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UN Habitat

1. Adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change

Change the World Model United Nations

NYC 2019

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Table of Contents

Letter from the Dais 3

About UN Habitat 4

Adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change 5

Timeline of Climate Change 5

Climate Change on a regional basis 8

Asia 8

Africa 10

Europe 12

Oceania 13

North America 14

South America 16

Arctic 17

Antarctica 18

Climate Change conventions and Protocols 19

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 19

Kyoto Protocol 19

Paris Agreement 19

Current State 19

Possible Solutions 21

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions: 21

Implementation of climate adaptation strategies: 21

Promotion of globally important climate science: 21

Designation of marine protected areas: 21

Questions A Resolution Must Answer 23

Some Recommended Sources of research 23

References: 24

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Letter from the Dais

Dear Distinguished Delegates:

Welcome to the 2019 Change the World Model United Nations (CWMUN). As your committee

dais we are looking forward to meeting you and hearing your ideas for solving international

problems.

The United Nations (UN) depends on the cooperation and goodwill of its 193 Member States.

Because each state has unique interests and concerns, it is challenging to write, negotiate, and

pass resolutions. Every stage of the process demands creativity and diplomacy.

The topic that will be discussing is ''Adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change''.

The debate will focus on the timeline of the climate change and how affects differently each

part of the world. Also, the most important climate change conventions and protocols as well

as all the possible solutions that may help to reduce all the problems caused by the climate

change.

While we may all lead different lives and face different daily struggles, we have to bear in mind

that we all share the same world and the same resources. Whether it is environmental problems

or political unrest, what is happening in the world concerns all of us. Only through mutual

understanding, unity and collaboration can we lay the foundations of a worthier world

As your committee dais, we will work to keep the committees running smoothly. We will do

our best to help you understand parliamentary procedure and to ensure that the views of all

delegates are heard and respected.

We look forward to seeing you at the United Nations headquarters and wish you the very best

in your preparations.

Sincerely,

Mohammad Galib Abrar Akhand, Director

Claudia Cunill Rodriguez, Assistant Director

Matteo Pigato, Rapporteur

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About UN Habitat

UN Habitat is the United Nations programme working towards a better urban future. Its mission

is to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human settlements development and the

achievement of adequate shelter for all.

Cities are facing unprecedented demographic, environmental, economic, social and spatial

challenges. There has been a phenomenal shift towards urbanization, with 6 out of every 10

people in the world expected to reside in urban areas by 2030. Over 90 per cent of this growth

will take place in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and the Caribbean. In the absence of effective

urban planning, the consequences of this rapid urbanization will be dramatic.

In many places around the world, the effects can already be felt. There is a lack of proper

housing and growth of slums, inadequate and out-dated infrastructure be it roads, public

transport, water, sanitation, or electricity – escalating poverty and unemployment, safety and

crime problems, pollution and health issues, as well as poorly managed natural or man-made

disasters and other catastrophes due to the effects of climate change. Mind-sets, policies, and

approaches towards urbanization need to change in order for the growth of cities and urban

areas to be turned into opportunities that will leave nobody behind. UN Habitat, the United

Nations programme for human settlements, is at the helm of that change, assuming a natural

leadership and catalytic role in urban matters.

In October 2016, at the UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development,

Habitat III member states signed the New Urban Agenda. This is an action oriented document

which sets global standards of achievement in sustainable urban development, rethinking the

way we build, manage, and live in cities. Through drawing together cooperation with

committed partners, relevant stakeholders, and urban actors, including at all levels of

government as well as the private sector, UN-Habitat is applying its technical expertise,

normative work and capacity development to implement the New Urban Agenda and

Sustainable Development Goal 11 to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

Mandated by the UN General Assembly in 1978 to address the issues of urban growth, it is a

knowledgeable institution on urban development processes, and understands the aspirations of

cities and their residents. For forty years, UN Habitat has been working in human settlements

throughout the world, focusing on building a brighter future for villages, towns, and cities of

all sizes. Because of these four decades of extensive experience, from the highest levels of

policy to a range of specific technical issues, UN Habitat has gained a unique and a universally

acknowledged expertise in all things urban.

This has placed UN Habitat in the best position to provide answers and achievable solutions to

the current challenges faced by our cities. UN Habitat is capitalizing on its experience and

position to work with partners in order to formulate the urban vision of tomorrow. It works to

ensure that cities become inclusive and affordable drivers of economic growth and social

development.

Adaptation and mitigation strategies for climate change

Climate change is one of the most complex issues facing us today. It involves many dimensions

– science, economics, society, politics and moral and ethical questions – and is a global

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problem, felt on local scales, that will be around for decades and centuries to come. Carbon

dioxide, the heat-trapping greenhouse gas that has driven recent global warming, lingers in the

atmosphere for hundreds of years, and the planet (especially the oceans) takes a while to

respond to warming. So even if we stopped emitting all greenhouse gases today, global

warming and climate change will continue to affect future generations. In this way, humanity

is “committed” to some level of climate change.

Timeline of Climate Change

1712 - Thomas Newcomen invents the first widely used steam engine, paving the way for the

Industrial Revolution and industrial scale use of coal.

