tropical montane cloud forests: a challenge for conservationbft.cirad.fr/cd/bft_274_19-31.pdf · en...

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Photo 2. Henri Pittier National Park, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann.

Many challenges need to be overcome to ensure thesustainable management and conservation of cloud forests. However, varioussuccessful conservation and sustainable use projects illustrate the potential of arange of approaches to conserve these forests. Furthermore, networks and initiativespromote their conservation. Much hope is placed in the International Year of theMountain and Rio +10 to conserve the cloud forests that still remain.

Silvia HostettlerÉcole polytechnique fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL)Faculté environnement naturel,architectural et construitInstitut du développement territorialNCCR North-South (IP5)BP 2 234, EcublensCH-1015 LausanneSwitzerland

Tropical montane cloudforests: a challenge

for conservation

RÉSUMÉ

FORÊTS TROPICALESNÉPHÉLIPHILES DE MONTAGNE : UN DÉFI POUR LA CONSERVATION

Les forêts tropicales néphéliphiles demontagne ont été identifiées sur 736sites, dans 59 pays. Leur importanceest reconnue pour la survie des popu-lations locales, en termes de protec-tion des bassins-versants et d’ali-mentation en eau. Ces forêts sontune source majeure de produitsforestiers non ligneux et un habitatvital pour de nombreuses espècesendémiques. Toutefois, depuis vingtans, on constate un déclin rapide deces forêts. Localement, elles sont gra-vement menacées par le déboise-ment et le mitage consécutifs à lapression démographique, à l’exploi-tation non viable et aux pratiques degestion inadaptées. Des pressionsexternes comme l’extraction minière,la construction de routes, la pollutionatmosphérique et le réchauffementclimatique exacerbent ces problèmes.La conversion vers d’autres usagesaffecte la qualité des eaux, et peutfortement réduire en aval la disponi-bilité en eau. La conservation et lagestion durable de ces forêts se heur-tent à la pression démographique, laméconnaissance de leur valeur et aumanque de données fiables, d’aidesfinancières et de volonté politique.Cependant, le succès de projetsde conservation et d’exploitationdurable illustre la pertinence d’unéventail d’approches. Par ailleurs,des réseaux et des initiatives àdiverses échelles favorisent laconservation de ces forêts. On espèreque l’année internationale de la mon-tagne et le sommet Rio + 10 vont inci-ter les bailleurs de fonds, les gouver-nements, les entreprises, les ONG etles communautés locales à conserverles forêts néphéliphiles qui n’ont pasdisparu.

Mots-clés : forêt tropicale néphéli-phile de montagne, eau, diversité bio-logique, gestion, conservation.

ABSTRACT

TROPICAL MONTANE CLOUDFORESTS: A CHALLENGE FORCONSERVATION

Tropical montane cloud forests(TMCF) have been identified in 736sites in 59 countries. The importantrole of TMCF in sustaining the liveli-hoods of local populations by pro-tecting watersheds and sustainingunpolluted freshwater sources hasbeen generally recognised. Cloudforests are important sources of non-timber forest products and are anessential habitat for many endemicand threatened plant and animalspecies. During the past 20 years,cloud forests worldwide have beendisappearing rapidly. They are facingconsiderable localised threats fromclearance and further fragmentation,as a result of population pressure,unsustainable harvesting and poormanagement practices. External pres-sures such as mining, road building,air pollution and global warming fur-ther exacerbate the problem. Con-verting TMCF to other uses almostinvariably affects water quality, andmay significantly reduce water avail-ability further downstream. Sustain-able management and conservationof cloud forests faces many chal-lenges including population pressure,poor awareness of their value and thelack of reliable information, politicalwill and donor assistance. However,various successful conservation andsustainable use projects illustrate thepotential of a range of approaches tocloud forest conservation. Further-more, networks and initiatives arepromoting cloud forest conservationat local, national, regional and globallevels. Much hope is being placed inthe International Year of the Moun-tain and Rio +10 to raise awarenessand encourage donors, governments,businesses, NGO’s and local commu-nities to conserve the cloud foreststhat still remain.

Keywords: cloud forest, mountain,water, biodiversity, management,conservation.

RESUMEN

BOSQUES NUBLADOS TROPICALESDE MONTAÑA: UN RETO PARA LACONSERVACIÓN

Se identificaron bosques nubladostropicales de montaña en 736 zonasde 59 países. Es sabida la importan-cia que tienen para la supervivenciade las poblaciones locales, en cuantoa la protección de las cuencas hidro-gráficas y de alimentación de agua.Estos bosques constituyen unafuente principal de productos foresta-les no leñosos y un hábitat vital paranumerosas especies endémicas. Noobstante, desde hace veinte años seobserva una decadencia rápida deestos bosques. Localmente, estánamenazados seriamente por la defo-restación y la parcelación que sonconsecuencia de la presión demográ-fica, la explotación no viable y prácti-cas de manejo inadaptadas. Las pre-siones externas como la extracciónminera, la construcción de carreteras,la contaminación atmosférica y elrecalentamiento climático incremen-tan estos problemas. La conversiónhacia otros usos afecta la calidad delas aguas y puede reducir mucho ladisponibilidad hídrica aguas abajo.La conservación y el manejo sosteni-ble de estos bosques chocan con lapresión demográfica, el desconoci-miento de su valor y con la falta dedatos fiables, ayudas financieras yvoluntad política. Sin embargo, eléxito de proyectos de conservación yexplotación sostenible ponen demanifiesto la adecuación de una seriede enfoques. Por otra parte, redes einiciativas a distintas escalas favore-cen la conservación de estos bos-ques. Se ha puesto mucha esperanzaen el año internacional de la montañay la cumbre Río + 10 para concientizary motivar a los donantes, gobiernos,empresas, ONGs y las comunidadeslocales a conservar los bosquesnublados que aún existen.

