topic basic concepts in psychology

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X INTRODUCTION Teachers are directly involved in the implementation of the curriculum and educational programmes in schools. The teacherÊs role in a school is very important, especially in achieving the aspirations and goals of the school. Coopes (1988), stated that an effective teacher is one who possesses knowledge, especially in the skills of teaching such as: Knowledge of the theory of human learning and psychology A sincere attitude that encourages learning as well as positive interactions in multiple directions Complete knowledge in the subjects that are taught Teaching methods and techniques that allow students to carry out their learning activities by using appropriate methods and techniques X Basic Concepts in Psychology T T o o p p i i c c 1 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define psychology; 2. Describe the history of educational psychology; 3. Define educational psychology; and 4. Explain the importance of educational psychology to teachers.

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Page 1: Topic Basic Concepts in Psychology

INTRODUCTION Teachers are directly involved in the implementation of the curriculum and educational programmes in schools. The teacherÊs role in a school is very important, especially in achieving the aspirations and goals of the school. Coopes (1988), stated that an effective teacher is one who possesses knowledge, especially in the skills of teaching such as:

• Knowledge of the theory of human learning and psychology

• A sincere attitude that encourages learning as well as positive interactions in multiple directions

• Complete knowledge in the subjects that are taught

• Teaching methods and techniques that allow students to carry out their learning activities by using appropriate methods and techniques

Basic Concepts in Psychology

TTooppiicc 11

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Define psychology;

2. Describe the history of educational psychology;

3. Define educational psychology; and

4. Explain the importance of educational psychology to teachers.

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As educators of the new generation, teachers must know the aspects of psychology, especially that of human development. With this knowledge, teachers can plan, deliver and assess their teaching in an effective way. In addition, they can carry out their responsibilities as parent substitutes which include giving their views, advice, and guidance in aspects regarding student behaviour and their personal matters.

1.1 THE DEFINITION OF PSYCHOLOGY

What do you understand about psychology? The word ÂpsychologyÊ came from the words ÂpsycheÊ and ÂlogosÊ which originated from ancient Greek civilisation. ÂPsycheÊ means ÂsoulÊ and ÂlogosÊ means the Âstudy of somethingÊ. Therefore, psychology means the study of something that affects the soul. According to the Oxford Dictionary, psychology is defined as: „The scientific study of the mind and how it influences behaviour.‰ From the definition above, it can be concluded that Âthe study of somethingÊ that is meant by the word „logos‰ is the study of thinking that influences the character and behaviour of organisms. Other definitions of psychology that support the definition above are:

• „The scientific study of the way the human mind works and how it influences behaviour, or the influence of the particular personÊs character on their behaviour.‰ (Cambridge International Dictionary of English).

• „Psychology may be defined as the systematic study of behaviour and mental life.‰ (Henry L. Roediger and colleagues, 1984).

• Kalat (1984) defines psychology as the scientific study of human behaviour and experience whereas Williams (1960) defines it as a branch of scientific study that examines behaviour and activities.

• Wittaker (1970) in his book ÂIntroduction to PsychologyÊ stated that psychology is the science of behaviour. Therefore, psychology is the scientific study of the human soul and spirit.

To summarise, psychology can be defined as a branch of scientific study that focuses on the mental life and behaviour of humans and animals.

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1.2 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY

The origins of the word ÂpsychologyÊ indicate that the field of psychology has a long history that dates back to ancient Greek civilisation. The study of psychology was developed between the year 384 BC to 322 BC by Greek scholars such as Socrates, Pluto and Aristotle. During that time, psychology was part of the study of philosophy rather than a scientific study of its own. After the period of early Greek civilisation, the history of psychology can be grouped according to the understanding and perspectives of several prominent psychologists. (a) Interactionism

The concept of ÂinteractionismÊ was first introduced by Rene Descartes (1595-1650), a French philosopher and mathematician. Descartes contended that the human being is a combination of mind and body or body and soul. This concept is in contrast with the idea of dualism which separates the body and soul.