1824 - French physicist Joseph Fourier describes the Earth's natural "greenhouse effect".

1861 - Irish physicist John Tyndall shows that water vapour and certain other gases create the

greenhouse effect.

1886 - Karl Benz unveils the Motorwagen, often regarded as the first true automobile.

1896 - Swedish chemist Svante Arrhenius concludes that industrial-age coal burning will

enhance the natural greenhouse effect.

1900 - Knut Angstrom, discovers that even at the tiny concentrations found in the atmosphere,

CO2 strongly absorbs parts of the infrared spectrum. Although he does not realise the

significance, Angstrom has shown that a trace gas can produce greenhouse warming.

1927 - Carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning and industry reach 1 billion tonnes per year.

1930 - Human population reaches 2 billion.

1938 - Using records from 147 weather stations around the world, British engineer Guy

Callendar shows that temperatures had risen over the previous century. He also shows that CO2

concentrations had increased over the same period, and suggests this caused the warming.

1955 - Using a new generation of equipment including early computers, US researcher Gilbert

Plass analyses in detail the infrared absorption of various gases. He concludes that doubling

CO2 concentrations would increase temperatures by 3-4C.

1957 - US oceanographer Roger Revelle and chemist Hans Suess show that seawater will not

absorb all the additional CO2 entering the atmosphere, as many had assumed.

1958 - Charles David (Dave) Keeling begins systematic measurements of atmospheric CO2 at

Mauna Loa in Hawaii and in Antarctica. Within four years, the project - which continues today

- provides the first unequivocal proof that CO2 concentrations are rising.

1960 - Human population reaches 3 billion.

1972 - First UN environment conference, in Stockholm. The United Nations Environment

Programme (UNEP) is formed as a result.

1975 - Human population reaches four billion.

1975 - US scientist Wallace Broecker puts the term "global warming" into the public domain

in the title of a scientific paper.

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1987 - Human population reaches 5 billion

1987 - Montreal Protocol agreed, restricting chemicals that damage the ozone layer.

1988 - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) formed to collate and assess

evidence on climate change.

1989 - Carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning and industry reach 6 billion tonnes per year.

1990 - IPCC produces First Assessment Report, conveying that temperatures have risen by 0.3-

0.6C over the last century, and human activities are contributing to the increase of greenhouse

gases.

1992 - At the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, governments agree the United Framework

Convention on Climate Change. Its key objective is "stabilization of greenhouse gas

concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic

interference with the climate system".

1995 - IPCC Second Assessment Report concludes that the balance of evidence suggests "a

discernible human influence" on the Earth's climate. This has been called the first definitive

statement that humans are responsible for climate change.

1997 - Kyoto Protocol agreed. Developed nations pledge to reduce emissions by an average of

5% by the period 2008-12, with wide variations on targets for individual countries. US Senate

immediately declares it will not ratify the treaty, leaving the treaty few years later.

1998 - Strong El Nino conditions combine with global warming to produce the warmest year

on record.

1998 - Publication of the controversial "hockey stick" graph indicating that modern-day

temperature rise in the northern hemisphere is unusual compared with the last 1,000 years. The

work would later be the subject of two enquiries instigated by the US Congress.

1999 - Human population reaches 6 billion.

2001 - IPCC Third Assessment Report finds "new and stronger evidence" that humanity's

emissions of greenhouse gases are the main cause of the warming seen in the second half of

the 20th Century.

2005 - The Kyoto Protocol becomes international law for those countries still inside it.

2006 - The Stern Review concludes that climate change could damage global GDP by up to

20% if left unchecked - but curbing it would cost about 1% of global GDP.

2006 - Carbon emissions from fossil fuel burning and industry reach eight billion tonnes per

year.

2007 - The IPCC's Fourth Assessment Report concludes it is more than 90% likely that

humanity's emissions of greenhouse gases are responsible for modern-day climate change.

2007 - The IPCC and former US vice-president Al Gore receive the Nobel Peace Prize "for

their efforts to build up and disseminate greater knowledge about man-made climate change,

and to lay the foundations for the measures that are needed to counteract such change".

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2007 - At UN negotiations in Bali, governments agree the two-year "Bali roadmap" aimed at

hammering out a new global treaty by the end of 2009.

2008 - Half a century after beginning observations at Mauna Loa, the Keeling project shows

that CO2 concentrations have risen from 315 parts per million (ppm) in 1958 to 380ppm in

2008.

2009 - China overtakes the US as the world's biggest greenhouse gas emitter - although the US

remains well ahead on a per-capita basis.

2009 - Computer hackers download a huge tranche of emails from a server at the University of

East Anglia's Climatic Research Unit and release some on the internet, leading to the

"ClimateGate" affair.

2009 - 192 governments convene for the UN climate summit in Copenhagen with expectations

of a new global agreement high; but they leave only with a controversial political declaration,

the Copenhagen Accord.

2010 - Developed countries begin contributing to a $30bn, three-year deal on "Fast Start

Finance" to help them "green" their economies and adapt to climate impacts.