Palabras clave: bosque nublado tro-pical de montaña, agua, diversidadbiológica, manejo, conservación.

20 B O I S E T F O R Ê T S D E S T R O P I Q U E S , 2 0 0 2 , N ° 2 7 4 ( 4 )

MONTANE FORESTS / CONSERVATIONDOSSIER

Silvia Hostettler

The important role of tropicalmontane cloud forests (TMCF) in sus-taining the livelihoods of local popula-tions by protecting watersheds andsustaining unpolluted freshwatersources has been generally recog-nised. Whilst all mountain forests helpregulate the flow of rivers from theirheadwaters, cloud forests are uniqueas they intercept wind-driven cloudmoisture on leaves, branches and epi-phytes, which then drips to theground. This “cloud stripping” phe-nomenon is generally equivalent to15-20 percent of ordinary rainfall, butcan reach 50-60 percent in moreexposed conditions. Tropical montanecloud forests are known in many lan-guages as unique vegetation systemsthrough names such as cloud forests,mist forests, elfin forests, mossforests, Nebelwald, forêt néphéliphile,matinha nebular, unmu-rin and manyothers. In Africa, cloud forests formpart of the Afromontane forest type,although the term “cloud forest” israrely used. In the Gulf of Aden, low-elevation cloud forest is described asmist forest. In South East Asia, cloudforests are commonly equivalent tothe term “upper montane rain forest”,although in Malaysia and thePhilippines they are also described asmoss forest (Aldrich et al., 2001).

TMCFs have been disappearingrapidly in recent decades because theuse of forest resources is increasinglydriven by the immediate benefits tobe derived from them. The growinginterest in tropical montane cloudforests today is largely due to theuntiring efforts of Professor LawrenceS. Hamilton, Vice Chair of the WorldCommission on Protected Areas forMountains of IUCN – The WorldConservation Union. Prof. Hamiltonhas stressed the hydrological andecological importance of cloudforests for many years. This paperexplains the role of cloud forests inwatershed management and the con-servation of biological diversity. It dis-cusses some of the socio-economicissues at stake in cloud forest man-agement. A few examples of cloudforest conservation and sustainableuse projects are given, together withan overview of major initiatives aimedat cloud forest conservation.

Defining cloudforests

Cloud forests typically occurbetween 1 500 m and 3 000 m abovesea level, usually within an altituderange of about 300 m. Cloud forestshave been broadly defined as “foreststhat are frequently covered in cloudor mist” (Hamilton, 1995) (photo 1).However, the definition of cloudforests is controversial, as it is diffi-cult to make a useful distinctionbetween true “cloud forest” and moregeneral montane rain forest. Themain reasons are the scarcity of accu-rate data on the duration of cloudcover and the actual inputs of mois-ture from interception of horizontalcloud precipitation, and the tendencyto use the term “cloud forest” todescribe any montane forests that aresometimes observed to have cloudcover.

During the first international“Tropical Cloud Forest Symposium” inPuerto Rico in 1993, organised byProf. Hamilton, the following workingdefinition was developed by scientistsand conservation professionals: Thetropical montane cloud forest is com-posed of forest ecosystems of distinc-tive floristic and structured form. Ittypically occurs as a relatively narrowaltitudinal zone where the atmos-pheric environment is characterisedby persistent, frequent or seasonalcloud cover at the vegetation level.Enveloping cloud or wind-drivenclouds influence atmospheric interac-tion through reduced solar radiationand vapour deficit, canopy wetting,and general suppression of evapo-transpiration. The net precipitation(throughfall) is significantly enhanced(beyond rainfall contribution) throughdirect canopy interception of cloudwater (horizontal precipitation orcloud stripping) and low water use bythe vegetation. In comparison with

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Photo 1. View of a tepui ringed with cloud forest, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann.