1. Psychology has been related to the mental and behavioural processes of humans. What are the mental and behavioural processes that have been studied by psychologists? Give some examples.

2. As a teacher, how would you solve disciplinary problems in the classroom? Discuss.

ACTIVITY 1.1

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Table 1.1: The History of the Development of Psychology

Period Description of historical events

384 322 BC The study of psychology started in ancient Greek.

1595 - 1690 The concepts of interactionism and dualism were developed.

1685 1753 The development of empiricism.

1832 1920 The development of structuralism in Germany.

1867 1927 The study of structuralism began in North America.

1859 1952 The development of functionalism in North America.

1878 1958 The development of behaviourism in North America.

1880 1843 The development of the concept of gestalt in Germany.

Maslow and Rogers founded the humanistic school of thought.

Cognitivism was introduced by Piaget, Vygotsky and others.

1908 - 1987

Constructivism was founded by Glaserfeld, Piaget, Vygotsky and others.

(b) Empiricism

Empiricism started in 17th and 18th century England. Famous philosophers in psychology of that period were John Locke (1632-1704) and George Berkeley (1685-1753). John Locke proposed the concept of Âtabula rasaÊ which refers to the human soul as an empty slate at birth.

(c) Structuralism

Structuralism was first developed in Germany by Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920). Structuralism was known as such because its proponents focused on the study of conscious experience, which is a study of what a person is able to state during his conscious experience. Wundt studied the feelings, attitudes, perceptions, and assumptions of an individual toward a particular situation. Wundt can be regarded as the first modern psychologist. He wrote about his study in 50,000 words. In 1879, Wundt built the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany and accordingly acknowledged as the father of psychology.

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Figure 1.1: Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Psychology

Structuralism psychologists identified three main components of conscious experience, namely, sensation, image and affection. Sensation involves sight, sound, smell, taste, and feel. Image is experience that is non-existent, such as remembering someone or an event. Affection involves emotional reactions such as love, happiness and jealousy. These elements of experience are believed to merge in a personÊs experience through the process of association. These elements have been identified and categorised through a technique called analytical introspection. One of WundtÊs students, Edward Bradford Titchener (1867-1927) built a psychology laboratory in Cornell University and formed the basis for the study of structuralism in America.

(d) Functionalism

Functionalism was founded in America by John Dewey (1859-1952) and William James (1842-1910). This trend was called functionalism because it focused on conscious experience and behaviour. The proponents of this school of thought examined how a person uses his mind to think and consequently act. They believed that the mental process is always active and continuous. This school of thought was influenced by the theory of human evolution proposed by Darwin and the philosophy of pragmatism (thinking based on practice rather than theory). William James was regarded as AmericaÊs first psychologist. He was the first American to open a psychology laboratory in the United States of America. He introduced courses in psychology and to publish two books entitled ÂThe Principles of PsychologyÊ.

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(e) Behaviourism Behaviourism appeared in North America and was founded by J. B. Watson (1878-1958) who introduced the classic conditioning theory where he did a study on a boy, Albert, and a white mouse. In 1913, Watson published his findings in an article entitled „Psychology as the Behaviourist Views It‰. In the article, he clearly stated that psychology is the study of overt behaviour. Other proponents of behaviourism include Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and Hull. The behaviourist trend was also known as associationism, which is the study of the mental association between two events or two ideas that leads to learning.

Psychologists within this trend studied animals such as mice, cats and dogs. The principles of learning or behaviour derived from the studies were applied to the learning or behaviour of humans. This trend also focused on studying human behaviour and rejected the emotional aspect of the human being. This trend was strongly influenced by the philosophy of logical positivism. The philosophy of logic contends that all knowledge has to be justified through empirical ways or systematic observations. A critical concept introduced by this trend into psychology was the operational definition. The operational definition is a scientific concept that refers to the process of measuring what is being studied. For instance, hunger can be defined as something that is experienced by humans and animals after they have not eaten at the time they were supposed to eat. This definition was not accepted by the proponents of logical positivism because it must include a specific measurement of the time that food was not consumed and the condition of the person who was hungry. In order to justify this condition there must be a way of measuring. Behaviourism psychologists stress that the purpose of psychological knowledge is to describe, explain, predict and control behaviour.

