translation of bilingual popular songs (2008)

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Translation and Code Switchingin the Lyrics of Bilingual PopularSongsEirlys E. Daviesa & Abdelli Bentahilaaa Abdelmalek Essaadi University, Tangier, MoroccoPublished online: 21 Feb 2014.

To cite this article: Eirlys E. Davies & Abdelli Bentahila (2008) Translation and CodeSwitching in the Lyrics of Bilingual Popular Songs, The Translator, 14:2, 247-272, DOI:10.1080/13556509.2008.10799258

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ISSN 1355-6509 St Jerome Publishing, Manchester

The Translator. Volume 14, Number 2 (2008), 247-72 ISBN 978-1-905763-10-8

Translation and Code Switching in the Lyrics of Bilingual Popular Songs

EIRLYS E. DAVIES & ABDELLI BENTAHILAAbdelmalek Essaadi University, Tangier, Morocco

Abstract. This paper examines the ways in which translation and code switching may be exploited in the creation of song lyrics featuring more than one language and points out some contrasts between the functions they fulfil in such songs and the ways they are exploited elsewhere. The discussion is based on illustrations drawn from a variety of sources, ranging from Western pop to North African rai music. The strategies identified include using transla-tion to either replace or reduplicate the source material, rewriting with varying degrees of divergence from the original, juxtaposing components from different languages, and composing directly in a code switching variety. It is argued that in such lyrics translation and code switching often serve to produce very similar effects. Both may be used as affirmations of identity, as in-group markers, as stylistic devices, as a means of opening up the lyrics to outsiders or of producing effects such as alienation and exclusion. The effects achieved in particular cases are related to such variables as the identity of the performer/persona, the background of the audience and the specific content and theme of the song.

Keywords: Popular songs, Code switching, Identity, Bilingualism, Language crossing, Incomprehension, Stylistic effect, Audience, Persona.

As pieces of music accessible to a wide audience, distributed via the mass media and on sale to a non-specialist public, popular songs are essentially commercial products. They are items for mass consumption, targeting an audience which may be local or international, and are likely to be adapted to the requirements of the public(s) they target. The lyrics of popular songs, then, can be expected to reflect the cultural background, tastes and values of the community they originate from; and the choice of language for the lyrics can be expected to play an important role in determining their appeal for the relevant audiences.

1 We are most grateful for the detailed and invaluable comments of ebnem Susam-Sarajeva and the two anonymous reviewers, though the weaknesses of this paper remain our own.

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Code Switching in Bilingual Popular Songs248

In this paper we restrict our attention to lyrics which involve the use of more than one language.2 While recent trends towards the globalization of mass media may have encouraged the creation of bilingual songs, they are certainly not a new phenomenon. Among the well-known genres of earlier periods, we can mention the medieval macaronic carols which combined Latin with one or more of the European vernaculars, and the still earlier mixed Romance-Arabic kharjas which served as closing refrains for the Arabic and Hebrew muwashsha songs of eleventh-century al-Andalus. Many cultures also have long-established traditional songs incorporating more than one language. However, the present study will examine only the recently composed lyrics of songs intended primarily for mass entertainment and commercial gain. To give the readers some idea of the range of material available, we will cite songs from a variety of origins, ranging from Western pop music to rap and the North African rai.

Previous studies on bilingual lyrics tended to focus on a particular category of songs and on issues specific to this category: examples include Schendls 1997 study on macaronic songs, which explores the syntactic patterning and discourse functions of the code switching involved; a rich collection of studies on the kharjas, often concentrating on the controversial origins of these brief bilingual texts (Stern 1948, Armistead and Monroe 1983, Zwartjes 1995); Muyskens study (1990) of the Wayno folksongs of Peru, which seeks to draw conclusions about general code switching patterns; and Stlens study (1992) of the songs used by a Danish-American group in Seattle, elaborating on their role in affirming ethnic identity. Among the studies of contemporary Western music, we may mention Picones survey (2002) of examples from a wide range of song genres and Ohlsons thesis (2007) focussing on songs by Hispanic performers popular in the USA. Our own studies on North African rai music (Bentahila and Davies 2002, Davies and Bentahila 2006, 2008) aimed to set the study of mixed language lyrics within the framework of research on code switching; these studies addressed issues such as the comparison between the code switching patterns in song lyrics and those in everyday conversation, the use of code switching as an organizational and aesthetic device within lyrics, and the exploitation of code switching as a means of achieving both localiza-tion and globalization. The mixed language which is common in rap lyrics from many parts of the world has also inspired a number of recent studies, including Fenn and Perullo (2000), Mitchell (2000), Sarkar et al (2005), Davies and Bentahila (2006), Sarkar and Winer (2006). Many of these studies raise questions about the links between language and identity, and about globaliza-tion and localization. The examination of bilingual songs can also be located

2 We chose to use the label bilingual because in the majority of examples only two lan-guages are involved; however, most of our remarks will be equally valid for multilingual lyrics.

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Eirlys E. Davies & Abdelli Bentahila 249

within the much wider literature on code switching in general, which has dealt with a number of relevant issues, such as structural constraints on switching and its rhetorical functions and social significance.

On the other hand, studies on translation and popular song lyrics seem to focus mainly on monolingual material, i.e. on lyrics fully translated from one language into another, for songs to be performed in a single language (e.g. Kaindl 2005, Susam-Sarajeva 2006). Studies which draw on some examples of translation yielding bilingual lyrics include Locke (2005), which explores the techniques used in translating contemporary Canadian songs from English to French, and Lalibert (2005), which examines a range of twentieth-century popular songs translated between English, French and German; however, neither of these studies is specifically concerned with bilingual texts.

The present papers contribution to the field lies in its exclusive focus on bilingual lyrics and on the role of both code switching and translation in the construction of these lyrics. Whereas previous literature has tended to treat translation and code switching as quite separate phenomena, song lyrics offer an opportunity to draw some parallels between the ways in which they are used, shedding new light on their potential as communicative strategies. As regards translation in particular, our study is rather unusual in focusing on the atypical use of translation to create linguistically heterogeneous texts. After examining the opposite process where the translator creates a homogeneous monolingual text from a multilingual source, Pym (1996) argues in favour of a more flexible approach, with more acceptance of multilingual texts. In lyrics of the type discussed here, however, such heterogeneity is already well accepted. Below we explore some of the effects achieved via the combination and confrontation of languages.