Introduction “Hach Akyum, dios de todos los dioses, creó el cielo y la selva.En el cielo sembró estrellas y en la selva sembró árboles, son una sola las raíces de los árboles y las raíces de las estrellas…Por eso, cuando cae un árbol cae una estrella.”Chan K’in viejo (1900-1996), traditional leader of the Hach Winik, Chiapas, Mexico.

lower latitude tropical moist forest,the stand characteristics generallyinclude reduced tree stature andincreased stem density. Canopy treesusually exhibit gnarled trunks andbranches, dense compact crowns andsmall, thick, hard (sclerophyllous)

leaves. TMCF is also characterised byhaving a high proportion of biomassas epiphytes (bryophytes, lichens andfilmy ferns) and a correspondinglylower proportion of woody climbers.Soils are wet and frequently water-logged, with a high organic content in

the form of humus and peat (his-tosols). Biodiversity in terms of treespecies, herbs, shrubs and epiphytescan be relatively high (considering thesmall extent of each area) when com-pared with lowland rain forests thatare rich in tree species. Endemism isoften very high. TMCF occurs on aglobal scale within a wide range ofannual and seasonal rainfall regimes(i.e. 500-10 000 mm/year). There isalso significant variation in the altitu-dinal position of this mountain vege-tation belt. For large, inland mountainsystems, TMCF may typically be foundbetween 2 000-3 500 m (Andes,Ruwenzori), whereas in coastal andinsular mountains this zone maydescend to 1 000 m (Hawaii). Underexceptionally humid marine equato-rial conditions, a TMCF zone maydevelop on small, steep island moun-tains at elevations as low as 500 m oreven lower (Micronesia and Gau inFiji) (Hamilton et al., 1993).



Map 1. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in Africa.Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC.

Table I.Occurrence of cloud forests.Total number of tropical montane cloud forest (TMCF) sites per region, with thenumber of sites protected.

Region Total number Total number Total number of TMCF of countries of TMCF sites sites with protection

Asia 15 230 115

Africa 21 97 38

Mesoamerica / Caribbean 13 218 98

South America 6 160 76

Pacific/Oceania 4 31 n.a.

World Total 59 736 > 327

Source: Aldrich et al., 1997; Chaverri, 2001; Hamilton, 1993

Occurrence of cloudforests

Worldwide, a total of 736 cloudforest sites have been identified in 59countries by the World ConservationMonitoring Centre (WCMC, 1997),Hamilton et al. (1993) and Chaverri(2001) (table I, map 1-3). 378 sites arefound in Latin America and theCaribbean, mainly in Venezuela (pho-to 2), Mexico, Ecuador and Colombia.In South East Asia and the Pacific-Oceania region, 261 sites have beenidentified, principally in Indonesiaand Malaysia. In Africa, 97 sites havebeen recorded in 21 countries. In the1970s, it was estimated that cloudforests covered 500 000 km2, a fourthof the montane and submontane for-est or 11 percent of all tropical forests.The area covered by the remainingcloud forests today is unknown(Bruijnzeel, 2000).

Importance ofcloud forests Hydrological value

While the importance of the addi-tional water input from cloud forests isundisputed, it has been very difficultto quantify. In reality, little is knownabout the effect on down-stream wateryield of cloud forest conversion to cat-tle pasture or other land uses.However, research results indicatethat water yields for a given amount ofrainfall from cloud forested headwaterareas tend to be higher than stream-flow emanating from montane forestsnot affected by fog and low cloud. Inaddition, flows from cloud forest areasseem to be more stable during periodsof low rainfall. Therefore, there is goodreason to believe that convertingcloud forests to other land uses could

result in significant declines in overalland dry season flows. (Brown et al.,1996; Bruijnzeel, 2000; Bruijnzeel,Proctor, 1993; Stadtmueller, 1987).In 2001, the Forestry ResearchProgramme of the Department forInternational Development in theUnited Kingdom decided to fund along-term study of the effects on waterflows and quality of land-use changesin water catchment basins with signifi-cant cloud forest cover. In parallel,socio-economic research has been ini-tiated to identify mechanisms fordownstream users to compensateupstream land-managers for sustain-able watershed management.

In many parts of the world, peo-ple and industries depend on thefreshwater flowing from the cloudforests (photo 3). For example, thecloud forests in La Tigra National Parkin Honduras sustain high-quality


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Map 2. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in Latin America and the Pacific.Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC.

water flow throughout the year, pro-viding over 40% of their water supplyto the 850 000 people in the capitalcity, Tegucigalpa. In Africa, the 2.5million people in the Tanzanian capi-tal of Dar es Salaam rely on drinkingwater from the Ulugura mountainsand for hydroelectric power from thecloud forests of the Udzungwa moun-tains. Other capitals supplied by

cloud forest water include Quito andPanama City (Aldrich et al., 2001). Inthe Sierra de las Minas BiosphereReserve, 63 permanent rivers drainthe area, making it Guatemala’sbiggest single water resource andproviding water to the 37 industriesin the semi-arid Motagua valley(Brown et al., 1996).

Mist forests in ar id andsemi-ar id regions

Interception of moisture fromclouds is especially important in aridand semi-arid regions, where watersources are few and unreliable (pho-to 4). However, their contribution towater availability for urban and ruralpeople, livestock and crops remainsunrecognised in most cases andneeds to be further investigated.There are few practical experiences ofthe conservation of cloud forests andtheir management for water supplies,especially in semi-arid areas in Africa.

In the arid coastal areas of Peru,Chile, Ecuador, Cap Verde and Omanwith few or no trees, artificial fog col-lectors have been constructed whereclouds may be intercepted. Fog col-lectors are built in the form of verticalmesh panels. The largest project todate has provided up to 11 000 litresof water per day to a village of 330

Photo 3. Water from Henri Pittier National Park (Venezuela) supplies the villages of Uraca,Puerto Colombia and numerous smaller communities with freshwater. Photo T. Hartmann.



