LEARNING

A relatively permanent change in behavior brought

about by experience.

Classical Conditioning A type of learning in which a neutral

stimulus comes to bring about a response after it is paired with a stimulus that naturally brings about that responseNeutral stimulus – a stimulus that,

before conditioning, does not naturally bring about the response of interest.

Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)

Unconditioned stimulus – a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned

Unconditioned response – a stimulus that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food).

Classical Conditioning (Cont’d)Conditioned stimulus – a once neutral stimulus

that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response – a response that, after conditioning follows a previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation at the ringing of a bell)

Applying Conditioning Principles to Human

Behavior

Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery

Extinction – is a basic phenomenon of learning that occurs when a previously conditioned response

decreases in frequency and eventually disappears

Spontaneous recovery – the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning

Generalization and Discrimination

Stimulus generalization is a process in which, after a stimulus has been conditioned to produce a particular response, stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response

Stimulus discrimination is the process that occurs if two stimuli are sufficiently distinct from one another that one evokes a conditioned response but the other does not; the ability to differentiate between stimuli.

Operant ConditioningLearning in which a voluntary response is

strengthened or weakened depending on its favorable or unfavorable consequences.

The term operant emphasizes this point: the organism operates on its environment to produce a desirable result.

Thorndike’s Law of EffectResponses that lead to satisfying

consequences are more likely to be repeated.  The principle of effect is that learning is strengthened when accompanied by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.

The Basics of Operant

Conditioning•Reinforcement is the process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated.

Reinforcement: The Central Concept of

Operant Conditioning

Reinforcement: The Central Concept of Operant Conditioning

• A reinforcer is an stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again.• A primary reinforcer satisfies some biological need and

works naturally, regardless of a person’s previous experience.• A secondary reinforcer, in contrast, is a stimulus that

becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforce.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment

• A positive reinforcer is a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response.• A negative reinforcer refers to an unpleasant

stimulus whose removal leas to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated in the future.

Positive Reinforcers, Negative Reinforcers, and Punishment (Cont’d)• Punishment refers to a stimulus that decreases

the probability that a prior behavior will occur again. • Positive punishment weakens a response

through the application of an unpleasant stimulus.• Negative punishment consists of the removal

of something pleasant.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards

Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement following desired behavior.

• Continuous reinforcement schedule: reinforcing of a behavior every time it occurs.• Partial or intermittent reinforcement schedule:

reinforcing of a behavior some but not all of the time.

Schedules of Reinforcement: Timing Life’s Rewards (Cont’d)

• Fixed ratio schedule: A schedule by which reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses are made. • Variable ratio schedule: A schedule by which

reinforcement occurs after a varying number of responses rather than after a fixed number.

Discrimination and Generalization in Operant

Conditioning

Shaping: Reinforcing What Doesn’t Come Naturally

Shaping is the process of teaching a complex behavior by rewarding closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbJJL-35Z1Y - • https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I68Y81ZpjNM