. Translation and code switching, in lyrics and elsewhere

In most communicative contexts, the basic norm is that people communicate via a language which is understood by their intended audience. This is most obviously the case in face-to-face interaction, where adopting a language unknown to the addressee would be seen as a highly marked behaviour; but this is also true for more public acts of communication, such as communica-tion via the media. Where the sender of a message does not share a common language with the target audience, the common solution is to use translation, ensuring the comprehension of a text by people who would otherwise have no access to it.

General discussion on communication also seems to take for granted that a single message should be expressed in a single language, and that the norm is to compose the texts in one language at a time. Those from bilingual communities will of course know that this is far from being the norm, as for them code switching is common within a single interaction or indeed a single

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utterance. Nevertheless, as Monica Heller observes, this phenomenon is seen as something to be explained, whereas the use of one language is considered normal (1988:1). Moreover, even within such bilingual communities, there often seems to be a strong feeling that it is more correct or acceptable to use a single language to communicate a single message (see, for example, Grosjean 1982, Bentahila 1983, Romaine 1995).

However, ensuring the audiences understanding of a text does not seem so crucial in the case of song lyrics, since comprehension of the words is not the only or even perhaps the most important aspect of the songs impact on the audience. It is after all quite possible to enjoy a sung performance without any knowledge of the language being used; the appeal of Italian opera to so many who do not understand a word of Italian is just one example. In fact, even those perfectly familiar with the language used may have difficulty in deciphering the lyrics of certain songs, because the delivery style or the type of backing obscures the articulation. Yet such songs can still be among peoples personal favourites.

The fact that the words of a song may not be crucial to its enjoyment may partly explain the greater acceptance of language variation and unexpected language choices in the lyrics of popular songs. Furthermore, different com-munities vary in their tolerance towards and appreciation of songs sung in languages other than their own. Todays globalized music market means that English-language pop songs are as commonplace as Coca Cola and McDonalds in many communities where English is not an everyday medium of com-munication. Anglophone communities, on the other hand, have tended to be somewhat more impervious to foreign language lyrics, but even this seems to be changing, as evidenced, for instance, by the recent surge of interest in Latino music among mainstream American audiences (Cepeda 2000). Jannis Androutsopoulos (2007) situates this trend towards more linguistic diversity in songs within a more general tendency across the mass media.

Similarly, the use of a mixture of languages within a lyric does not seem to be subject to the norms governing code switching in other types of com-munication. Code switching is typically a feature of informal conversation between members of the same group, and indeed often serves as a potent in-group marker (Jacobson 1977, Myers-Scotton 1993). It is not normally used except where all the interlocutors are assumed to have sufficient competence in both languages. The types of switch used tend to conform to regular struc-tural patterns and may be employed for specific rhetorical effects, as well as being influenced by factors such as the relations between speakers, topics and settings (Bentahila 1983). This type of code switching is spontaneously used, and speakers may often be unaware of the fact that they are moving back and forth between the two languages.

In contrast, the incorporation of code switching within the lyrics of a song is certainly a conscious and somewhat marked choice, given that lyrics are

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typically carefully composed and edited. Code switches within a song may thus be seen as deliberate artifices, whose authors consciously imitate the patterns used in naturally occurring code switching. In cases where the mixed language lyrics are derived via translation from a monolingual original, this artificiality is particularly evident. Interestingly, the use of code switching within lyrics has sometimes attracted the same kind of criticism as that aimed at conversa-tional switching. In Algeria and Morocco the Arabic-French mixture used in song lyrics is often deplored by purists as street language and described as vulgar and tasteless. Similarly, Linda Ohlson notes that the rap artiste Mel-low Man Ace has been criticized for mixing Spanish and English in his songs (2007:347). As well as imitating conversational styles, however, code switch-ing in songs may be used for other purposes, notably as an organizational or aesthetic device (Davies and Bentahila 2008).

Another important difference between bilingual song lyrics and code switching in conversation concerns the contexts from which they originate. Code switching between two languages generally presupposes bilingualism on the part of its users and of the speech community they belong to. One might likewise imagine that bilingual lyrics would reflect the bilingualism of the artistes performing the songs, the songwriters producing the lyrics, the communities in which the songs originate, and/or the audiences they target. In some cases, all these levels of bilingualism may be present simultaneously; nevertheless, none of them seems to be essential for a bilingual lyric. A song involving two languages does not necessarily require a bilingual performer, for the components in the two languages may be performed by different in-dividuals, as in a duet or a song arranged for a soloist and a chorus. In other cases, essentially monolingual artistes may incorporate elements from another language, or indeed may choose to perform entire songs in a language they do not speak or understand, if there is sufficient often commercial motiva-tion (Cutler 2000). Likewise, rather than being the work of a single bilingual songwriter, a set of lyrics may be composed in two languages by different writers, or via translation of an originally monolingual text. Finally, a song originating in one community may nevertheless make use of a language not associated with that community, and may reach and appeal to audiences not proficient in these language(s).

Before looking at the ways in which two languages may be incorporated into lyrics, it is worth commenting on the relations between translation and code switching. A song which combines elements from two languages may or may not have been constructed via translation. Confronted with such a text, one may be unable to deduce how it was composed in the first place. The only cases where one can confidently assume that translation has been used are those where one can identify two texts conveying equivalent content in dif-ferent languages, whether these are two lines of the same song or two separate versions of it. Moreover, even when parallel texts in two languages exist, it

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may be impossible to deduce which is the source text and which is the target. There may also be difficulties in deciding whether the similarity of meaning between the two versions is sufficient to justify calling one of them a transla-tion of the other, or whether the phenomenon might be better described as an imitation, an adaptation, or a new text inspired by the original.

Code switching, as generally defined, is not normally felt to involve trans-lation. Rather, those who move back and forth between two languages are considered to have both languages simultaneously activated, merely choosing, consciously or unconsciously, to express parts of their message in one code and parts in the other. Yet such an interaction may, and indeed quite frequently does, feature repetition in one language of remarks made in the other (Gumperz 1982, Bentahila 1983, McClure 2000). It is perhaps because such repetition takes place in a conversation where participants are bilingual, and therefore do not need any part of the discourse to be formulated in another language to make it intelligible for them, that the notion of translation is not usually evoked in discussing such phenomena. On the other hand, if a monolingual participant is present, then the use of code switching could perhaps be con-sidered as a failure to translate, where translation might have ensured that the monolingual participant would comprehend the message in full. Likewise, within a song, the use of elements from a language not known by some of the intended audience could be perceived as a kind of deliberate withholding of access to the full message of the lyrics.