Map 3. Cloud forest sites and montane forest in South East Asia.Data source: UNEP-WCMC. Reproduction authorized by UNEP-WCMC.

people in the arid coastal desert ofnorthern Chile. In some areas, col-lected fog water has been used toreforest such areas to restore thisvaluable hydrological function(Schemenauer, Cereceda, 1994).

Cloud forest biodiversity

Cloud forests make up an essen-tial habitat for many endemic andthreatened plant and animal species.They provide a wide range of goodsand services for local communitiesand strong cultural values areattached to them. TMCF provide aunique habitat for species such astree ferns, bromeliads and many rareand endemic orchids, as well as several important tree species.Economically valuable plants fromcloud forest habitats include wild rel-atives of strawberries, raspberries,blueberries and some bean species.Quinine is extracted from the bark ofthe cinchona tree, an Ecuadoriancloud forest tree species. Much of theknowledge on cloud forest speciesand their uses resides in the indige-nous communities that have lived formany years in or adjacent to cloudforests. Cloud forest plant species areused for instance for medicines, cos-metics, birth control, stimulants andornaments. (Aldrich et al., 2001).Researchers in the Monteverde CloudForest Reserve are presently investi-gating cloud forest plants that mayyield useful medical or commercialchemicals for the future.

A biodiversity project report byBirdLife International showed that400 of the world’s 1 200 threatenedbird species are associated with trop-ical montane forests. Similarly, theWWF Global 200 Priority Ecoregionsfor conservation action include90 percent of the TMCF sites knownto date. The resplendent quetzal(Pharomachrus mocinno) of CentralAmerica is now virtually restricted toa few cloud forest “islands” on sepa-rate mountains. Species such as themountain gorilla (Gorilla gorillaberingei) in Central/East Africa andthe spectacled bear (Tremarctos orna-

tus) in the Andes are specific to cloudforest environments. They are flag-ship species for cloud forest conser-vation and sustain many ecotourismventures (Aldrich et al., 2001).

Threats

Cattle and crops areencroaching on cloud forests

Over the past 20 years, cloudforests worldwide have been disap-pearing at nearly twice the rate ofaverage global deforestation. Thistrend has been recognised by the UNIntergovernmental Forum on Forests,which stated that “cloud forests areof particular concern” in soil andwatershed protection and in the con-servation of biological diversity inenvironmentally critical areas(Aldrich et al., 2001). There are manycauses of cloud forest disappearanceand degradation. Worldwide, thegreatest losses come from their con-version to grazing land. When cloudforests are cleared for timber, cattleor crops, the loss of their “cloud strip-ping” capacity diminishes the wateryields available for domestic use andirrigation. At the same time, erosionof topsoil causes sedimentation in

rivers, blocking up lakes and reser-voirs. Despite this, cloud forests con-tinue to be cleared for new farmingland as population pressure growsand existing farmland becomesimpoverished. Other regionallyimportant causes for cloud forest lossinclude: conversion to temperate veg-etable cropping in the tropics, gather-ing wood for charcoal production,timber harvesting, mining, unsustain-able extraction of non-timber forestproducts (e.g. orchids and bromeli-ads), introduction of alien speciesand the construction of telecommuni-cations installations in cloud forestson mountain tops.

The impacts of climatechange

There is increasing evidencethat cloud forests are also threatenedby global warming and air pollution(photo 5). Global warming causesclouds to form at higher altitudes,resulting not only in the forest losingthis water input but in the extinctionof many plant and animal species incloud forests that are finely adaptedto the prevailing climatic and soil con-ditions. The disappearance of 20species of frogs and toads from theMonteverde Cloud Forest Preserve,


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Photo 4. In arid and semi-arid areas, patches of cloud forest are even more crucial forwater supply to surrounding communities, especially during the dry season.Mount Kenya National Park. Photo T. Kohler.

including the endemic golden toad(Bufo periglenes), is closely corre-lated with the years when there is lowmist frequency in the forest (Poundset al., 1999). Cloud formation pat-terns can also be altered by defor-estation in lowland areas, furtheradding to the stresses on these frag-ile ecosystems. It is very likely thatclimate change will affect the speciescomposition and distribution ofpotential cloud forest locations and itmay force those situated near moun-tain tops out of existence (Still et al.,1999). Because epiphytes, amphib-ians and other cloud forest speciesare highly vulnerable to changes inradiation, temperature and humidity,these forests make ideal “canaries inthe coal-mine” to detect ecologicalresponses to climate change (pho-to 6), as has been recognised byHamilton (1995) and others.

The ChallengesCloud forest conservation and

sustainable use face many chal-lenges.

Awareness of the value of cloudforests needs to be raised at all lev-els, from local to international. In1997, the WCMC produced a globaldirectory of TMCFs. Whilst this data-base provides the best availableinformation on the location and sta-tus of TMCFs, considerable work isrequired to develop the level of detailon a site by site basis. In particular,detail is required on protection sta-tus, biological importance, socio-eco-nomic conditions and current threats.Although detailed information existsin some cases for specific sites, it iswidely scattered and often not gener-ally available (Aldrich et al., 1997).Few development aid donors haveheard of cloud forests and thereforetend to focus on biodiversity conser-vation in lowland rain forests.