2010 - The UN summit in Mexico does not collapse, as had been feared, but ends with

agreements on a number of issues.

2011 - A new analysis of the Earth's temperature record by scientists concerned over the

"ClimateGate" allegations proves the planet's land surface really has warmed over the last

century.

2011 - Human population reaches seven billion.

2011 - Data shows concentrations of greenhouse gases are rising faster than in previous years.

2012 - Arctic sea ice reaches a minimum extent of 3.41 million sq km (1.32 million sq mi), a

record for the lowest summer cover since satellite measurements began in 1979.

2013 - The Mauna Loa Observatory reports that the daily mean concentration of CO2 in the

atmosphere has surpassed 400 parts per million for the first time since measurements began in

1958.

2013 - The first part of the IPCC's fifth assessment report says scientists are 95% certain that

humans are the "dominant cause" of global warming since the 1950s.

2015 - The Paris climate conference took place. The parties reached a new global agreement

on climate change, which will enter into force almost one year later.

2018 - 175 countries had ratified the Paris Agreement and 10 developing countries had

submitted their first iteration of their national adaptation plans for responding to climate

change.

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Average yearly temperature from 1880 to 2018

Climate Change on a regional basis

Asia

Asia has the highest population of any continent in the world, and partly as a consequence it

faces some of the most difficult environmental and socio-economic challenges. Land and

ecosystems are already being degraded, threatening to undermine food security. Water and air

quality are deteriorating while continued increases in consumption and associated waste have

contributed to the exponential growth in the region's existing environmental problems. The

region is also highly subject to natural hazards, including extreme weather events, that over the

last decades are significantly increasing in terms of intensity and frequency. Impacts of such

disasters range from hunger and susceptibility to disease, to loss of income and livelihoods,

affecting human survival and well-being. For example the extreme weather events in China

during 2006 included major storms and flooding in the east and south, as well as heat and

drought in central, western and north-eastern regions, killing more than 2700 people and

causing USD 20 billion in damages.

Climate change will affect many sectors, including water resources, agriculture and food

security, ecosystems and biodiversity, human health and coastal zones. Many environmental

and developmental problems in Asia will be exacerbated by climate change. Under climate

change, predicted rainfall increases over most of Asia, particularly during the summer

monsoon, could increase flood-prone areas in East Asia, South Asia and Southeast Asia. In

Central and South Asia, crop yields are predicted to fall by up to 30%, creating a very high risk

of hunger in several countries. Global warming is causing the melting of glaciers in the

Himalayas. In the short term, this means increased risk of flooding, erosion, mudslides and

GLOF in Nepal, Bangladesh, Pakistan, and north India during the wet season. Because the

melting of snow coincides with the summer monsoon season, any intensification of the

monsoon and/or increase in melting is likely to contribute to flood disasters in Himalayan

catchments. In the longer term, global warming could lead to a rise in the snowline and

disappearance of many glaciers causing serious impacts on the populations relying on the 7

main rivers in Asia fed by melt water from the Himalayas. Throughout Asia 1 billion people

could face water shortage leading to drought and land degradation by the 2050s.

In Asia, the principal impacts of climate change on health will be on epidemics of malaria,

dengue, and other vector-borne diseases. The global burden of climate change-attributable

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diarrhoea and malnutrition are already the largest in the world in Southeast Asian countries

including Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Myanmar and Nepal in 2000. Illness and death

are expected to increase from diarrhoeal diseases due to drought and flooding, and are also

expected from increased amounts of cholera bacteria in coastal waters. An increase in the

frequency and duration of severe heat waves and humid conditions during the summer is likely

to increase the risk of mortality and morbidity, principally in the old and urban poor populations

of temperate and tropical Asia and high temperatures and poor urban air quality, such as in

Chongqing, China and in Jakarta, Indonesia, could contribute to widespread heat stress and

smog induced illnesses in urban populations

In recent years, enormous pressures have been put on Asia’s ecosystems to support the ever

growing demand for natural resources. The most affected areas are coastal and marine

ecosystems, forests and mountainous regions and the flora and fauna within them. Climate

change will have a profound effect on the future distribution, productivity, and health of forests

throughout Asia, for example northeast China may become deprived of conifer forest.

Grassland productivity is expected to decline by as much as 40 – 90 per cent for an increase in

temperature of 2 – 3° C, combined with reduced precipitation, in the semi-arid and arid regions

of Asia.

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Fisheries in both fresh water and sea water could be affected. Fisheries at higher elevations are

likely to be adversely affected by lower availability of oxygen due to a rise in surface air

temperatures. In the plains, the timing and amount of precipitation could also affect the

migration of fish species from the river to the floodplains for spawning, dispersal, and growth.

Sea level rise and changes in sea water temperature, salinity and direction of water flows, have

the potential to substantially alter fish breeding habitats. Ultimately, these changes might

considerably decrease the abundance of fish populations in Asian waters with associated effects

on coastal economies.

Projected sea level rise could flood the residence of millions of people living in the low lying

areas of South, Southeast and East Asia such as in Vietnam, Bangladesh, India and China.