Translation and code switching thus offer two distinct but closely related strategies for constructing a bilingual text. As we shall discuss below, very similar results can be obtained regardless of the strategy used in the creation of lyrics.

2. Translation, code switching and the construction of bilingual lyrics

Lyrics incorporating more than one language may be composed via a number of methods, whether they are constructed directly out of two or more languages or derived from a pre-existing monolingual text. The discussion below distin-guishes a number of ways in which translation and/or code switching can be used to produce such bilingual creations.

2.1 Translation as reiteration

Some bilingual lyrics feature a reiteration of the same message in two lan-guages, so that for those who know both languages, it is quite clear that a source text and its translation are presented side by side. For instance, the song Tellement nbrick by Faudel, a French rai singer of Algerian descent, features a refrain entirely in French, part of which is reproduced below as (1);

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but it also includes a predominantly Arabic version of this refrain (2). The French refrain precedes the mixed language version, signalling the possibility that the mainly Arabic refrain is a translation of the former:3

(1) Tellement je taime Je me meurs pour toi Tellement je taime Je demande aprs toi (Faudel, Tellement nbrick)[I love you so much/I am dying for you/I love you so much/I ask after you]

(2) Tellement nbRikwa nmut likTellement nbRikwa nsaqSi lik (Faudel, Tellement nbrick)[I love you so much/and I am dying for you/I love you so much/and I ask after you]

Some lyrics use a repeated pattern where a line is immediately followed by its translation, as in the following examples, taken from the lyrics by the Algerian rai singer Cheb Mami and the Cuban-born rapper Mellow Man Ace. This technique achieves a reiteration of meaning while avoiding actual repetition of words:

(3) Comme a vous mavez trahi, comme aHakda labti bijja, hakda (Cheb Mami, Parisien du Nord)[Like that you betrayed me, like that/like that you tricked me, like that]

(4) Hey me vuelves loco you drive me crazyIf you got a telly trelo bring itTe doy de comer Ill give you food to eat Something special algo especial (Mellow Man Ace, Linda)[Hey you drive me crazy you drive me crazy//if you got a telly bring it bring it/Ill give you something to eat Ill give you food to eat//Something special something special]

Sometimes there is a more complex interweaving of the two languages, where the translation does not immediately follow the original statement, as in the rai lyrics below:

3 We use italics for one language to distinguish it from the other, both in the original versions and the English glosses, which are our own translations. We use phonemic transcription for the extracts in colloquial Moroccan and Algerian Arabic, with and representing pharyngeal fricatives, R a uvular fricative and S, T, and D pharyngealized alveolars, the other symbols having their usual IPA values.

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(5) Je pense toi tous les joursJe ne peux pas toublier,ja wa llah Ralb cest plus fortJe ne peux pas te quitterja wa nxammem fik dimama nqder nfareqekja wa nfeker fik tout le tempsja atta galbi walfek (Cheb Nasro, Reviens moi)[I think of you every day/I cant forget you/oh, and God is the vic-tor it is beyond my control/I cant leave you/oh, and I think of you always/I cant leave you/oh, I think of you all the time/oh, even my heart is used to you/]

Here the fifth and seventh lines are restatements (the first entirely in Arabic, the second in Arabic and French) of the meaning of the first line in French, while line 6 repeats in Arabic what is expressed in French in line 4. Transla-tion here serves as a strategy to allow variation of form while reiterating the meaning and avoiding monotony.

In still other cases, the second language is used to provide a summary of what has been expressed in the first one, rather than offering a full translation. For instance, Khaleds song Aicha is composed of 38 lines entirely in French, in which the persona elaborates on his love for the woman named in the title and her reaction to his declarations. The song closes with a four-line stanza in Arabic summing up these feelings, and then the lines from the French refrain alternate with Arabic lines, conveying the essential theme and mood of the song to those who may not be able to follow all the French lyrics:

(6) nbRik ia w nmut likhadi qSt ajati w ubbenti umri w enti hajatitmennit ni mak Rir enti Aicha, Aicha, coute-moiAicha, Aicha, ana nbRikAicha, Aicha, nmut likAicha, Aicha, rponds-moi (Khaled, Aicha) [I love you Aicha and I am dying for you/this is the story of my life and my love/you are my love and you are my life/I want to live only with you/Aicha, Aicha, listen to me/Aicha, Aicha, I love you/Aicha, Aicha, I am dying for you/Aicha, Aicha, answer me]

2.2 Translation as replacement

An originally monolingual text can be converted into a bilingual one by trans-lating parts but not all of the source text. Audiences unfamiliar with the original version will not necessarily be able to detect that translation has been used in

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the bilingual one. In such cases, interesting questions arise as to why certain elements were chosen for translation while others were left untranslated.

Sometimes the distribution of the translated elements may be clearly linked to the structure of the song. For instance, it is quite common for the verses to be translated while the refrain remains in the source language. Khaleds album Kenza offers two versions of the song Cest la nuit; in the second, Layli (explicitly labelled on the sleeve as the Arabic version), all the verses are in Arabic but the French refrain is retained. This strategy may perhaps be motivated by the fact that the refrain is usually a songs keynote feature, the most distinctive and memorable element, and one which might be difficult to reproduce. Sharon Locke (2005) cites a number of Canadian popular songs by various artistes whose French translated versions have similarly retained refrains in English, and examples are also found in Michle Laliberts corpus (2005).