Rural poverty is still common inmany developing countries, espe-cially in the highlands, leading togreat pressure in terms of forestclearing or unsustainable harvestingof a wide range of forest products.

Photo 5. Small-scale mining and air pollution in the northern Andes of Colombia. Photo S. Hostettler.

Photo 6. View at 1 700 m a.s.l. of cloud forest on the cliff face of tepui Roraima, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann.



The absence of economically viablealternatives often forces local com-munities to exploit cloud forestecosystems for short-term gain anddiscourages long-term stewardship.Securing livelihoods for local commu-nities by providing alternatives to theconversion of cloud forest areas tograzing or agricultural land use isessential for the conservation andsustainable management of cloudforest. For sustainable land uses tobe acceptable, they need to be devel-oped in partnership with the localcommunities who are meant to applythem (photo 7).

A review of the degree of recog-nition of TMCFs in NationalBiodiversity Strategies and ActionPlans (NBSAPs) was conducted in July2000 by UNEP-WCMC. Among the 59countries where TMCFs have beenidentified, only 8 countries recog-nised montane forests as a conserva-tion priority or of high importance forbiodiversity (Cameroon, Kenya,Rwanda, Uganda, Bolivia, Peru, CostaRica and the Philippines). However,lack of political will is not the onlyreason for this low degree of recogni-tion. Governments in developingcountries have limited capacity andresources to produce NBSAPs andreports, and the situation is exacer-bated by the lack of awareness andavailable information on the distribu-tion and importance of montaneforests.

National Park managementneeds to be improved and legal pro-tection implemented. NumerousNational Parks containing cloudforests suffer from degradation andencroachment due to a lack ofresources and commitment from gov-ernments to ensure legal implemen-tation. In many countries, even wheremining is specifically prohibited, min-ing both on a small scale and bymultinational corporations has beencontinuing for years. Protected areasare also under constant threat fromoil production (photo 8). In Ecuador,the government is planning to build anew pipeline for heavy crude oil. Thishighly controversial project wouldbisect the Mindo Nambillo CloudForest Reserve and surrounding intactforests.

A key challenge to achievingsustainable management is the cre-ation of mechanisms to pay for envi-ronmental services. Mechanismsneed to be developed and imple-mented that reward communities formaintaining the environmental serv-ices provided by intact cloud forests,such as clean water and erosion con-trol. Both the public and private sec-tor benefit from these environmentalservices and must therefore beinvolved in cloud forest conservation.In order for that to happen, a support-ive policy environment with appropri-ate laws, institutional arrangements,market frameworks and informationis needed.

Conservation ofcloud forests today

According to Chaverri (2001),there are at least 40 ongoing conser-vation and sustainable use projects incloud forest areas in Mesoamerica.Since cloud forest conservation ismost advanced in Mesoamerica,there are probably between 60 and80 projects running at this moment inthe world. In addition, assuming thatthere is at least one ongoing projectin each country where cloud forestoccurs, and many more in countriessuch as Costa Rica, at least the samenumber of research projects are inprogress. However, these are veryrough estimates.

At least four cloud forest net-works have been formed during thepast 5 years. At international level, aTropical Montane Cloud ForestInitiative was formed in 1999 tostrengthen recognition and resourcesfor cloud forest conservation aroundthe world, with an emphasis on theirrole in providing freshwater (table II).These networks potentially strengthenconservation and management effortsby increasing knowledge andexchanges, raising awareness andpromoting cooperation on specificprojects. Progress has, however, beenseverely impeded by funding con-straints.

Photo 7. Participatory planning workshop in Ecuador. Photo S. Hostettler.

Photo 8. Preparation of material for oil drilling nearLimoncocha Biological Reserve (lowlandrain forest) in Ecuador. Photo S. Hostettler.


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There are several ways ofapproaching the conservation ofcloud forests (table III).

Awareness andenvironmental education

At regional level, the CloudforestAlive website is raising awarenessabout cloud forests in Mesoamerica. InHonduras, Friends of Celaque NationalPark launched a web site to help con-serve Celaque Mountain and its cloudforest. It attracts attention to illegalclearing for coffee plantations, cattleranching, and logging within the parkand is meant to initiate a processwhich will involve local communities inrestoring degraded buffer-zones andlinking the park to nearby natural areasthrough green corridors (www.genera-tion.net/~derekp/celaque.html).Many local environmental educationprogrammes on cloud forests alreadyexist in Latin America: Volcan Mom-bacho Nature Reserve in Nicaragua,Montecristo National Park in ElSalvador, and Guandera Reserve inEcuador are some examples.