(f) Gestalt Psychology

At the same time, gestalt psychology began to appear in Germany. It developed in reaction to the ideas of structuralism. Proponents of gestalt contended that humans perceive the world as a unitary whole, or ÂgestaltÊ (ÂgestaltÊ comes from the German word ÂgestaltenÊ, which can be defined as ÂwholeÊ, ÂpolarÊ or ÂorganisedÊ). Three proponents of this school of thought were Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) and Kurt Koffka (1886-1941).

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(g) Humanistic The humanistic trend was founded by Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) and Carl Rogers (1902-1987). The humanistic approach stresses on the ways of thinking, experience and interpretation of a person about an event. Humanistic psychologists believe that an individual is responsible for his own actions. For example, if a person wants to achieve excellence in life, he should act or work toward achieving this goal. According to this approach, the power of a personÊs motivation is his tendency to develop and achieve self-actualisation. This means that every individual has the need to develop his potential to the maximum. Even though setbacks exist, his natural tendency is to achieve self-actualisation or to develop his potential to the maximum. This concept of self-actualisation was introduced by Maslow.

(h) Cognitivism

The cognitivism trend was introduced by gestalt psychologists, Piaget, Vygotsky, Gagne, Bruner and Ausubel. Psychologists within this trend were interested in studying human thought, perception and assumption, cognition, metacognition, critical and creative thinking skills, learning skills and motivation, among others.

(i) Constructivism

From amongst the cognitivism psychologists, constuctivism psychologists appeared. Prominent psychologists within this trend include Von Glaserfeld, Piaget, Vygotsky, Confrey and Seymour Peppert. Constructivism takes into account how an individual constructs his understanding about something that is being learned. Constructivism stresses on the active role of the learner during the process of teaching and learning. This approach to teaching is very popular in the teaching of mathematics and the science subjects (physics, chemistry, and biology). To summarise, there are several similarities and differences between past and present concepts in psychology. These concepts have their own strengths and were practiced according to context. Psychologists have used different approaches in explaining the concepts that they introduced in their effort to examine human behaviour in-depth.

Discuss the differences in views between the behaviourism and cognitivism trends.

ACTIVITY 1.2

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PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES

Psychologists have used several approaches in describing the concepts and ideas that they proposed about human behaviour. These include the behaviourism, psychoanalytic, humanistic and biological approaches.

1.3.1 The Behaviourism Approach

The behaviourism approach stated that psychologists do not have to consider mental events (conscious and unconscious) and that they should instead focus on behaviour that is overt and non-overt. Watson, a behaviourist, stated that all aspects relating to a personÊs behaviour are influenced by the environment rather than by internal factors. WatsonÊs ideas have contributed to the behaviourism approach that stresses on the idea that behaviour and mental processes are consequences of learning (Berstein et al., 1994). According to this approach, behaviour is a series of responses that happens when there are stimuli. This approach is also known as stimulus-response psychology. In addition to Watson, other behaviourism psychologists were Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and E. L Thorndike. Pavlov (1949-1936) was credited for the concept of classic conditioning where he did an experiment on a dog to show the relationship between stimulus (food) and response (saliva). Thorndike (1874-1949) introduced the theory of trial and error conditioning. In this theory, the basic principle of learning is the influence of reward and punishment. An organism will do something that will bring them pleasure. On the other hand, the organism will avoid doing something that will bring about pain or danger to them.

1.3

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Figure 1.2: PavlovÊs conditioning experiment

According to Thorndike, reward drives the organism to repeat a response whereas punishment will prevent the organism from responding. In other words, an organism relates a particular response to a particular stimulus. Thorndike labelled this type of learning as Âinstrumental or operant learningÊ which was later further developed by Skinner. Skinner (1904-1990) is well-known for operant conditioning that measures the influence of reward and punishment. He did his experiments on mice and pigeons. In his controlled experiments, he succeeded in measuring the process of learning by changing the frequency of rewards and punishments.