In other cases, the distribution of the translated elements appears less systematic, and may result in an uneven mixture of languages within the verses, within the refrain, or within single lines of the song. This strategy may be intended for mimicking the familiar patterns of bilingual code switching within a particular community. The original version of the song Gone was performed by Nsync with lyrics entirely in English (8), but in Aventuras version, discussed by Ohlson (2007:225-27), some parts have been translated into Spanish (7):

(7) Mil palabras te podra decirTo make you come homeSeems so long ago you walked awayAnd left me aloneY yo recuerdo what you said to meYou were acting so strangeQuizs fui ciego y no quise entenderThat you needed a change (Aventura, Gone) [I could tell you a thousand words/to make you come home/seems so long ago you walked away/and left me alone/and I remember what you said to me/you were acting so strange/perhaps I was blind and I didnt want to understand/that you needed a change]

(8) Theres a thousand words that I could sayTo make you come homeSeems so long ago you walked awayAnd left me aloneAnd I remember what you said to meYou were acting so strangeAnd maybe I was too blind to seeThat you needed a change (Nsync, Gone)

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2.3 Translation and transformation

In the examples cited so far, it seems uncontroversial to evoke the notion of translation proper. The semantic correspondence between the two versions may not always be so clear; nevertheless, the distinctions between what is accepted as a translation and what is labelled by some other term such as adaptation, imitation or rewriting are far from obvious in many areas of translation studies, especially in relation to translation and music. We may perhaps agree with Jos Lambert (2006:97), who insists that it is more useful to focus on what these concepts have in common rather than seeking to establish rather artificial distinctions between them.

Given the constraints on the translation process in this context, it is hardly surprising that many versions differ in semantic content from their sources. Sometimes, while the new elements have a different semantic content from their original counterparts, they still convey the same theme and preserve the general tone, as in the French lines below (10), taken from a bilingual version of Vivo per lei, sung by Andrea Bocelli and Helene Sgara, derived from Bocellis original Italian version (9):

(9) Vivo per lei lo so mi faGirare di citt in cittSoffrire un po ma almeno io vivo. un dolore quando parteVivo per lei dentro gli hotelCon piacere estremo cresce (Bocelli, Vivo per lei)[I live for it [the reference of it throughout the song being to music (la musica)]/ I know it makes me/ travel from town to town/suffer a little but at least I live/there is pain when it leaves/I live for it in hotels/With much pleasure the pain grows]

(10) Vivo per lei lo so mi faGirare di citt in citt Soffrire un po ma almeno io vivoJe serais perdue sans elleVivo per lei dentro gli hotelesJe suis triste et je lappelle (Bocelli and Sgara, Vivo per lei)[I live for it/ I know it makes me/ travel from town to town/suffer a little but at least I live/I would be lost without it/I live for it in hotels/I am sad and I call on it]

On the other hand, there is sometimes a clear divergence of meaning be-tween the two versions, which seems to have been a deliberate choice rather than merely the result of constraints. A partial translation of a song may be taken as an opportunity to experiment with variations in its content. An exam-

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ple discussed by Locke (2005) is the Big Sugar song Tina Gasolina, which is a French version of their Nicotina. The contrasts between the two titles reflect the changes of content throughout the lyrics. Images evoking addiction to coffee and gambling in the original English version are replaced by images of motor bikes and a straightforward statement of love:

(11) Sugar in my coffee oh yeah makes me meanOh yeah shes all thatOh yeah shes all thatIm her silver dollar, shes my slot machineOh yeah shes all that (Big Sugar, Nicotina (Shes all that))

(12) Mon moteur reaction en perd toute sa raisonOh yeah shes all thatOh yeah elle est tout aAvec elle je vis fond, je laime avec passionOh yeah shes all that (Big Sugar, Tina Gasolina (Elle est tout a))[My jet engine goes crazy/oh yeah shes all that/oh yeah shes all that/with her I live to the full, I love her passionately/oh yeah shes all that]

In some cases, the changes of meaning accompanying a translation seem to

reflect cultural considerations. One interesting example is provided by the two versions of Khaleds Cest la nuit, already mentioned. In the French version, whose lyrics were penned by the French songwriter Jean-Jacques Goldman, the persona is a man who reflects with shame upon his habit of staying out all night, losing his self-control and forgetting his partner and responsibilities. The lyrics include many references to his remorse at his bad behaviour: fatigue et dgot (weariness and disgust), cette honte de soi (feeling ashamed of myself), quand lombre descend, joublie ma foi (when night falls, I forget my faith). The words of the Arabic version (Layli) leave things vaguer, and the misdemeanours seem milder: kul lila Radban dima, ana kul lila sahran dima (every night I am always angry, every night I always stay up); there are more affirmations of affection for the partner, and even a statement of positive resolve: men del lila nebnu safha dida (from tonight I am turning over a new leaf). It is only in the refrain, which remains in French, that the personas desperate addiction to night life is made clear. This change of content could well be related to the change of audience brought about via the introduction of Arabic; while the French version targets a Western audience, the Arabic one is obviously aimed at Khaleds fellow countrymen, and gentle romantic senti-ments may have been judged more appropriate for them than the allusions to wild nights on the town. This could be considered an example of what Andr Lefevere (1982:4) terms refraction.

In such cases it could be claimed that instead of the content of the original

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version, it is the change of language which to some extent determines the ap-propriate content of the new version. Translation, in the examples just noted, may in itself be a trigger for other changes in the content of the lyrics.

2.4 Code switching in the creation of lyrics

Where there is no evidence (in the form of an existent source text) to sug-gest that a bilingual lyric is constructed via the use of translation, it may be assumed that it has been composed from the outset through a combination of two languages. A number of different effects may be achieved in this way, depending on how the language components are related to each other.

At one extreme, these components may remain clearly distinct, as in the case of a duet constructed via the interweaving of what are in effect two sepa-rate lyrics by two performers using different languages and often different styles. One such example is the Passengers song Miss Sarajevo, where Bono sings in English and Pavarotti in Italian. This juxtaposition strategy seems to be particularly favoured in the construction of rap lyrics. Rap numbers are in any case typically composed of separate blocks, using the technique of sampling, where extracts from pre-recorded sources alternate with rapped passages. It thus seems quite natural for rap groups from bilingual communities to create a song out of blocks in different languages. Examples that have been discussed in the literature include songs using Swahili and English (Fenn and Perullo 2000), German and Turkish (Larkey 2000), and Arabic and French (Davies and Bentahila 2006).