Protected areas

Over 327 legally protected areaswith cloud forest have been estab-lished (Aldrich et al., 1997;Chaverri, 2001) (photo 9). However,some of these protected areas aresmall remnants of once extensiveareas of habitat. Others are not bigenough to contribute substantially toconservation, many exist only onpaper and relatively few are suffi-ciently well managed to achieve theirconservation objectives. According tothe recent survey by Chaverri (2001),the only well managed protectedcloud forest areas in Central Americaare Monteverde Cloud Forest Reserve

(Costa Rica), El Triunfo BiosphereReserve (Mexico), Sierra de las MinasBiosphere Reserve (Guatemala), LaTigra National Park (Honduras),Volcán Mombacho Natural Reserve(Nicaragua) and Volcán Barú NationalPark (Panama). A number of thenational parks and other areasincluded in the MesoamericanBiological Corridor (MBC), such as LaAmistad Reserve on the CostaRica/Panama border, already containcloud forest. The inclusion of furthercloud forest sites into the MBC isbeing promoted by IUCN and WWFoffices in Mesoamerica.



Photo 9. Henri Pittier National Park, Venezuela. Photo T. Hartmann.

Table II. Tropical montane cloud forest networks.

Name

Tropical Montane CloudForest Initiative

Mexican Cloud ForestNetwork

African Cloud ForestNetwork

Cloud Forest Alive

Objectives / approach

The TMCF Initiative was established in 1999 by IUCN, WWF, UNEP-WCMC and the UNESCO International Hydrological Programme. Itincludes the hydrological expertise of the Free University ofAmsterdam. The TMCF Initiative is currently developing a projectproposal for the Global Environmental Facility (GEF). (www.unep-wcmc.org/forest/cloudforest/english/homepage.htm)

In 1999, PRONATURA a Mexican NGO, whose mission is to protectand conserve Mexico’s biodiversity, initiated the Mexican CloudForest Network to establish a national network and action plan.Membership of this network includes over 50 members fromNGOs, government agencies and the scientific community.(www.pronatura.org.mx)

The Albertine Rift Conservation Society (ARCOS) in Central Africaincludes member organisations from five countries. After apriority-setting workshop in Uganda in 1999, ARCOS is presentlydeveloping a project proposal for conservation of montane forestsin the Albertine Rift Valley.(www.wcmc.org.uk/arcos/projectstop.html)

The Cloud Forest Alive web site aims to enhance globalunderstanding of the cloud forests of Central America. Thewebsite provides information on the impact of cloud forests onwater and soil quality, climate patterns, and numerous plant andanimal species. Cloud Forest Alive was implemented throughassistance by the Central American Commission for Environmentand Development under the auspices of the MesoamericanBiological Corridor initiative. (www.cloudforestalive.com)

Eco-tour ism

There are many examples where(eco)-tourism is used as a tool for thesustainable management of cloud for-est. Best known are the National Parks,but there are many smaller projects,primarily in Central and South America,that are lesser known but very promis-ing. These range from extremely basicaccommodation and interpretativetrails through the Sierra de la Botijacloud forest in Honduras to the veryexclusive private cloud forest reserveat Bosque de Paz in Costa Rica. Thereis much potential for ecotourism tosupport cloud forest conservation,especially in Africa where the conceptstill has to be fully explored. The mainproblems with eco-tourism are the

large number of visitors needed to pro-vide local communities and park man-agement with enough revenue to con-serve the area and leakage of therevenue back to urban areas and todeveloped nations : relatively little isactually spent on conservation (Cebal-los-Lascurain, 1996).

Payment forenvironmental services

Payment for environmental serv-ices preserves cloud forest ecosystemsby compensating cloud forest man-agers for the environmental servicesthey provide, such as a steady watersupply and attractive tourist locations.Such mechanisms exist in thePhilippines, Ecuador, Colombia, Costa

Rica and El Salvador (Aldrich et al.,2001; Campos, Calvo, 2000; Chaverri,2001). However, more work is neededto link successful local compensationschemes with national policy making,to achieve a fair distribution of costsand benefits and to implement effec-tive and efficient mechanisms to trans-fer benefits from downstream toupstream stakeholders.

Sustainable agr iculturalsystems

There is increasing interest inorganic coffee growing to help con-serve biodiversity at the same time.This is an opportunity to increasinglyassociate organic coffee cultivationwith cloud forest conservation, as has


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Table III. Cloud forest conservation and sustainable use projects.

Name

The Tropical Rainforest Programme of theNetherlands Committee for IUCN

The DGIS-WWF Tropical Forest Portfolio

Kilum-Ijim forest project, Cameroon

Sierra de Manantlán Biosphere Reserve,Mexico

Conservation of the Andean bear in Ecuador

Makiling Forest Reserve, Philippines

Approach

The funds of the Netherlands Committee for the IUCN/Tropical Rainforest Programmesupport projects in the field of conservation and sustainable management of tropicalrainforests. Worldwide, 45 projects aimed at cloud forest conservation or sustainablemanagement have been funded by providing small grants to local NGOs. (www.nciucn.nl)

The DGIS-WWF Tropical Forest Portfolio provides support to two integrated conservationand development projects in Sangay National Park in Ecuador and on Mount GuitingGuiting in the Philippines, both containing important cloud forest areas.(www.panda.org/resources/publications/forest/dgis1)

Birdlife International is supporting this project focusing on sustainable farming systems,securing land tenure and ecological monitoring. (www.birdlife.org/people/kilum-ijim.cfm)

The Manantlán Institute of Ecology and Conservation of Biodiversity (IMECBIO) is doingresearch in restoration with native cloud forest species and has implemented variousintegrated conservation and development projects in the Sierra de Manantlán.(www.cucsur.udg.mx)