Moreover, 30% of coral reefs could be lost in the next 10 years, reaching a percentage as high

as 88% (59% of global) in the next 30 years.

Africa

Africa is highly vulnerable to the various manifestations of climate change. Six situations that

are particularly important are:

● Water resources, especially in international shared basins where there is a potential for

conflict and a need for regional coordination in water management ● Food security at risk from declines in agricultural production and uncertain climate ● Natural resources productivity at risk and biodiversity that might be irreversibly lost ● Vector- and water-borne diseases, especially in areas with inadequate health

infrastructure ● Coastal zones vulnerable to sea-level rise, particularly roads, bridges, buildings, and

other infrastructure that is exposed to flooding and other extreme events ● Exacerbation of desertification by changes in rainfall and intensified land use.

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Africa is the continent with the lowest conversion factor of precipitation to runoff, averaging

15%. Although the equatorial region and coastal areas of eastern and southern Africa are

humid, the rest of the continent is dry subhumid to arid. The dominant impact of global

warming is predicted to be a reduction in soil moisture in subhumid zones and a reduction in

runoff. Current trends in major river basins indicate a decrease in runoff of about 17% over the

past decade, while lake storage and major dams have reached critically low levels, threatening

industrial activity. Model results indicate that global warming will increase the frequency of

such low storage episodes.

Land-use changes as a result of population and development pressures will continue to be the

major driver of land-cover change in Africa, with climate change becoming an increasingly

important contributing factor by mid-century. Resultant changes in ecosystems will affect the

distribution and productivity of plant and animal species, water supply, fuelwood, and other

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services. Losses of biodiversity are likely to be accelerated by climate change, such as in the

Afromontane and Cape centers of plant endemism. Projected climate change is expected to

lead to altered frequency, intensity, and extent of vegetation fires, with potential feedback

effects on climate change.

There is wide consensus that climate change will worsen food security in Africa. The continent

already experiences a major deficit in food production in many areas, and potential declines in

soil moisture will be an added burden. Food-importing countries are at greater risk of adverse

climate change, and impacts could have as much to do with changes in world markets as with

changes in local and regional resources and national agricultural economy. As a result of water

stress, inland fisheries will be rendered more vulnerable because of episodic drought and

habitat destruction. Ocean warming also will modify ocean currents, with possible impacts on

coastal marine fisheries.

Most of Africa's largest cities are along coasts. A large percentage of Africa's population is

land-locked; thus, coastal facilities are economically significant. Sea-level rise, coastal erosion,

saltwater intrusion, and flooding will have significant impacts on African communities and

economies.

Climate change and desertification remain inextricably linked through feedbacks between land

degradation and precipitation. Climate change might exacerbate desertification through

alteration of spatial and temporal patterns in temperature, rainfall, solar insolation, and winds.

Although the relative importance of climatic and anthropogenic factors in causing

desertification remains unresolved, evidence shows that certain arid, semi-arid, and dry

subhumid areas have experienced declines in rainfall, resulting in decreases in soil fertility and

agricultural, livestock, forest, and rangeland production. Ultimately, these adverse impacts lead

to socioeconomic and political instability.

Given the range and magnitude of the development constraints and challenges facing most

African nations, the overall capacity for Africa to adapt to climate change is low without

international aid. Human health is predicted to be adversely affected by projected climate

change. Temperature rises will extend the habitats of vectors of diseases such as malaria.

Droughts and flooding, where sanitary infrastructure is inadequate, will result in increased

frequency of epidemics and enteric diseases. More frequent outbreaks of Rift Valley fever

could result from increased rainfall. Increased temperatures of coastal waters could aggravate

cholera epidemics in coastal areas.

However, climate change also offers some opportunities. The process of adapting to global

climate change, including technology transfer, offers new development pathways that could

take advantage of Africa's resources and human potential. Examples would include competitive

agricultural products, as a result of research in new crop varieties and increased international

trade, and industrial developments such as solar energy.

Europe

Not only is much of northern and western Europe hotter than normal, but the weather is also

more erratic. Torrential rains and violent thunderstorms have alternated with droughts in parts

of France. In the Netherlands, a drought, rather than the rising seas, is hurting its system of

dikes because there is not enough fresh water countering the seawater.

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The preliminary results of an Oxford study found that, in some places, climate change more

than doubled the likelihood of summer European heat wave. Climate change is gradually

becoming understood here as something that will alter many aspects of how Europeans live,

potentially destroy or diminish some parts of the economy, and halt beloved local traditions

such as the summer barbecue, which was banned this year in public spots in parts of Sweden

to reduce the chance of fire.

Across northern Germany, trees, especially saplings, have been hard hit by the drought and

cities have been calling on citizens to help local trees. They have responded by dragging garden

hoses from their houses or sloshing pails of water to nearby trees.

Throughout the Alps but especially in eastern Switzerland and western Austria, as well as in

Ireland, the water shortages have been so severe that there is not enough hay in the pastures to

feed local milk cows. So farmers are having to dip into their winter feed stocks, diminishing

what they will have for their livestock later in the year. In Switzerland, where the herds are led

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to the high pastures in summer to graze, the drought has stranded cows without water. Farmers

have turned to the country’s helicopter association and the Swiss Air Force to transport tens of

thousands of gallons of water every week to keep the herds alive.

