tolial of 10 pages only may be xeroxed
TRANSCRIPT
CENTRE FOR NEWFOUNDLAND STUDIES
TOliAL OF 10 PAGES ONLY MAY BE XEROXED
(Withoui Author's Permission,
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.• + Natio~al Li~ra~ of can~da _ ,CollectIons Development Branch.
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Canadian Theses '0';
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, Biblioth~ue nalionale dl:J Canada , '-, Direction du develo!)pement de~ collections , ' '
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Ottawa. Ca'1llda ; . K1AQN4 .'
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~ ' . '" " ,' ~ ~ . , LA Tl+~E A ETE ' MICROFliJ\"EE~tELLE QUE·
NOUS' L'AVONS>RECUE . . /'" . ' . . ........ .... , "
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A Study, (yf Helping Beqavitrr Between' French
I'; . Engli~h. Indlvi.du'alS in C~nada
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AI'ain Coupal. B.A.
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of the, req,ui remen t;s Master - of
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pa~tial fulf~ll~erit for ' a degree of ' '\ ~c(eri?e' \ .
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. " Depa r t men tof " Psy cho logy
' ~emori~l Uni~e~siti ' of~e~foundland April 1982
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the
Two e~peri~ents 'were ' conducted. ' In th.e flrstexperimen,t t!',wo ' \ ,/'
experimenters, on~ ' Frenc~ and one En~lish, ~a~dp~ly ' sele~t~d , . '
., ' subjec--t~ f .rom the ,streets of 2 '.cities and , 8 towns in New
, - : ~ ..
Bi"uns~ick : and Quebec. ' Threehund red and , e'(g~ty':"'fourpeop Ie
,were selee ted. " I
They were . ~ ~ ..
asked questions . '.,, ' ' about :- their
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language usage ' " and about " the.ir.pla·c~ of residen~e: ' The
dep.~~ndentmeasure of helpin~ ~~a:sth .e willingness of the
p~ople to ~pend ' 15 to 20 ' minures a~Bwe~ing th~ ~uestion?;
' Subjec,tB , wei'e -adults, ma'Ies or females, by - 'themselves, )
ge'tti:-ng out of a ,e.ar. To ' be included: as subj ec ts they had
to l)sp~~k , eith~r ' F~ench , or Engli~h m~st
live lri ihe loc~le in which ~ the interview
3) rave the same home
Pften: " at h~~~' . 2) . , .. \.)~'
was . c ondu'c t:e~d;: an'd ,
loeat'ioll' The second ~xperim.~nt "had · the same independent
va'r iab les . but used 'a : non':',rea c t i vi
lost ' lett,er, .
technique. , ' To ' 're'p resent ~ ,
cultura\l . identtty, , .
letters bearing ei r:her French or Engli"sh adresses , where lost
in the \
same ,. areas the in terviews t ,ook 'place. The -were
' ~esulti of the , liv~ .:in t e rvle,ws ~ .... . '
were not as antic ipa ted,
i.e." " there was neither i'ngroup .- favo,rit,ism nor 'equal level .~
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of . help for both expe riin.en ters. The English e~pe r .ben t e 1;'
.also obt~ined s'ignifieantly ,.!p.ore help ' ', from ,
the Eng/Ush
.: popu ht ion" than French popv:la ti·on. " The' Erench ./, ' . . "
'f rOll) . the .' , • . ' ' .. . •. , I ' experimen·t.er · received' 'significantly ,less help ~ overall ' and
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for . ' him' there were no signif'icant differ .ences" between the
POP~latiOU; . pmber . of ~osSible . explana tions a<e · pr~pos.d 'for I thes e
,Sine e ,a'niy
. results. .' The . first '· ones , ·are methoaolo.gical. :
one ~~perim:ne . ~~ each CU:~ tural iden,t :ty . '~~8 ' us .ed . the personality effects . were weakly . controlled. Th'e.
. ... . . . r . · . . - "
(expe ~~men ters "migh~ . al·So~:a;e "applte~i; ' d \.~~er 'en ~ially, ' the
sa~~liig pr~cedrire. . ',-:
A second regsQn i~ i c~l~uralone~ ' It
~ouid 'be that· ~th pop~ladons 'percelve'd' theE';.gl:Lsh as . a
" higher status ·p .~rson. ' urban~~influe·~ced . . ~~el ' of '
help dif'ferentially, , th'~Frenc,h ~opu.lati~n was more helpful ' " ,
:, in - cities, ' , .the " English ' population in town!l- For' ~,qually
in .: ha~d to ,· I .
ut'banized popula t ~o~.s
explain. ./
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, () sigpifiC}lnt' t'esul ts. \ . f.
. . this particu,l 'ar
letter tec!tn'ique
This w-as probably
pa t ter:~
\ failed
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beause \ '\ \ .
to ' provide .
the control
over ' the cultural : .identity of the' subje~ts ' ~,ci:s weak. The
diffi6ulty \ 6f .arriving ~t a' s~rict d~fiilition , \ ~f~~'ri1tUraL identity af' o/,;,ding , ;epreaenta'ive . me,,~~\, ,'. Of each
,:l:de-ntit'y , '(French or Engiish) are propo'sed for ' the'\ equivocal . . r . . ' ~ \ . :
res.ults. .. " "
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Adt,nowl'edgemen t s
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"-, I would I'ike to thank the peo'ple who 'have h 'elped me ' tt!l I
) . . ·complete t his work.. ' my . ' a d vis 0 r , Dr • A. . S. Ross ~hos'e
. patience was . ·t~,;~t~~:': a .nd " .apprecia~ed during all ~~e B'- tages ~~
th 'le ' " th~sis, a 'lso the other members of the comm~tte.e, Mr· '.M. ;
GJ:'ant a'ndDr .,, ' ,T • . Hannah ,f or thei}/ tl'elpf 'ul \, commen ts.
