those with only bachelor$s de"rees!

• <olution- ry to focus on the performance the employee is doin" re"ardless the

common characteristic that you hae

)ampling

• Problem- 6hen the rater ealuates the performance of an employee relyin" only on a

small percenta"e of the amount of wor done!

• ?ample- An employee has to do 199 reports! hen, the mana"er tae fie of them to

chec how has the wor been made, and the mana"er finds mistaes in those fie

reports! herefore the mana"er will appraised the wor of the employee as a 5poor5

one, without hain" into account the other 4' reports that the mana"er has not seen,

that hae been made correctly!

• <olution- o follow the entire trac of the performance, not just a little part of it!

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6e hae been looin" one by one the possible solutions to each of the situations, which are also

complicated to put into practice, thus here we hae a "eneral solution that could be apply to all

the possible ratin" errors! 8t is difficult to minimi#ed rater errors, since we are humans and we are

not objectie! Doreoer, sometimes, we are not aware of our behaior of hain" preferences

towards people but there are some tools in order to hae a more objectie information as usin"

aailable technolo"y to trac performances and record it which enables mana"er to hae some

objectie information about the process!