This project, led by EcoCiencia, an Ecuadorian NGO, is focusing on surveys, sustainablemanagement, education and communication to conserve the Andean bear and its cloudforest habitat. (www.ecociencia.org)

This project is led by the University of the Philippines, Los Baños. Downstream userspay upper catchment owners to maintain and improve hydrological conditions in thecatchment area by protecting the cloud forest ecosystem. Due to its success, it will bereplicated in two other sites in the Philippines. (www.eepsea.org)

been successfully done in SelvaNegra cloud forest (Nicaragua), Sierrade Manantlán Biosphere Reserve(Mexico) and a recent project on“Conservation through MarketMechanisms” promoting organic cof-fee growing in the cloud forest in ElTriunfo Biosphere Reserve in Mexico(www.gefweb.org).

A successfulcombination of

approaches

In Ecuador, cloud forest andparamo forest is being cleared byfarmers to open new fields for potatocultivation. In the past, hundreds ofhectares have been cut annually.Because soil nutrients are quicklydepleted, new fields have beenopened continuously to producemore cash income. In 1995, the “Eco-Papas” project in the GuanderaReserve began an environmental edu-cation and alternative agriculturalprogramme. It fosters an appreciationof the value of the forest while work-ing towards developing economicactivities that do not involve clear-cutting, such as planting fruit trees.The environmental education pro-gramme stresses how the intact for-est contributes to everyday life byproviding a clean freshwater supplyand a variety of useful plants, birdsand insects. Results have been posi-tive, and additional income has beengenerated through eco-tourism andresearch activities (www.bchip.com/equafor).

Conclusion

The importance of cloud forestsfor local communities and down-stream freshwater supplies has beennot been adequately addressed inconservation strategies. Given theecological and socio-economic fac-tors affecting cloud forest conserva-tion, there are no easy solutions tothe problem of over-utilisation ofcloud forests and the correspondingproblems of securing sustainablelivelihoods. However, expertise, net-works and project experience existand constitute an initial knowledgebase for the sustainable managementand conservation of cloud forests.

Commitments from govern-ments and the donor community havebeen inadequate so far. The key chal-lenge is to raise awareness of theimportance of cloud forests for watersupplies and the conservation of bio-logical diversity, prompting donors,governments, businesses, NGOs andlocal communities to take actionbefore the world’s remaining cloudforests disappear. Cloud forests meritspecial conservation action (photo10). Much hope is placed in Rio +10and the International Year of theMountain 2002 as unique opportuni-ties to increase political, institutional,and financial commitments for con-crete action on sustainable cloud for-est management. The secondInternational Symposium on TropicalMontane Cloud Forests – planned totake place in Hawaii in 2004 – willhelp in finding out how much hasbeen achieved in the past 10 years or,which is more likely, how much stillremains to be done.

References

ALDRICH M., BUBB P., HOSTETTLERS., 2001. Tropical montane cloudforests. Time for action. Arborvitae.WWF, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland, 29 p.

ALDRICH M., BILLINGTON C.,EDWARDS M., LAIDLAW R., 1997.Tropical montane cloud forests: anurgent priority for conservation.WCMC Biodiversity Bulletin n° 2.World Conservation MonitoringCentre, Cambridge, United Kingdom,18 p.

BROWN M.I., DE LA ROCA I., VALLEJOA., FORD G., CASEY J., AGUILAR B.,HAACKER R., 1996. A valuation analy-sis of the role of cloud forests inwatershed protection: Sierra de lasMinas Biosphere Reserve, Guatemalaand Cusuco National Park, Honduras.RARE Centre for Tropical Conserva-tion, Philadelphia, United States ofAmerica, 134 p.

BRUINZEEL L.A., 2000. Hydrology oftropical montane cloud forests: areassessment. In: Proceedings of thesecond international colloquium onhydrology of the humid tropics.Gladwell J.S. (ed.), Cathalac, PanamaCity, Panama (in press.)

BRUIJNZEEL L.A., HAMILTON L.S.,2000. Decision time for cloud forests.WWF, UNESCO, IUCN, UNESCO, Paris,France, 40 p.

BRUIJNZEEL L.A., PROCTOR J., 1993.Hydrology and biogeochemistry oftropical montane cloud forests: whatdo we really know? In: Tropical mon-tane cloud forests. Proceedings of aninternational symposium. HamiltonL.S., Juvik J.O., Scatena F.N. (ed.),East-West Center, Honolulu, p. 25-46.

CAMPOS J.J., CALVO J., 2000.Compensation for environmentalservices from mountain forests.Mountains of the World – Mountainforests and sustainable development.Mountain Agenda, p. 26-27.

Photo 10. Mount Kenya National Park. Photo T. Kohler.



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CEBALLOS-LASCURAIN H., 1996.Tourism, ecotourism and protectedareas: The state of nature-basedtourism around the world and guide-lines for its development. IUCN,Gland, Switzerland, and Cambridge,United Kingdom, 301 p.

CHAVERRI A., 2001. Estado de la con-servación de bosques nubosos enMesoamérica. UICN-ORMA, San José,Costa Rica. Unpublished, 66 p.