1.3.2 The Psychoanalytic Approach

The psychoanalytic approach was based on the belief that human behaviour is influenced by unconscious psychological processes which we are not aware of. In other words, our behaviour is based on internal conflicts, impulses, desires and motives which we are not aware of. This approach assumes that all behaviour, normal and abnormal, is the result of the interaction between genetic and environmental factors. Both factors affect behaviour by influencing the conscious and unconscious psychological processes. Psychoanalytic theorists stress on the importance of an individualÊs early stages of development and they believe that events happening during childhood have a lasting effect on the psychology of the individual.

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Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), is the most well-known psychoanalytic theorist. His ideas have continued to influence other psychoanalytic theorists. His theory of personality structure divided the psychic structure into three categories: id, ego and superego. Freud believed that each of these entities were responsible for each set of psychological operation.

Figure 1.3: Sigmund Freud: Pioneer of the Psychodynamic Theory

(a) Id

The id is the source of motivation and desire that are inherited, primitive, self-centred, and does not have the influence of the real world. The id is dominant at the early months of a babyÊs life, when motivation and wants strongly influence a babyÊs behaviour. It is seen as the first psychic element that influences behaviour.

(b) Ego

The ego is responsible for and controls motivation and primitive urges so that they follow more closely the situational requirements. The ego slowly takes the responsibility to turn the primitive motivation of the id to follow the moral requirements and ethical standards of the community. The egoÊs operation is guided by the principles of reality and not by the principles of pleasure that influences the id. The principles of reality acknowledge the realistic requirements of the community.

(c) Superego

As children grow, the role of the ego expands. It has to deal with the superego which is the early source of conscience and which is our ability to

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differentiate between the right and wrong. The superego appears slowly when children learn the rules that are used by their parents to interpret the expectations of the community. Parents have an important role in the development of conscience in children until they can construct their own set of internal standards. Children who were brought up by their parents in an abusive way will become critical, punishing and penalising. This behaviour can become excessive. In such cases, the superego might become so inflexible and strict that it limits or prevents itself from enjoying normal pleasures that are supposed to be experienced during childhood. Children with punitive superegos during adolescence might face problems in fulfilling the superegoÊs requirements. As an example, when they reach puberty, they will have problems controlling their increasing sexual needs. Freud believes that anxiety and depression are usually associated with an excessive demand from the superego. In the psychoanalytic approach, the id, the ego and the superego usually have different goals and methods. If the id and superego become strong enough to empower the ego, this will result in an internal conflict within the individual. According to FreudÊs theory, if this conflict is unresolved, it can lead to mental confusion. Psychoanalysis uses the developmental approach in understanding abnormalities. It claims that events during childhood have an impact on an individualÊs adult life. Freud believes that children go through different levels of psychosexuality at different stages. At each stage, there is a part of the body that provides satisfaction to the sexual needs. Children going through the anal, oral, latency and genital stages in a satisfactory way will become a normal adult. If there is disappointment or excesses at any level, a fixation will exist at the particular level that will influence the individualÊs characteristics in his adult life. For instance, a person who eats excessively at the oral level might experience fixation at that level and might become obese or addicted to drugs as a grown-up. This approach has contributed significantly in helping to understand human personality development. The views about the influence of the id, ego and superego from childhood on an individualÊs personality development have initiated a great deal of research in this area. These views have also influenced other disciplines such as English literature and history.

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1.3.3 The Cognitivism Approach

This approach was pioneered by gestalt psychologists such as Piaget, Vygotsky, Gagne, Bruner and Ausubel. The cognitive approach focuses on the process of human thinking such as perception and assumption, cognition, metacognition, critical and creative thinking, learning skills, and motivation. Cognitive psychologists try to understand the processes involved and how they operate. These psychologists believe that the internal events that happen within an individual must be studied if his behaviour in total were to be understood. This approach differs from the psychoanalysis approach that focuses on unconscious thought and the behaviourist approach that focuses on environmental factors and behaviour.