When a song is composed out of juxtaposed blocks, the roles of the two languages are quite distinct. At the other extreme we find instances of lyrics which appear to have been composed directly in the code switching variety associated with a particular community. Here it does not seem feasible to separate out the contributions of the two languages. The lyrics of North African rai songs frequently use a variety of Arabic-French code switching, of which the following is a fairly typical sample:

(13) inTalla fi la nouvellebRit nnsak definitifpourtant noublie pasnu fwatna ana wijaksurtout ma tnsixessert ma jeunesse mak (Chab Hasni, Touhhachtek)[I am waiting for news/I want to forget you permanently/however dont forget/what we shared together, you and I/especially dont forget/I wasted my youth with you]

A similar style may of course be created via translation, as already seen in examples (2), (5) and (6) above.

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While in example (13) the distribution of the two languages approximates the patterns used in bilinguals everyday speech, in other cases the alternations may correspond to structural divisions within the lyric. There are, for instance, many rai songs composed mainly in Arabic but incorporating a French refrain and often also a French title taken from the refrain (see Bentahila and Davies 2002 for examples and discussion). Other types of regularly patterned alterna-tion include sequences of lines beginning in one language and ending in the other, as in (14) below, or cases where lines in one language alternate with lines in the other, as in (15), where the alternation is also emphasized by an a-b-a-b rhyme scheme. In cases like these the regularly patterned language alternations can be considered to serve a particularly aesthetic function:

(14) nthannaw men la souffrancekul jum umri diri confiancezidi Sbri ta nhar lalliance (Cheb Akil, Diri confiance) [we have been relieved of our suffering/every day my love have con-fidence/go on being patient until the day of the wedding]

(15) Tu nes plus comme avantmai enti lli eeqetektu nes plus la petite enfanttbedelti ga men lli rftek (Cheb Hasni, Tu nes plus comme avant)[You are no longer like you were before/you are not the one I fell in love with/you are no longer the little child/you have changed since I met you]

2.5 Combination of strategies

Finally, it is of course possible for a bilingual song to be constructed out of a combination of these strategies: translation as replacement and reiteration, juxtaposition of components from different languages, and composing directly in a code switching variety. The distribution of the languages may follow a regular pattern in some places and not in others. As can readily be seen in the examples discussed above, similar effects can be achieved by the use of translation or through direct composition in two languages. Starting from a monolingual source text, one can, via the translation of certain elements but not others, create a bilingual text which reproduces the patterns of conversational code switching, one which uses language alternation to underline the struc-tural features of the whole, or one which appears to be composed through the juxtaposition of separate components. The use of partial translation can thus be a means of obtaining a range of stylistic and communicative effects.

It may also happen that code switching is brought into a songs translated version. Lalibert (2005) includes in her corpus the 1948 French song Mad-emoiselle de Paris and its English version Mademoiselle de Paree (1951).

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Both are basically descriptions of the woman denoted in their titles, though the details given are not the same in the two versions. Interestingly, the English version incorporates a number of French words and phrases:

(16) Bonjour, Mademoiselle, Blonde and petite,Comme tu es belleThat means how sweet. (Mademoiselle de Paree)[Hello, Miss/blonde and petite/how beautiful you are/that means how sweet]

These French items are not relics of the original version, but are deliberately inserted into the English text, presumably in order to preserve its French fla-vour and perhaps suggest the songs origin. Even though they constitute rather banal clichs, they may serve to signal the otherness of the woman described. We have thus a rather curious case where a translator has felt it appropriate to introduce elements of the source language into the translated text.

Finally, there is still another level at which bilingual songs might involve translation. Where members of the public do not know one of the languages used, they may make the effort to obtain a translation in order to achieve a full understanding of the lyrics usually on the internet lyrics forums. The bilingual nature of the song can thus act as a stimulus for an active engage-ment with the songs content. Of course, this does not always happen, for as noted earlier, many listeners are content to enjoy a song without necessarily understanding all the lyrics.

3. Translation, code switching and the implications of bilingual lyrics

The incorporation of two different languages into a song can be examined in relation to a number of issues within the performance context, such as what these languages signal about the singer/persona, how they relate to target or potential audiences for the song, and how they contribute to the message. Below we discuss these interrelated issues by focusing on some of the most frequent types of effect achieved through translation and code switching in bilingual lyrics.

3.1 Bilingual lyrics as an in-group marker

In songs belonging to bilingual communities where code switching is a feature of everyday interactions, mixed language lyrics may be perceived as common and unremarkable. For instance, in previous studies, we have identified certain code switching patterns which are recurrent in the discourse of the Arabic-French bilingual communities of North Africa (Bentahila and Davies 1983, 1992, 1995, 1998), and have shown that the lyrics of many contemporary rai

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songs use the same patterns, whether these are composed directly, as in ex-ample (13), or created via partial translation, as in (2) and (5) (Bentahila and Davies 2002). For members of the community in which such songs originate, this style clearly marks the performers themselves as in-group members, in the same way as a distinctive local dialect might do. The style may also serve as an affirmation of the validity of the oft despised and denigrated local variety as a medium for artistic expression.

It is interesting to note that even rai performers who achieved interna-tional success outside North Africa continue to use this strategy. The most obvious example is provided by Khaleds Aicha, a hit in several European countries. While the songs French lyrics were penned by Jean-Jacques Gold-man, Khaled nevertheless chose to include Arabic at the end of this song (see example 6 above). This could be seen as a strong signal to his North African audience, indicating that despite his international success he has not forgotten his origins.

There are also interesting examples involving performers from the North African diaspora, such as second and third-generation immigrants living in Europe. Some of these artistes have only a limited proficiency in Arabic, yet they stud their lyrics with phrase(s) in this language, arguably in order to as-sert their ethnic identity. The Algerian-born singer Assia stated that she felt she should incorporate some Arabic items into her songs, even though her vocabulary in this language is limited (Labesse 2001). Similarly, the singer Yahia Mokeddem of the group Rai Kum decided to study Arabic mainly in order to be able to compose rai lyrics (Daoudi 2000:75).

A further effect of the use of such community-based code switching in a song is that its lyrics may be fully accessible only to members of the same community. Those who know Arabic but not French, or vice versa, would be excluded. Such a strategy can be compared to the use of code switching in postcolonial literature discussed by Gordon and Williams (1998), who show that it may serve to expose the members of the dominant group to the experi-ence of not understanding, deliberately reminding them that they are outsiders. While Khaleds performance of the predominantly French lyrics could be seen as an act of accommodation towards the dominant Western culture, the reten-tion of some Arabic could thus represent an act of resistance.