In England, as in almost all of Europe, growing patterns are changing. The drought has

increased food prices, and staples may be in short supply this fall. In July, farmers had to fly in

lettuce from overseas to meet contracts with supermarkets. One cargo firm said it flew in

30,000 heads of lettuce from Los Angeles during one hot July weekend alone.

The drought in Ireland means that income for dairy farmers is likely to be cut in half this year,

said Teagasc, the state’s farming advisory body.

Sweden has faced some of the most severe repercussions from the hot weather, starting with

the forest fires that destroyed more than 61,000 acres of timber, according to David Sundström

of the Swedish Contingencies Agency. Wildfires are still burning, although significantly fewer

than when they were at their height.

Oceania

The Walker Circulation is an important atmospheric circulation that controls climate in the

Pacific. Winds blow across the equatorial Pacific from east to west, piling up waters in a region

known as the West Pacific Warm Pool. The large supply of heat and moisture means that this

region experiences considerable rainfall. The Walker Circulation varies due to the El Niño-

Southern Oscillation (ENSO), with weaker winds and drier conditions in the Western Pacific

during El Niño years and stronger winds and wetter conditions during La Niña years. Over

longer timescales, Pacific climate varies in an ENSO-like way due to the Interdecadal Pacific

Oscillation.

Extreme sea levels pose a regular threat to Oceania communities. They are produced by a

combination of tides, seasonal or longer-term fluctuations such as ENSO, and shorter-term

fluctuations such as storm surges and ocean waves. Tropical cyclones produce short-term and

localised storm surges, and long-distance travelling ocean waves. Impacts of these waves

depend upon local conditions. Atolls with steep shelf margins are particularly vulnerable.

The rising sea level contributes to coastal erosion, causing atolls in Tuvalu to be abandoned.

Saltwater intrusion through porous coral has affected taro crops. In the low-lying coastal areas

of Fiji, recent sugar cane crops have been poor due to increasingly saline conditions. The main

island of the Carteret Islands, part of Papua New Guinea, home to more than 1,500 people, was

completely inundated in 2008. Still bodies of water leftover were responsible for malarial

outbreaks. In 2007, the Carteret islanders decided to initiate a migration program to mainland

in Papua New Guinea. Loss of fresh water due to sea level rise and intrusion of saltwater are

the most serious climate-related risks in countries like Kiribati.

In Australia climate change is leading to a rise in the mean sea level, which poses a particular

threat to those low-lying island nations in Oceania, such as atolls, which have no higher ground

as alternative living space. The rise in the mean sea level is directly attributable to two main

effects: thermal expansion of the warming water and the melting of inland ice sheets and

glaciers. This will intensify coastal erosion. Storm surges and waves could cause more damage

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to coastlines, port facilities and exposed infrastructure as early as in the next few decades.

Depending on the topography, it will be necessary in the long term to consider armouring,

elevating or abandoning certain structures. Such adaptations are inevitable and will pose major

challenges to address climate change in Australia.

North America

Within the North American region (defined for the purposes of this report as the portion of

continental North America south of the Arctic Circle and north of the U.S.-Mexico border),

vulnerability to climate change varies significantly from sector to sector and from subregion to

subregion. Recognition of this variability or subregional "texture" is important in

understanding the potential effects of climate change on North America and in formulating

viable response strategies.

Comprising most of Canada and the contiguous United States, this large area is diverse in terms

of its geological, ecological, climatic, and socioeconomic structures. Temperature extremes

range from well below -40o C in northern latitudes during the winter months to greater than

+40o C in southern latitudes during the summer. The regional atmospheric circulation is

governed mainly by upper-level westerly winds and subtropical weather systems, with tropical

storms occasionally impacting on the Gulf of Mexico and Atlantic coasts during summer and

autumn. The Great Plains, including the Canadian Prairies, and the southern-east U.S.

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experience the most severe weather, in the form of thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hail, than

any other region of the world.

Our current understanding of the potential impacts of climate change is limited by critical

uncertainties. One important uncertainty relates to the inadequacy of regional-scale climate

projections relative to the spatial scales of variability in North American natural and human

systems. This uncertainty is compounded further by the uncertainties inherent in ecological,

economic, and social models-which thereby further limit our ability to identify the full extent

of impacts or prescriptive adaptation measures. Given these uncertainties, particularly the

inability to forecast futures, conclusions about regional impacts are not yet reliable and are

limited to the sensitivity and vulnerability of physical, biological, and socioeconomic systems

to climate change and climate variability.

Within most natural and human systems in North America, the current climate, including its

variability is a limiting factor. Climate, however, is only one of many factors that determine

the overall condition of these systems. For example, projected population changes in North

America and associated changes in land use and air and water quality will continue to put

pressure on natural ecosystems. Projected changes in climate should be seen as an additional

factor that can influence the health and existence of these ecosystems.