1.3.4 The Humanistic Approach

This approach stated that the humans are free and good individuals with the potential to develop and with targets to achieve. Humans are motivated to act because they have desires and needs. According to this approach, humans are always active and do not wait to be acted upon. The study of psychology is to help humans to maximise their potential for their psychological development. A few prominent psychologists within this approach are Abraham Maslow, Rolio May, Carl Rogers and Gordon Allport. Abraham Maslow (1970) introduced the theory of the hierarchy of needs. The assumptions underlying this theory are based on the belief that humans are never satisfied with what they have achieved. According to Maslow, human needs can be grouped into five levels of hierarchy (Figure 1.4) which range from the low level needs (basic needs) to the high level needs (psychological needs). Humans will actively move upwards from one level to the other after the needs of each level are met. Rogers (1956), stated that humans are always working to understand themselves and to influence and control their own behaviour and those of others. He believes that basically all humans are good and that they are all born with the tendency to

Explain the differences between the id, the ego and the superego.

SELF-CHECK 1.1

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seek perfection which forms the motive that drives them to develop as mature and healthy human beings. In conclusion, the humanistic approach focuses on the desires of an individual and the uniqueness of humans as well as their freedom to choose their own goals in life. Psychology has the role of helping humans to develop their potential to the maximum.

Figure 1.4: MaslowÊs Hierarchy of Needs

Look at Figure 1.4. Based on your own life experience, give an example for each level of hierarchy. Which level are you at now?

1.3.5 The Biological Approach

This approach is also known as the biomedical approach and the Disease Model or Medical Model. This approach is based on the assumption that humans are physical systems and must be understood from a physical angle. Among the things that have to be understood are the physiological condition and nervous system of the individual. According to this point of view, the problems that we experienced are a result of physical disability, injury or diseases that affect the brain. Two German physiologists, Edward Hitzig (1893-1927) and Gustav Fritsch (1839-1907) carried out an experiment on a dog which involved inserting two strands of wire in the cortical surface of the dogÊs brain. Through this experiment, they found that the structure of the brain where the spinal cords originate is closely related to

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the individualÊs behaviour. In other words, the brain will respond to an electrical stimulus that is directly given and this affects the behaviour of an individual.

Figure 1.5: A cat with an electrode inserted in its brain

Source: www.geocities.jp/helpanimals2001/Jikken_e.html Therefore, an area of focus within the biological approach is the role of the central nervous system that is responsible for controlling the thoughts and movements of humans.

Each of the approaches that have been discussed focuses on one or just a few aspects of the human being. Match the approaches and their area/areas of focus.

ACTIVITY 1.3

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Every approach has its strengths and weaknesses. However, each of these approaches has contributed toward many areas of research such as research on drug abuse, computer and human interaction, genius and problematic children and many more.

1.4 DEFINING EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

What do you understand about educational psychology? The fields of psychology and education are closely related. The field of educational psychology combines the field of psychology with that of education. As you have learned, psychology is the scientific study of the thought and behaviour of an individual or group of individuals whereas education is the process of developing the potential and skills of an individual in a specific area. According to Banks and Thomson (1995), psychology is the study of human behaviour. Education is a profession that studies and constructs methodologies and approaches for teaching and learning that can be used in schools. Educational psychology is the study of human action and behaviour in the process of teaching and learning in the classroom.

The study of educational psychology includes the study of human development, learning, memory, motivation, classroom management, and testing and assessment of learning. Borich and Tombari (1997), stated that educational psychology is a discipline that focuses on the theoretical and empirical knowledge about teaching and learning in the classroom. Clifford (1984 in Henson & Eller, 1999), defines educational psychology as „applying the methods of psychology to studying the process of education‰ whereas Grinder (1981) defines it as the application of psychological knowledge to classroom situations.

The job of educational psychologists is to apply the principles of psychology to education, and throughout their career, to examine the learner, the process of learning, and the strategies of learning in order to improve learning.

