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Announcements

TAs will go over lab experiments today. Kits distributed Friday.

I will not be taking individual student questions after class at the front of the room on Mondays and Wednesdays. Please see me during office hours.

If you did not get assigned to an assignment group, you may go in whichever group you like.

Note taker is still needed for two students. If you would be interested, please see or email me. You will receive recognition for your efforts from the DRC.

Review Question: A greenhouse gas is called that because____________________

A) It mainly reflects and scatters shortwave radiation

B) It mainly absorbs and emits shortwave radiation

C) It mainly reflects and scatters longwave radiation

D) It mainly absorbs and emits longwave radiation

E) All of the above

Survey Question: In June, in which direction will the sun set in Tucson, AZ?

A) Southwest

B) West

C) Northwest

Summary of Lecture 6

Radiation in the atmosphere has four possible fates: transmitted, reflected, scattered, or absorbed. A perfect absorber and emitter of radiation is called a blackbody.

The atmosphere selectively reflects, scatters and absorbs radiation at certain wavelengths, which depend on the specific gas constituents.

Absorbed radiation increases the internal energy by changes on the molecular and atomic level. Terrestrial radiation is associated with translational, rotational, and vibrational energy transitions on the molecular level. Solar radiation is associated with electronic energy transitions on the atomic level.

Greenhouse gases are those which absorb and emit very effectively in the infrared, like water and CO2. Because of them the atmosphere is very opaque to terrestrial radiation and the Earth’s surface temperature is maintained. Reviewed the atmospheric energy budget to prove the point.

Though the atmosphere is fairly transparent to solar radiation, scattering and reflection of solar radiation is important. Scattering of visible light is why the sky is blue!

NATS 101 Section 4: Lecture 7

The Seasons

The Importance of Seasons

The seasons govern both natural and human patterns of behavior. Some big and small examples:

Planting and harvesting of crops

Migratory patterns of animals

Deciduous trees

Types of sports

What kinds of clothes you wear

Where you go on vacation

Human beings throughout the world figured out a long time ago that

seasons were related to astronomical changes they consistently observed—

and this became a central theme in many cultures

Stonehenge, on the Salisbury Plain in southern England, is essentially an astronomical observatory, build thousands of years ago to detect the first day of summer. We’ll see how it works a bit later…

So what causes the seasons?

To answer that, first we have to understand some astronomical

characteristics of the Earth’s orbit around the Sun.

Three orbital parameters of the Earth

Eccentricity

Precession

Obliquity

Which one is responsible for the occurrence of the seasons?

Eccentricity: Elliptical character of orbit

The Earth has an elliptical orbit around the Sun (not circular)

Earth actually gets 7% MORE solar radiation in January than July! So this cannot possibly explain why July could be warmer (at least in our part of the world)….

APHELIONPERIHELION

So the reason it gets warmer in summer is NOT because the

Earth is closer to the sun!

Is this really

a popular belief out there?

Precession: Change in Time of Perihelion and Aphelion

PRESENT DAY

ABOUT 11,000 YEARS

IN THE FUTURE

Position of perihelion and aphelion reverse

APHELION

APHELION

PERIHELION

PERIHELION

Obliquity: Tilt of the Earth with respect to its orbital plane

SOUTH POLE

NORTH POLE

23.5° Angle of tilt

Orbital Plane

As the Earth rotates around the sun, it’s axis of rotation is tilted at an angle of 23.5°. This is the factor that is responsible for the seasons.

EQUATOR

SO

LA

R R

AD

IAT

ION

SO

LA

R R

AD

IAT

ION

Interesting aside:The Moon is the obliquity “stabilizer”

The gravitational presence of the moon helps maintain the Earth’s obliquity at a fairly constant angle. With out it, the obliquity would vary wildly, wreaking havoc on Earth’s climate!

Subject of a documentary program entitled “What if the Earth Had no Moon?”, narrated by Patrick Stewart (a.k.a. Captain Jean-Luc Picard)

The Zenith Angle

Intensity of solar energy depends the angle it strikes the earth. This is called the zenith angle.

Solar beam perpendicular = Zenith angle is zero Solar energy most intense

Solar beam tilted = Large zenith angleSolar energy weaker

Zero zenith angle

Zero zenith angle

Large zenith angleLarge zenith angle

Zenith angle and atmospheric attenuation of solar energy

The presence of the Earth’s atmosphere also weakens the amount of incoming solar radiation.