Virtually, all sectors within North America are vulnerable to climate change to some degree in

some subregions. Although many sectors and regions are sensitive to climate change, the

technological capability to adapt to climate change is readily available, for the most part. If

appropriate adaptation strategies are identified and implemented in a timely fashion, the overall

vulnerability of the region may be reduced. However, uncertainties exist about the feasibility

of implementation and efficacy of technological adaptation.

Even when current adaptive capability has been factored in, long-lived natural forest

ecosystems in the east and interior west; water resources in the southern plains; agriculture in

the southeast and southern plains; human health in areas currently experiencing diminished

urban air quality; northern ecosystems and habitats; estuarine beaches in developed areas; and

low-latitude cold-water fisheries will remain among the most vulnerable sectors and regions.

West coast coniferous forests; some western rangelands; energy costs for heating in the

northern latitudes; salting and snow clearance costs; open-water season in northern channels

and ports; and agriculture in the northern latitudes, the interior west, and west coast may benefit

from opportunities associated with warmer temperatures or potentially from carbon dioxide

(CO2) fertilization.

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North America Wildfires

South America

Climate change is more visible in the Andean region due to increased melting of glaciers, most

extreme climate variability, recurrence of El Niño and La Niña, land degradation and the effects

and potential in the Amazon. According to the Ministry of Agriculture, the glacial area of the

Andes in Peru has dropped by 22% between 1970 and 1997, and the area under glaciers up to

80%, resulting in 12% reductions in the availability of fresh water in the coastal zone where

60% of the population lives.

Progressive changes of climate generate increased pests and declining productivity, mainly

affecting Andean and Amazonian communities. In addition, climate variability determines the

occurrence of extreme weather phenomena such as drought, frost, floods, mudslides and

landslides events represent 71% of total destructive phenomena occurred in the region.

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In Peru, in 2010, about 500 people were affected by frost, according to reports from the

Ministry of Health, most of whom were children under 5 and adults over 60 years. In Peru the

areas of greatest impact of droughts are located in the southern Andean region of the country,

mainly in the departments of Huancavelica, Apurimac, Puno, Arequipa, Moquegua, Tacna and

Cuzco, affecting a population of 3,416,383 inhabitants and 12 960 towns (Census 2007, INEI).

In the case of Bolivia, the departments of Potosí, Oruro, La Paz-South, Chuquisaca,

Cochabamba and Tarija were most affected by drought, while the floods hit Santa Cruz, Beni,

Pando, and north of La Paz. Around 420,000 people were affected by floods in the period 1997-

2007. The number of people affected in 2006-2007 is really great: 560 000 and 618 000 during

the years 2007-2008, equivalent to 6% of the country's population.

The creation and implementation of programs for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate

Change has enabled countries in the region a better understanding of the problem. While some

initiatives have been developed to assess the impact of climate change and promote adaptation

strategies, there is still a general lack of future scenarios and potential adaptation measures at

local levels. The analysis and evaluation of the impact of climate change are not integral to the

extent that simply assess local or sectoral impacts without enough interrelate. The so-called

adaptation strategies have also been articulated to large investment projects, to watershed

management strategies and policies for poverty reduction.

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Arctic

The Arctic Ocean's blanket of sea ice has changed since 1958 from predominantly older, thicker

ice to mostly younger, thinner ice. Working from a combination of satellite records and

declassified submarine sonar data, NASA scientists have constructed a 60-year record of Arctic

sea ice thickness. Right now, Arctic sea ice is the youngest and thinnest it’s been since we

started keeping records. More than 70% of Arctic sea ice is now seasonal, which means it grows

in the winter and melts in the summer, but doesn't last from year to year. This seasonal ice

melts faster and breaks up easier, making it much more susceptible to wind and atmospheric

conditions.

It was found that since 1958, Arctic ice cover has lost about two-thirds of its thickness, as

averaged across the Arctic at the end of summer. Older ice has shrunk in area by almost 800,000

square miles (more than 2 million square kilometres).

The ice's vulnerability may also be demonstrated by the increased variation in Arctic sea ice

thickness and extent from year to year over the last decade. In the past, sea ice rarely melted in

the Arctic Ocean. Each year, some multiyear ice flowed out of the ocean into the East

Greenland Sea and melted there, and some ice grew thick enough to survive the melt season

and become multiyear ice. As air temperatures in the polar regions have warmed in recent

decades, large amounts of multiyear ice now melt within the Arctic Ocean itself. Far less

seasonal ice now thickens enough over the winter to survive the summer. As a result, not only

is there less ice overall, but the proportions of multiyear ice to seasonal ice have also changed

in favour of the young ice.

Arctic sea ice reaches its minimum each September. September Arctic sea ice is now declining

at a rate of 12.8% per decade, in comparison to the 1981 - 2010 average.

Antarctica

Although the impact of climate change and the Arctic are discussed often in the media, climate

change in the Antarctic is comparatively neglected, or reported misleadingly. The West

Antarctic Peninsula is one of the fastest warming areas on Earth, with only some areas of the

Arctic Circle experiencing faster rising temperatures. However, since Antarctica is a big place,

climate change is not having a uniform impact, with some areas experiencing increases in sea

ice extent. Yet in others, sea ice is decreasing, with measurable impacts on wildlife.