HAMILTON L.S., 1995. A campaign forcloud forests, unique and valuableecosystems at risk. IUCN FocusSeries, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland,Cambridge, United Kingdom, 20 p.

HAMILTON L.S., JUVIK J.O., SCATENAF.N. (ed.), 1993. Tropical montanecloud forests. Proceedings of an inter-national symposium. East-WestCenter, Honolulu, 407 p.

POUNDS J.A., FOGDEN M.P.L., CAMP-BELL J.H., 1999. Biological responseto climate change on a tropical moun-tain. Nature, 398: 611-615.

SCHEMENAUER R.S., CERECEDA P.,1994. Fog collection’s role in waterplanning for developing countries.Natural Resources Forum, 18: 91-100.

STADTMUELLER T., 1987. Cloudforests of the humid tropics: A biblio-graphic review. The United NationsUniversity, Tokyo, Japan and CATIE,Turrialba, Costa Rica, 85 p.

STILL Ch.J., FOSTER P.N., SCHNEIDERS.H. 1999. Simulating the effects ofclimate change on tropical montanecloud forests. Nature, 398: 608-610.

WCMC, 1997. A global directory oftropical montane cloud forests.Aldrich M., Billington C., Edwards M.,Laidlaw R. (eds.). WCMC, Cambridge,United Kingdom, Unpublished, 268 p.

ARPIN P., BETSCH J.-M., PONGE J.-F.,VANNIER G. ET AL., 2000.LES INVERTÉBRÉS DANS L’ÉCOSYSTÈMEFORESTIER. COLL. DOSSIERS FORESTIERSN° 9, MNHN-ONF, 224 P.

ISBN 2-84207-210-3

Office national des forêtsDépartement recherche et développementBoulevard de Constance77300 FONTAINEBLEAUFrance

Diversité des formes des structures des peu-plements, des adaptations, des niches occu-pées, du trophisme et surtout des fonctionsaccomplies sont autant de facettes de ladiversité biologique des invertébrés sapro-phages développées dans cet ouvrage. Ils’agit d’une étude synthétique, analytiqueet critique des interrelations complexesentre les invertébrés et le milieu forestier.Chaque chapitre analyse une situation voireune étape évolutive de l’écosystème fores-tier, où transparaît une conception novatricede l’écologie. Les invertébrés sont considé-rés comme des facteurs actifs de l’évolutiondes milieux et comme d’excellents indica-teurs écologiques. L’analyse des insectessaproxylophages et leurs actions principalesdans la transformation des bois morts ainsique l’étude des ravageurs de la canopéemontrent une biodiversité élevée, organiséeen guildes spécialisées, avec des consé-quences importantes sur le fonctionnementde l’écosystème. La fragmentation des mas-sifs, l’effet de lisière, le rôle de réservoir defaune que jouent les haies et corridors sontétudiés avec un esprit de gestion de la forêtet de conservation de la diversité. L’ouvragese termine par la place de l’écologiste dansune politique de la biodiversité. Un glossairedétaillé et une bibliographie étendue com-plètent l’ouvrage.Résumé adapté d’après l’annonce de l’édi-teur.

OAB, 2001.LES DEUX ENSEMBLES DE PRINCIPES,CRITÈRES ET INDICATEURS (PCI) DEL’ORGANISATION AFRICAINE DU BOIS(OAB) POUR LA GESTION DURABLE DESFORÊTS TROPICALES AFRICAINES.OAB, 28 P.

Organisation africaine du bois(OAB)BP [email protected]

Cette publication contient l’un des princi-paux résultats d’un projet sur la gestiondurable des forêts tropicales africaines. Elleprésente deux ensembles de principes, cri-tères et indicateurs (PCI) de l’Organisationafricaine du bois (OAB), dont un est à utiliserau niveau national et l’autre à celui del’unité forestière d’aménagement (UFA).Ces ensembles de PCI sont issus de résul-tats de tests de terrains réalisés dans cinqpays membres de l’OAB : la Côte d’Ivoire, leCameroun, le Gabon, la Centrafrique et leGhana. Ils sont le fruit d’une étroite collabo-ration entre l’OAB et le Centre pour larecherche forestière internationale (Cifor),sous la direction du Dr Robert Nasi. Les sub-divisions de ces ensembles couvrent lessous-indicateurs (SI), qui peuvent servir demodèle ou donner des orientations lors del’élaboration des vérificateurs ou des stan-dards à l’échelle nationale ou de l’UFA.Ces ensembles ont été mis en cohérenceavec les ensembles de PCI internationaux duForest Stewardship Council (FSC) et del’Organisation internationale des bois tropi-caux (OIBT). Ils ont été validés lors deréunions internationales sur les PCI tenuesen 2000 et 2001.Les pays membres de l’OAB disposent ainsid’outils pour mettre en œuvre la gestiondurable de leurs forêts. L’OAB, en collabora-tion avec les autres partenaires du dévelop-pement, les assistera dans le processus d’in-ternationalisation de ces outils qui sontindispensables pour l’avenir des forêts tro-picales africaines.Résumé adapté d’après l’annonce de l’édi-teur.

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