If the zenith angle is large, the solar beam has to pass through more atmosphere to reach the surface

So more absorption and scattering of solar radiation.

Large zenith angleLarge zenith angleSun low in the skySun low in the skyLonger beam pathLonger beam path

Zero zenith angle Zero zenith angle Sun directly overheadSun directly overhead

Shortest beam pathShortest beam path

Obliquity and Seasonal Cycle

The variation in the amount of solar radiation through the year due to the obliquity of the Earth is what causes the seasons. Two ways this occurs:

1. Change in the zenith angle2. Change in the length of day

Lutgens & Tarbuck, p33

Seasonal Change in Day Length

Winter solsticeNorthern Hemisphere

Summer solsticeSouthern Hemisphere

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN: 23.5°SSun directly over head

ARCTIC CIRCLE: 66.5°N Limit of permanent darkness

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE: 66.5°SLimit of permanent sunlight

Around December 21

Summer SolsticeNorthern Hemisphere

Winter SolsticeSouthern Hemisphere

ARCTIC CIRCLE: 66.5°NLimit of permanent sunlight

TROPIC OF CANCER: 23.5°NSun directly over head

ANTARCTIC CIRCLE: 66.5°SLimit of permanent darkness

Around June 21

Alaska: Land of the Midnight Sun

MIDNIGHTMIDNIGHTSUN LOWEST IN SKYSUN LOWEST IN SKY

DUE NORTHDUE NORTH

EquinoxAutumn: Summer to WinterSpring: Winter to Summer

Day and night are each equal to 12 hours at every point on Earth.

EQUATOR: 0°Sun directly over head

Autumn equinox: September 22

Spring equinox: March 20

Danielson et al., p75

The farther you are away from the tropics (23.5°S to 23.5°N), the lower in the sky the Sun will be.

The figure here is for the Northern hemisphere. Flip the image and you’ll get what happens in the Southern Hemisphere.

For Tucson (~32° N):

Summer solstice: Day length: 14 hours Zenith angle: 8°Winter solstice: Day length: 10 hours Zenith angle: 55°

SUMMER SOLSTICE PATH

Sun rises dueNortheast

Sun sets dueSouthwest

EQUINOX PATHSun rises due East

Sun sets due West

WINTER SOLSTICE PATHSun rises

due Southeast

Sun sets due Southwest

SUN ALWAYS TO THE SOUTH AT SOLAR NOON ALL YEAR

Now let’s see how Stonehenge is actually an ancient

astronomical observatory…

Stonehenge Aoteoroa in New Zealand on Dec. 21http://www.southernskyphoto.com/planet_earthPhoto by C.J. Picking

Stonehenge and the summer solstice

BBC image

Considering all the concepts we’ve discussed today, let’s get a brief

preview of how this understanding helps us to understand

weather and climate.

Because of the variation in zenith angle through the year and with latitude, amount of solar energy absorbed at the top of the atmosphere varies….

Lutgens & Tarbuck, p51

This means there is an imbalance of incoming vs. outgoing radiation.

Summer hemisphere has a net surplus of radiation

Winter hemisphere has a net deficit of radiation.

Earth’s Net Radiation Balance

The equator doesn’t keep getting warmer and warmer.

The high latitudes don’t keeping getting colder and colder.

Therefore there must be ways that heat is transferred from equator to pole.

Summary of Lecture 7

The three orbital parameters of the Earth are the eccentricity, precession, and obliquity. Most relevant to the discussion of the seasons is the obliquity, or tilt of the Earth with respect to its orbital plane (at 23.5°).

The intensity of solar energy depends on the zenith angle. If the sun is directly overhead the zenith angle is equal to zero and the solar energy is most intense.

Solar energy is further attenuated at high zenith angles due to the fact that the solar bean has more atmosphere to pass through.

Earth’s obliquity causes variation in solar radiation by changes in the zenith angle and length of day through the year—and thus is the cause of the seasons.

Special latitudes are associated with the solstices and equinoxes. Know what these special latitudes are and what they physically mean. Know dates when the solstices and equinoxes occur.

Reading Assignment and Review Questions

Ahrens, Chapter 3, pp. 63-82 (8th ed.)

pp. 65-84 (9th ed.)

Chapter 3 Questions

Questions for Review: 1,2,3,4,5

Questions for Thought: 1,2,3,4,5

Problems and Exercises: 3