It is important to recognize that, whatever the intentions of the artiste or songwriter in opting for bilingual lyrics, the effects achieved may vary con-siderably, depending on the audiences background. Moreover, while a song may be originally composed and performed with a specific audience in mind, once it is distributed through the channels of mass media it may reach other audiences who were not originally envisaged. These new audiences may re-ceive the songs with enthusiasm, amusement or puzzlement, and the bilingual lyrics may give rise to various unintended effects of exoticism, alienation or confusion.

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3.2 Bilingual lyrics as instances of language crossing

While performers may choose to use a variety associated with their own community, thereby withholding full access to the meaning of their songs from those outside this community, in other cases artistes may use a language unrelated to their own heritage, in order to open up their song to a wider audi-ence. This strategy has been termed language crossing (Rampton 1998, Auer, n.d.). For instance, many performers who start out singing in a lesser-used language later move on to English. Canadian Cline Dion crossed from French to English, while many Latinos (notably Colombian Shakira, Puerto Rican Ricky Martin, and Spaniard Enrique Iglesias) began their careers singing in Spanish and then moved on to English.

The first English-language hits of some of these stars incorporated elements from their first languages. In the case of Ricky Martins Livin la vida loca, the Spanish component is limited to the phrase featured in the title, but this is repeated many times as part of the songs catchy refrain, and thus becomes a symbol of the artistes Latino background. Enrique Iglesiass first hit in the English-speaking world, Bailamos, uses a similar strategy; again the title is Spanish and is likewise extracted from a memorable refrain to which non-Spanish-speaking audiences can easily sing along. The song opens in Spanish, and the English lines which follow begin with a translation of this Spanish opening:

(17) Esta noche bailamos Te doy toda mi vida Qudate conmigo Tonight we dance I leave my life in your hands We take the floor Nothing is forbidden anymore. (Enrique Iglesias, Bailamos)[Tonight we dance/I give you all my life/stay with me/tonight we dance/I leave my life in your hands/we take the floor/nothing is forbidden any more]

In both examples the retention of a minimal amount of Spanish in the artistes first English numbers, like Khaleds use of Arabic in Aicha, could be seen as a message that despite their new orientation they have not turned their backs on their Hispanic fans. The same strategy may also have commercial motives, since the performers certainly wish to keep their original fans as well as appealing to a new audience. There may also be a deliberate decision to introduce a note of exoticism, as already noted for example (16), since this sells well to an Anglophone public.

These songs thus illustrate both language crossing and language used as an in-group marker. Another case which might be classified under both of

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these headings is the incorporation of (typically Afro-American) English into rap lyrics in many parts of the world. Sarkar et al. (2005) report on the use of this strategy by Francophone Quebec rappers, while Davies and Bentahila (2006) include examples of its use by North African rap groups. In one sense, English is very much an outsiders language for these performers, who may not be proficient in it; yet at another level, this strategy can also be seen as an act of allegiance to the worldwide hip-hop community, which is based not on geographical origins but on self-identification, acting as a reminder of the origins of rap in the USA. 3.3 Bilingual lyrics and allusions to performers roots

While some performers thus choose to sing in the language of the targeted audience even though this is not their own language, in other cases the singer might resort to a language which is probably unfamiliar to most of the audi-ence, but which has links to his or her own origins. For instance, when Cat Stevens incorporated a verse in Greek into his British hit Rubylove, this served as a reminder of his Greek Cypriot origin. And the fact that Patrick Bruels basically French song Au caf des dlices includes numerous repeti-tions of the Arabic words ja lil (o night) and abibi (darling) (which are in fact stereotyped elements featured in the refrains of many Arabic popular songs, functioning here as what Sternberg (1981:226) calls mimetic clichs) certainly evokes the singers own Algerian heritage.

Such inclusions may work on multiple levels. The incorporation of ele-ments of a language not known by the majority of listeners may be intended to create an effect of alienation, offering the experience of exclusion and failure to understand (as discussed by Gordon and Williams 1998). To the entirely uninitiated, examples like these may simply add a note of exotic charm to the overall effect; to those who know something about the performers, they may come across as affirmations of identity; and to those attentive to the rest of the lyrics, they may also add to the overall meaning. In the case of Rubylove, the addition suggests something about the identity of the lover addressed, and in that of Au caf des dlices it evokes a traditional Arab setting, the caf of the title being in Tunis.

3.4 Contrasting languages, contrasting personas

The shift between languages can be exploited to signal a contrast between two different personas featured within the lyrics. For example, in a duet where each singer uses a different language, this may enhance the effect of a dialogue or exchange, as is the case of Bocelli and Sgaras Italian/French rendering of Vivo per lei. In this particular case, however, it is interesting that after a long series of alternations between Italian and French, the song closes with the two

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performers adopting the same language for the concluding phrase Io vivo per lei, even though earlier in the song Sgara uses the French translation of this line, Je vis pour elle. The convergence of languages in this unified closure may be felt to symbolize the harmony between the two personas:

(18) Bocelli: Vivo per lei la unicaSgara: Elle est toi et moiBocelli and Sgara: Io vivo per leiBocelli: Io vivoSgara: Per lei. (Bocelli and Sgara, Vivo per lei)[I live for it [it = music], the only thing/it is you and me/I live for it/ I live/for it]

In other cases, the same performer may use a shift of language to symbol-ize a switch of persona. For instance, in the Algerian rap group MBSs song Systme Primitif, the lyrics alternate between lines in Classical Arabic, which are intended to represent the official discourse of the Ministry of Education, and lines in the informal code switching variety using French and dialectal Arabic. The latter express the point of view of the pupils subjected to the ministrys arbitrary policies. The gulf between the two groups is effectively symbolized by the discrepancy between their ways of expressing themselves (Davies and Bentahila 2006).