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Local Antarctic effects of climate change are only part of the problem. Antarctica comprises

two geologically distinct regions, East Antarctica and West Antarctica, separated by the great

Trans-Antarctic Mountains but joined together by the all-encompassing ice sheet. The presence

of the high ice sheet and the polar location make Antarctica a powerful heat sink that strongly

affects the climate of the whole Earth. Furthermore, the annual sea ice cover around the

continent, which seasonally reaches an area greater than that of the continent itself, modulates

exchanges of heat, moisture, and gases between the atmosphere and ocean and, through salt

rejection when it freezes, forces the formation of cold oceanic bottom waters that spread out

under the world’s oceans. Alterations to this system might affect climate all over the planet.

Nevertheless, the Antarctic is so vast, remote, difficult to monitor, and the physical behavior

of the ice sheet so complex, that there is no definitive demonstration (or disproof) of such

change, even though a pronounced climatic warming is ongoing in one northerly portion of the

continent.

Antarctic species are dramatically impacted by climate as well. Krill often feed on algae

underneath sea ice and populations have been declining around the West Antarctic Peninsula

as sea ice has decreased. Adélie penguin populations have been declining in recent years due

to reductions in krill populations and changing weather conditions in their traditional nesting

areas. Emperor penguins are highly vulnerable as well and are predicted to suffer when the

world's average temperature increases by 2 degrees Celsius. Furthermore, a 2008 study has

additionally identified Antarctic toothfish as highly vulnerable to climate change. Climate

change in Antarctica will thus have dramatic effects both globally and locally - and perhaps

harm some of the world's most beloved species.

Climate Change conventions and Protocols

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is a framework

for intergovernmental efforts to tackle climate change. It was created at the United Nations

Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known at the Earth Summit, in

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Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. The Convention sets an overall framework for efforts by

governments to tackle the challenges posed by climate change. It entered into force on 21st

March 1994.

Countries that have ratified the treaty are referred to as “Parties to the Convention”. There is

almost near universal membership with 195 Parties to the Convention (194 individual states,

including individual members of the European Union – the European Union is also a separate

Party). The Holy See holds observer status. Since the UNFCCC came into force, the Parties

have been meeting annually in Conferences of the Parties (COP) to assess progress in dealing

with climate change and to agree action that should be taken.

Kyoto Protocol

In the mid-1990s, the UNFCCC signatories realised that stronger provisions were needed to

reduce emissions. In 1997, they agreed the Kyoto Protocol, which introduced legally binding

emission reduction targets for developed countries.

The second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol began on 1 January 2013 and will end

in 2020. 38 developed countries, including the EU and its 28 member states, are participating.

This second period is covered by the Doha amendment, under which participating countries

have committed to reducing emissions by at least 18% below 1990 levels. The EU has

committed to reducing emissions in this period to 20% below 1990 levels.

The main weakness of the Kyoto Protocol is that it only requires developed countries to take

action. As the United States has never signed up to the Kyoto Protocol, Canada pulled out

before the end of the first commitment period and Russia, Japan and New Zealand are not

taking part in the second commitment period, it also only now applies to around 14% of the

world's emissions. However, more than 70 developing and developed countries have made

various non-binding commitments to reduce or limit their greenhouse gas emissions.

On 13 July 2015, the Council adopted a decision enabling the EU to ratify the Doha amendment

establishing the second commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol.

Paris Agreement

The Paris climate conference took place from 30 November to 11 December 2015. On 12

December, the parties reached a new global agreement on climate change. The agreement

presents a balanced outcome with an action plan to limit global warming 'well below' 2°C. The

Paris Agreement entered into force 4 November 2016 after the conditions for ratification by at

least 55 countries accounting for at least 55% of global greenhouse gas emissions were met.

All EU Countries ratified the agreement.

Current State

Climate change is now affecting every country on every continent. It is disrupting national

economies and affecting lives, costing people, communities and countries dearly today and

even more tomorrow. Weather patterns are changing, sea levels are rising, weather events are

becoming more extreme and greenhouse gas emissions are now at their highest levels in

history. Without action, the world’s average surface temperature is likely to surpass 3 degrees

Celsius within this century. The poorest and most vulnerable people are being affected the

most.

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Affordable, scalable solutions are now available to enable countries to leapfrog to cleaner, more

resilient economies. The pace of change is quickening as more people are turning to renewable

energy and a range of other measures that will reduce emissions and increase adaptation efforts.

Climate change, however, is a global challenge that does not respect national borders. It is an

issue that requires solutions that need to be coordinated at the international level to help

developing countries move toward a low-carbon economy.

To strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change, countries adopted the Paris

Agreement at the COP21 in Paris, which went into force in November of 2016. In the

agreement, all countries agreed to work to limit global temperature rise to well below 2 degrees

centigrade. As of April 2018, 175 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement and 10 developing

countries had submitted their first iteration of their national adaptation plans for responding to

climate change.

