Tricky bits….Exceptions to all those rules – and

common mistakes

Punctuation and Grammar Rules

Capitals

Use capitals to: Begin a sentence For name and titles For the pronoun I For the first word of direct speech inside

inverted commas EG: Sue smiled and said, “Everyone needs a holiday.”

Apostrophes

An apostrophe has TWO uses:

To show where letters have been missed out Do + not = don’t

To show ownership The cat’s paws (one cat); The cats’paws (more than

one cat)

Commas

Use commas to make writing clear and easy to read. Commas are used: To separate items in a list To mark off part of a sentence that reads as if it

were in brackets To separate a person’s name from the rest of

the senteces To introduce direct conversation EG:

The teacher said, “You must read your notes.”

Commas cont…

To separate details of a written date To separate coordinate clauses joined by

conjunctions such as and and but when the second clause contains a change of subject EG

Their new product is in the shops, and they hope it will sell well.

A comma isn’t needed if the subject doesn’t change

George has a black belt in karate and his sister is also skilled in the sport.

Comma splice

Never join the principle clauses in a compound sentence with comma. EG: Annabel is an excellent player, she scored the

winning goal. x Annabel is an excellent player, and she scored

he winning goal OR Annabel an excellent player; she scored the

winning goal.

Don’t break sentences in 2

Don’t use full stops for commas EG: I met her at LPHS three years ago. On our first

day of school.

Semicolons

Instead of a conjunction to separate two clauses e.g. Bill Bryson’s books are entertaining; they are

filled with insightful ideas.

To separate items in a list to avoid confusion

To deliberately create a pause that will emphasise the following words.

Colons

Use them after an independent clause to introduce a list of specifics, to amplify or before an illustrative quotation EG: Your dedicated writer requires: a laptop, a

dictionary and a notepad. Even so, there was a directness to the burial:

there was no wreath, no eulogy and no prayer. The squalor of the streets reminded her of a

quote from Wilde: “We are all in the gutter but some of us are looking at the stars.”

The dash

Used to set off an abrupt break or interruption and to announce a long appositive or summary EG: His first thought on getting out of bed – if he

had any thought at all – was to get back in again.

Syntax

Run on sentences… A sentence in which two or more

independent clauses (i.e. complete sentences) are joined without appropriate punctuation or conjunction. EG: A run-on sentence, with no punctuation or conjunction

between "five" and "we": It is nearly half past five we can not reach the town before dark.

A run-on sentence where some independent clauses are missing parts of speech, so that one clause "morphs" into the next: I was interested in bought one of them

Split infinitives

Generally it’s wrong to spit the infinitive form of a verb (to be, to walk, to sing) with an adverb. EG:

My aim is to quickly do my homework. X My aims to do my homework quickly.

Different…

Is followed by from, not to or than.

Their attitudes are different to/than mine XTheir attitudes are different from mine √

After I or We, use shall not will

I will travel to Australia in June X I shall travel to Australia in June √

None should never be followed by a plural verb None of the books have been returned X None of the books has been returned √

Form the possessive singular by adding ‘s

Charles’s friend, Burns’s poems

Except the possessive of ancient proper names e.g. Jesus’ and forms such as righteousness’ sake

Hers, its, theirs, yours and ours have no apostrophe but indefinite pronouns do use ‘s to show possession e.g. one’s rights

Subject and verb agreement

A verb must always agree in number with its subject. If the subject is singular, then the verb must be singular too. The doctor was going to the hospital.

If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural too. The doctors were going to the hospital

Collective nouns and verb agreement

Collective nouns refer to a number of things In most cases, treat as a singular so take a

singular verb The crowd was moving towards the stadium

BUT if the noun seems like it can be treated as a number of individuals, use a plural verb

The audience are leaping to their feet and cheering

Common Mistakes

Tautology

Needless repetition of words

Precise writing omits needless words

EG. The reason why was that (Because)

EG. In a hasty manner (Hastily)

Affect Effect Affect is always a verb. Meanings:

To act upon or influence To make a difference to To impress or move feelings To make a show of or pretend

The poem affected me deeply

Effect can be a verb OR a noun As a verb, effect means to cause or bring about As a noun it means as a result of

After promotion, she effected many changes

Your You’re

Your is a pronoun (second person, possessive plural). EG: Your car is faster than mine

You’re is the contracted form of you + are EG: You’re a safe a driver.

Their They’re There

There is an adverb, describes position EG That car over there is the latest model

Their is an adjective, (possessive form) of they EG Their car

They’re is the contraction of they + are EG They’re driving too fast for the conditions

To too

To is a preposition, it shows the relationship between two or more things EG: I am going to the shop

Too is used to show agreement or more than one. EG: I thought the concert was great too.

Its It’s

Its is a possessive pronoun (third person singular) and doesn’t need an apostrophe EG: The dog scratched its back

It’s is a contraction sort of it + is OR it + has EG: It’s a sad day when students forget basic

grammar

Amount and Number

Number refers to a specific amount, sum or count. EG; Any number of students in Year 12 can pass

this exam.

Amount refers to quantity. Eg: The amount of resistance surprised him.

Between and among; Either and any

Between is used for two objects. eg: Sue stood between the two goal posts

Among/Amongst is used for more than two. Eg: Sue ran amongst the opposing team’ back line.

Use either if two things, any if more than two EG: Any of the five books will do.

Each, either, neihter and every

These words take A singular verb because they imply separate

individuals are involved. EG: Each one of the boys is to be stood down

A singular pronoun Every (one) person at the scene did his or her duty

It is grammatically incorrect to use their (a third person, possessive plural pronoun) with each, every, either and neither

Lie and Lay

Lie has to meanings To tell a lie To lie down or recline

Lay means to put or place something down

Me and I

When the pronoun is the subject of the verb, use I. When the pronoun is the object of the verb, use me.

She gave the books to Peter and I. X She gave the books to Peter and me.

Principle and Principal

If the meaning is the sense of being first or most important, use principal.

If it is in the sense of a rule or a standard, use principle.

More Tricky Bits

Double negatives

When a sentence has a negative meaning, don’t put two negatives together EG:

I did not never do it x She never used none of those books

x I did not ever do it OR I never did it

Relative pronouns

For things, use whichFor people, use who, whom, whoseWho is used when it’s the subject of the

following verbWhom is used when it’s the object of the

following verb OR after a preposition This is the man who followed me. This is the man whom I followed This is the man to whom I spoke.

Relative pronouns cont…

This is the man whom I spoke to. This is the man whose car I crashed. This is the man who I think followed me.

That – defining. Which – non defining. Each made a list of books that had influenced

him. I always buy his books, which have influenced

me.

Different…

Is followed by from, not to or than.

Their attitudes are different to/than mine XTheir attitudes are different from mine √