In conclusion, educational psychology is very useful for teachers in order to understand student behaviour and to ease the process of teaching and learning.

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1.5 PURPOSES OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY

The goal of educational psychology is to understand (describe and explain) learner behaviour in the process of teaching and learning as well as to predict the possible replacement behaviour and how to control such behaviour. As an example, by referring to the different ways of solving student problems as described in the following paragraph, behaviour can be controlled where negative behaviour can be replaced with positive behaviour by encouraging the student to do activities which are beneficial to them. The aim of psychology focuses on four goals (Abd Majid Mohd Isa & Rahil Mahyuddin, 1997) which are to describe, to explain, to control and to predict an action. When a negative behaviour is found, for instance, smoking among teenagers (14 or fifteen years of age), psychologists will try to describe this behaviour. Usually these will include actions such as sneaking off somewhere to smoke. They will smoke in the toilet, shrubbery, shopping complexes or abandoned houses. Following this description, the psychologists will attempt to explain the causes that led to the teenagersÊ actions. After explaining the reasons for these actions, they will suggest ways to control these actions and predict replacement actions to replace the negative ones. For example, healthy activities such as playing badminton or jogging in the evenings are predicted as having the ability to stop the smoking habit among the teenagers.

THE IMPORTANCE OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY TO TEACHERS

What is the importance of psychology to teachers and students? There are several reasons why it is important for teachers to understand and practice educational psychology, such as:

(a) It enables teachers to understand why a student behaves in one way or another, to help students to understand themselves, to help teachers plan

1.6

Is it necessary for educational psychology to be applied in schools and higher institutions of learning? Why? Give some examples.

ACTIVITY 1.4

SELF-CHECK 1.3

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appropriate learning objectives and goals for their students, and to plan the appropriate steps toward the achievement of these learning objectives and goals.

(b) Teachers can predict the studentsÊ behaviour and their likes and dislikes at different age levels. This knowledge can help teachers plan appropriate reinforcement for the students in their effort to control the studentsÊ behaviour and to motivate them to study.

(c) Through the examination of human growth and development, teachers will be able to know about the studentsÊ stages of physical, cognitive, social and emotional development. Therefore, teachers will be able to plan teaching and learning according to the studentsÊ stages of development.

(d) Teachers can design a simple investigation to identify their studentsÊ stages of development, especially for problematic students. Once the stages of development have been identified, the teacher can prepare appropriate programmes or activities for these students in order to improve their learning.

(e) Teachers can also carry out research on educational issues such as problems of discipline in the classroom, truancy, smoking and so forth. Data and information gained from the research can help the teacher to help the students to solve their problems and to improve the quality of education and learning.

(f) Educational psychology will be able to assist teachers in understanding the studentsÊ personalities and concept of self. This will enable the teacher to help the students toward developing a positive concept of self.

To conclude, teachers should be equipped with knowledge of educational psychology because their responsibilities do not include only the delivery of knowledge but the creation of an individual who is complete with good characteristics and who is responsible toward family, nationality and religion.

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• This chapter provided an introduction to the field of psychology.

• Psychology is defined as a branch of scientific study that focuses on the mental life and behaviour of humans and animals.

• There are nine historical development of psychology; They are Interactionism, Empiricism, Structuralism, Functionalism, Behaviourism, Gestalt psychology, Humanistic, Cognitivism, and Constuctivism.

• Five important approaches in psychology are behaviourism, psychoanalytic, cognitivism, humanistic and biological.

• The importance of psychology to educationist was also discussed.

Behaviourism

Cognitivism

Constructivism

Educational psychology

Empiricism

Functionalism

Gestalt

Humanistic

Interactionism

Psychoanalytic

Psychology

Structuralism

1. Based on your readings, what are the ways that you can improve the process of teaching and learning in school?

2. Which psychological approaches can be used in describing

behaviour within behaviourism, structuralism, functionalism and cognitivism?

3. What is the role of ego in determining the action to be taken by a

person? Is ego the main source that differentiates one person from another?

ACTIVITY 1.5