In the Moroccan rap group Maroc Connections song Muhal, the body of the song is performed in a mixture of Arabic and French, faithfully reproducing the style of everyday speech and describing the experiences of an illegal North African immigrant in Europe: humiliation, loneliness and homesickness. The end of the song, however, involves an abrupt switch to Spanish, representing the Spanish official who rejects the immigrant. This is followed by the im-migrants response, which significantly is also in Spanish (though marked as that of an outsider by its slightly non-standard syntax, and by one switch to Arabic for the emotive reference fi bladi, meaning in my own country):

(19 ) No soy clandestino malo, soy un hombre, un verdadero hombre que tiene verdaderos principios. Y necesitado de venir de una manera clandestina. Es que no he encontrado una alternativa fi bladi. Quiero asegurarme para vivir con mis propias manos, propias manos... (Maroc Connection, Muhal)[I am not a bad illegal immigrant, I am a man, a real man who has real principles. And I had to come here illegally. It is because I didnt find any other alternative in my own country. I want to earn my living with my own hands, my own hands]

The shift from the performers local variety to Spanish symbolizes the gulf between the two worlds, but interestingly, the immigrant is shown as being able to adapt and express himself in the Others language. The combina-

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tion of languages used in this song means that the full meaning of the lyrics will be accessible only to a very limited audience: most Moroccans will not understand the Spanish part, and the Arabic-French mixture will not be intel-ligible for those outside Francophone North Africa. Looked at the other way round, however, the switch to Spanish, the outsiders language, can be seen as a means of opening up the lyrics to a wider audience by allowing them to understand the songs ultimate message a plea for better understanding between the two parties.

In Jennifer Lopezs song Shouldve never, the lyrics are sung entirely in English, but the number closes with a section spoken in Spanish. Interestingly, internet sources providing the lyrics of this song often leave out the spoken words altogether, though it is not clear whether this is because they are judged unimportant (since they are spoken rather than sung), or because they remain impenetrable to those who provide lyrics for these predominantly Anglophone websites. Internet discussion which does mention the spoken part tends simply to refer to sexy Spanish mutterings, implying that they are there to contribute to the mood rather than to specific content. What is certain is that the majority of the Anglophone audience enjoyed this song without being able to decipher its Spanish ending. Yet the Spanish component, to those who do understand it, contributes much to the songs total appeal.

The English lyrics speak of the singers guilt and regret at having got involved in an illicit relationship with the addressee while being committed to another, and her fear of being discovered: Shouldve never kissed you/ Shouldve never held your hand and Maybe we should just try to hide/ The things we feel inside. However, the Spanish words reveal another side to the story: here the woman expresses fear at the thought of having to live without her lover, gives free rein to her passion, and in her concluding declaration, explicitly denies the sense of guilt affirmed in the English part: bsame, bsamedevrame, devramenunca me arrepentir (kiss me, kiss me devour me, devour me I will never regret it).

The use of two different languages here cleverly captures two conflicting sides to the persona: English is used to convey her more rational, reflective approach to the problem, while Spanish is used when she casts caution to the wind and discards her misgivings. This shift of language may perhaps be linked to the fact that, for a singer of Hispanic background, English will typically be the language of the public persona and Spanish the language of emotions, or what Ohlson (2007:350) refers to as la lengua del corazn (the language of the heart). Only an audience conversant with both languages will be able to appreciate the full impact of the shift.

3.5 Symbolic values of contrasting languages

There are also instances where it may not be necessary for the audience to understand either of the languages involved in order to appreciate the songs

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message. The fact that two languages are combined in a single artistic work may in itself symbolize the meeting or merging of two cultures and two identities, while translation can be perceived as a marker of mobility or convergence.

An interesting illustration is provided by a version of John Lennons Imagine, performed as a duet by the Algerian Khaled and the Israeli Noa. The considerable impact of this version, as a plea for peace and understand-ing, comes from the fact that Noa sings her part in Hebrew and Khaled his in Arabic, after which they continue by singing together in English. The fact that the melody is so well known is of course enough to allow audiences all over the world to recognize the song from its opening lines, even if they do not understand a word of Hebrew or Arabic. All that is required from the international audience is to realize that they are listening to a translation of Lennons song and to recognize the languages used. Interestingly, an aware-ness of the existence of translation seems more crucial here than an actual understanding of the lyrics.

Another instance where a combination of elements from different languages bears a symbolic message is provided by Shakiras How do you do. This song, dominated by English, is addressed to God, using a familiar tone and raising questions about forgiveness, and the existence of evil and suffering in the world, as well as addressing the issue of different religions. Its most striking feature is the interweaving within the lyrics of elements from the liturgies of the three revealed religions, using, besides English, Latin (below in italics), Arabic (in bold) and Hebrew (in bold italics):

(20) In cielo et in terra fiat voluntas tuaGloria spiritui sancto ...Forgive us our trespassesAs we forgive those who have trespassed against ussameh zunubi llahGive us this day our daily breadmechilaDaily breadja llah slach lanu (Shakira, How do you do)[Thy will be done on earth as in heaven/ glory to the Holy Spirit//for-give us our trespasses/as we forgive those who have trespassed against us/forgive my sins oh God/give us this day our daily bread/forgive-ness/daily bread/oh God forgive us)

The languages here are being used as symbols of the different religious com-munities, and their intermingling can be read as an emphasis on their similarity, and on the fact that the notion of forgiveness is a common feature in all three. This is an effective use of intertextuality, with some, if not all, of the allusions being accessible to the songs international public.

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4. Conclusion

Thanks to developments in communication technologies and mass media, it is now easier for popular songs and other audiovisual products to cross borders and reach new audiences. At the same time members of diaspora or minority groups linked by a shared heritage, experience or taste can more easily form communities linked by communicative networks rather than spatial contiguity. These trends mean that what was once exotic has become familiar to many, and audiences themselves may actively seek out new forms of music, whether these are alien to their previous experiences or a means of reaffirming their origins. In the context of these overall trends of globalization, localization and hybridity, translation and code switching prove to be useful tools in the construction of song lyrics.

In this examination of bilingual lyrics, we have deliberately chosen to discuss translation and code switching side by side. We have seen that both can be used to achieve similar effects, and that demarcation lines are not always clear. It is not always possible to decide where translation ends and rewriting begins, whether a mixed language text has been created through code switching or translation, or which is the source/target text.

Both translation and code switching may be used to achieve clarity via reiteration, or mystification via the creation of an impenetrable mixture. Both may create effects of exoticism and alienation, and both may serve the pur-pose of localizing a text. They may also be used to create texture and patterns within lyrics, to reflect and reinforce contrasts and parallels within a song, or to serve political or ideological purposes. And given the propensity of music to travel beyond linguistic and cultural borders, their exploitation in bilingual lyrics may sometimes create effects which the composers themselves had not planned or expected; for the impact of the songs will depend as much on the identity, attitudes and expectations of the listeners as on the careful strategies of their creators.