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Possible Solutions

Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions:

Widespread deployment of energy efficiency and renewable energy systems at all Antarctic

stations, coordination of transport and logistics strategic planning about new facilities

(necessity, location and design) can bring about regional and global environmental benefits as

well as cost savings. Given that Antarctica is one of the regions of the world where the impacts

of climate change are most apparent and pronounced, Antarctic Treaty Parties should lead by

example in the global effort in addressing climate change.

Implementation of climate adaptation strategies:

Strategies for reducing the vulnerability of climate sensitive ecosystems and organisms will be

increasingly important as the rapid changes underway may exceed the natural abilities of many

Antarctic organisms to cope. Strategies to increase the resilience of ecosystems include:

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establishing a representative network of marine protected areas, protecting areas which are less

likely to change (refugia), such as the Ross Sea; implementing appropriate biosecurity

measures; putting into place adaptive management systems which are able to incorporate

uncertainty and to respond to new information, for example through the expansion and

improvement of CCAMLR’s Ecosystem Monitoring Program (CEMP) and the establishment

of a Southern Ocean Sentinel program.

Promotion of globally important climate science:

ASOC acknowledges and supports the world-class climate research conducted by Antarctic

researchers. We support the continued timely dissemination of these findings to policy makers

and the world population in general. At the same time, we underline the importance of leading

by example by minimizing the climate impacts of research and logistic activities through

reducing greenhouse gas emissions wherever possible. The Scientific Committee on Antarctic

Research has recently compiled an excellent report, Antarctic Climate Change and the

Environment, summarizing the science on Antarctic climate change.

Designation of marine protected areas:

Protecting large areas from fishing and pollution will provide refuges for vulnerable species

whose habitat may be changing dramatically. The Ross Sea, an area that is expected to warm

more slowly than the rest of the Antarctic, is a particularly important area for focus.

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Questions A Resolution Must Answer

1. What are the current frameworks present to counter Climate change? Are these

frameworks adequate? Can these be strengthened? Is there a necessity for a new

universal framework?

2. How should accountability for Climate Change be proposed? Should penalties

be a part of such a proposal? How can this be legally enforced?

3. How can the huge investments necessary for cleaning up the environment be

met? Should there be a mandatory contribution from each country to encourage

shared responsibility?

4. What severe measures can be taken to prevent further accumulation of waste in

the oceans? Considering the ramifications, should plastic be banned? What

alternatives to plastic can be promoted?

5. What regional efforts are necessary to address the pressing issue? How can this

be promoted or encouraged?

6. Should there be a provision of an advisory body to help enlist plan of action and

initiate bilateral & multilateral assistance for countering Climate Change? If

yes, would this be financially feasible? Would the cost benefit ratio be well

worth it?

7. Should either the adaptation or mitigation strategies be emphasized or both

should get equal importance?

Some Recommended Sources of research

1. UN Websites

2. Credible News agencies such as:

a) BBC World

b) CNN

c) Reuters

d) AP

e) New York Times

f) Washington Post

3. Websites of other international agencies

4. For information specific to a country, the national news agency of that country can be

used.

Note: Wikipedia is not allowed as a source of information under any circumstances

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References:

1. https://unhabitat.org/un-habitat-at-a-glance/

2. https://unhabitat.org/books/adaptation-and-mitigation-strategy-for-climate-change-

for-the-canton-of-esmeraldas/

3. https://www.unenvironment.org/explore-topics/climate-change/what-we-

do/mitigation

4. https://climate.nasa.gov/solutions/adaptation-mitigation/

5. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2817/with-thick-ice-gone-arctic-sea-ice-changes-more-

slowly/

6. http://www.fao.org/docrep/016/i2855e/i2855e.pdf

7. http://www.fao.org/americas/prioridades/cambio-climatico/en/

8. https://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/syr/en/spms4.html

9. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/regional/index.php?idp=174

10. www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/regional/index.php?idp=123

11. https://adaptation-undp.org/explore/south-america

12. http://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2016/07/18/america-latina-llego-hora-

adaptarse-calentamiento-global

13. https://www.seas.harvard.edu/content/from-sea-to-rising-sea-climate-change-in-

america

14. https://unfccc.int/news/climate-change-danger-to-south-asias-economy

15. https://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/fandd/2018/09/southeast-asia-climate-change-

and-greenhouse-gas-emissions-prakash.htm

16. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2018/06/05/the-challenging-face-of-

climate-change-in-central-asia

17. https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediaaction/where-we-work/asia/climate-asia

18. https://www.adb.org/news/infographics/climate-change-asia-and-pacific

19. https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-46360212

20. http://www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/Climate-change

21. http://www.who.int/globalchange/resources/vulnerability_adaptation/case_studies/oce

ania/en/

22. https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2749/ramp-up-in-antarctic-ice-loss-speeds-sea-level-

rise/

23. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine/may-july-2017/africa-feeling-heat-

climate-change

24. https://www.unenvironment.org/regions/africa/regional-initiatives/responding-

climate-change

25. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-africa-climatechange-cities/fast-growing-african-

cities-at-extreme-risk-from-climate-change-analysts-idUSKCN1NJ00F