Song lyrics have a special status in that their success may depend to a large extent on their musical characteristics rather than their linguistic content. Because of this, their audiences may be tolerant of a fair degree of hetero-geneity or unintelligibility. Such lyrics offer rich possibilities for innovative and unconventional uses of language, and it is thus hardly surprising that the translation and code switching used within bilingual songs do not always fulfill the typical roles associated with their use in other contexts. Code switching, rather than serving as a marker of in-group solidarity, may here be used to open up a text to two distinct communities; and translation in bilingual lyrics is not always used simply to make a message accessible to a new audience, but can in itself constitute an assertion of identity. Moreover, rather than serving, as it so often does, to yield a uniform, polished, independent product, translation is often used in these lyrics to construct a more heterogeneous text.

Rather than being used to foster understanding, in these songs translation

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may sometimes cause the audience to confront a language they are unfamiliar with, offering them the experience of not being able to understand. More-over, the awareness that one is listening to a translation may sometimes be crucial to a full appreciation of the song. And while translation is generally assumed to pursue the goal of preserving the source texts meaning, in songs the translation process often seems to be an opportunity to bring other changes to the content, sometimes to the point of eradicating certain essential features of the original song.

Ultimately, the use of both translation and code switching within these songs can perhaps best be seen as part of a process of breaking down bar-riers: the barriers between languages themselves, between song genres and between audiences. In bringing together in one article an examination of both translation practices and code switching strategies, we hope to have shown that there may be fruitful avenues for exchange between these two fields of research, which have tended to remain separate in previous work. In explor-ing the complex interactions between the two language components in these texts, it may be profitable to draw upon the work of both translation theorists and sociolinguists.

EIRLYS E. DAVIESEcole Suprieure Roi Fahd de Traduction, BP 410, Tangier, Morocco. [email protected]

ABDELLI BENTAHILABP 1220 Tanger Principal, Tangier 90 000, Morocco. [email protected]

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in Montreal Hip-Hop: Mayhem Meets Method or Tout Moune qui Talk Trashe Kiss mon Black Ass du Nord, in James Cohen, Kara T. McAlister, Kellie Rolstad and Jeff MacSwan (eds) ISB4: Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Bilingualism, Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Press, 2057-74.

Schendl, H. (1997) To London fro Kent/Sunt Predia Depopulantes: Code Switch-ing and Medieval English Macaronic poems, Vienna English Working Papers 6: 52-66.

Stern, S. M. (1948) Les Vers Finaux en Espagnol dans les Muwassahs Hispano-Hbraiques: Une Contribution lHistoire et lEtude du Vieux Dialecte Espagnol Mozarabe, Al-Andalus 13: 299-346.

Sternberg, Meir (1981) Polylingualism as Reality and Translation as Mimesis, Poetics Today 2(4): 221-239.

Stlen, Marianne (1992) Codeswitching for Humour and Ethnic Identity: Written Danish-American occasional Songs, in Carol M. Eastman (ed.) Codeswitch-ing, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 215-28.

Susam-Sarajeva, ebnem (2006) Rembetika Songs and Their Return to Ana-tolia, in Loredana Polezzi (ed) Translation, Travel, Migration, Special issue of The Translator 12(2): 253-78.

Vian, Boris (1997) En Avant la Zizique, Paris: Pauvert.Zwartjes, Otto (1995) The Andalusian Xarja-s: Poetry at the Crossroads of Two

Systems?, Unpublished PhD thesis, Nijmegen: University of Nijmegen.

Discography

Aventura, Gone, in We broke the rules, Premium Latin Music, 2002.Big Sugar, Nicotina (Shes all that) and Tina Gasolina (Elle est tout a), in

Nicotina (Shes all that)/Tina Gasolina (Elle est tout a), Universal, 2001.Bocelli, Andrea and Hlne Sgara, Vivo per lei, in Romanza, Phillips, 1997.Bruel, Patrick, Au caf des dlices, in Juste avant, RCA France, 1999.Cheb Akil, Diri confiance, in Cheb Akil, Fassiphone (Morocco), n.d.Cheb Hasni, Touhachtek, in Hasni et Nasro: La Compilation, Nabilophone

(Morocco), n.d.Cheb Hasni, Tu nes plus comme avant, in Hasni, Fassiphone (Morocco), n.d.Cheb Mami and K. Mel, Parisien du Nord, in Du Sud au Nord, Virgin Records,

2004.Cheb Nasro, Reviens moi, in Mega Rai, Wagram Music, 1999.Faudel, Tellement nbrick, in Bada, Mercury France, 1997.Franois, Jacqueline, Mademoiselle de Paris, in Mademoiselle de Paris, INTSF,

2005.Iglesias, Enrique, Bailamos, in Enrique, Universal, 1999.Khaled, Aicha, in Sahra, Polygram, 1996.Khaled, Cest la nuit, in Kenza, Wrasse Records, 1999.Khaled, Layli (Cest la nuit version arabe), in Kenza, Wrasse Records, 1999.Khaled and Noa, Imagine, in Kenza, Wrasse Records, 1999. Lopez, Jennifer, Shouldve never, in On the 6, Work Group, 1999.Maroc Connection, Muhal, in Maroc Connection, Douniaphone (Morocco), n.d.

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Martin, Ricky, Livin la vida loca, in Ricky Martin, Sony, 1999.MBS, Systme Primitif, in Le micro brise le silence, Universal, 1999.Mellow Man Ace, Linda, in Linda, Capital, 1992.Nsync, Gone, in Celebrity, Jive, 2001.Passengers, Miss Sarajevo, Island records, 1995.Shakira, How do you do?, in Oral Fixation Vol. 2, Epic, 2000.Stevens, Cat, Rubylove, in Teaser and the Firecat, A&M, 1971.Williams, Andy, Mademoiselle de Paree, in Andy Williams Best/Under Paris

Skies, Collectables, 2000.

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translation of bilingual popular songs (2008)

Documents

lyrics translation

code switchingin

articletaylor francis

content shouldnot

creation of song lyrics

registered office

wales registered number

systematic supply