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I :wQuld like to · thank · Gowe~ Bradshaw, for his time and
efforts, wh1 as ~y\ ~~, s tant in ' t~ 'e f iei~,' ~a~e ' .~ t ' ~OSS"i bl '~ · ~ .
f 'or m,e , to complet~ 'tfe . .e'3.periment as originally Pla~ned" ~
, Mi. Rai'~Y' D:od.e, '. ,ystem .mana.er:··wfloi .rth.GO"oumt' puht
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' .e'l· p j~.eice.r got . me , out oJa f:ix ', ma~y tiines; t would
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procably be still ' sitting · in front of ~ a · 'dead-: ' ,t.erminill •• ~ " \
... ' '
Finally 1 - would :like ' ,to thank the ·staffo.f .. the Memorial.
Hbr~'r;, : - esp~c'i~,l1y ' ,the libra~i.ans ,"who: ans .wered ' , I, ," . " • " -~
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TABLE OF, CONTENTS
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"
Intrqduction.. ... • ••• Al t ruiBm and , he Iping behavior'- •• ,Cultural '" identi,ty" r ,e1atea conc,ep ,ts,
.. ' et'hnic:1ty,
" ·1 a n g u,s g e. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • .. • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • C,ultutal iden,t~ty 'a~d altruiB~1 he~p-ing behavior ••• U r ban spa c e, s i z e "a,n d pop u'1 a t ion den 8 i t Y • • • • • . , •••• ' • C:L t i ' e s "a n d he l p i , n g be h a v i 0 r •••• ' , ' • ' .' . ' •••• ' • .' ; •••••• 'Cities' and cultllral iden~ity and ,helping behavior. Overvlew, ••• " ~. ' . · .: , ••••• ,1>, . ~· ......... ' . " • •• . •••••
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Exper imen tone. ' Experiment , two. Expe'ritIJEmt one. E~perim,ent, two.
Metho'd •• .. ' ~ .-. . . . . . ,Method. _, ••••• ,.
.'lbesults • .., ', I .' • ..' , ",
'Results." , ", •• ' ••••
.... . ... · . .... ' . . . ,\,; · ~ . .. .. ~ .
Discu8sion~ • ',' " ......... •• ,·e· .;'. "
/ " References; • . ( .... . ' . " . ·
" Appe'ndices , ~ -/ . ',/
Pi lot,.. for" ;x~~men tone. ','1" ... ' ...
Data recording form. Pag~one (English) .. Data recording' for.m. Page one (French) . ... Da.ta ~e'cording ,fo'rm. Pag 'e two .......... .
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A. B. C. ,D. E,. F., ' G.
Sequence' of location·s.~' ••••••••.• .••• ~ ••• Bl.ock diagram f 'or the province ,of Quebec ••••
. ...... . ' ,'Brock diagram ,~or ;the 'province ' of N,ew ' B'r~nswick ••
H. ' :I. 'J ~ ,
. S a iii pIe . IF r en c'h ~ ~ t t e r • ' .. ..... ' • ~ ••• ~ • :. •••• ' ••••••• ' ~ •••• Ratio 'tiale. for ' 'the ,selec,t 'ion 'of the loutions ••• : ••• Expl'anation of 10g-iin,e~r tnodel; conditionnfRg,' , .' marginal- and " partial ,' association. • .' •••••••••
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1 4
14 17, 20 25 29
'32
34 41 44 66'
68
87 '
'94 95 96 97 98 99
100 101 1)2
106
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Table 2 ·, · variabl\. . na~es and symbols ~S',:d in ' t 'he . . ~ ' " ' ' .
'A' a" lYSis\ •••••• ~ . ........... : ~ ••• ~. ~ •• ' ~' .. ~' . ... I , '
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Tab ie , 3' , co'tit i ng e~\c'y table',' s how,i ~ g:' the · p ere en Uge ' . . ' . ;1 - ., ' "
45
; J peop~e asked for ea-ch lev!'!l of. 'the four
~', - .
r' . of peo'p .le \ h·~lping and the total· number'. 0'£
. " independent ' variables {live inter.views) .... 4? , " " " . \ . .' , . .
Table 4 T,~t ~~~., ' ~i~nifi' ca,nt interactio~~ ' ,(i'~' c~~tingency table . four) wit~ four independe~t v..atiables a .nd · o .ne~' .depend·ent one.,. " 49 · '
I • • \ I , . • i' " . TableS Test . . two. COr\,:t :ingency table with three ,
i ndep en den:t va~,ia b 1 e,s (p r ovin ~ e va r i!'1 bie colI a p sed) • ~ ••• \.' • • • •••• '. • •••• ~ . '. ' ••••••.•• ".' . • • . S 2 . ' ' \ "; . ,
Table 6 T:es~ three a ,). A'nalysis oQ the' d~t-a for the' · Fren.ch Eloxp.erimen \ er alone. ·.--f'C"O'tnngency .. '. table with 3, inde\ endent ' v~riatM.es) •• ~ " ... ~ ••• . 55' :
- . . . .' . \
Table 7 :Test fhree .b) •. An'alysis perfo1:lmed 'on the ' data for the ' English experiment"er alone. ·(3 independen,t var :r'ables) •••••• i .... ' ~ ~ ...... ;. ,
Ta·ble 8 ~estf ·our 'a\, . ~na .i ~'~i~ · f~r -the \Fre~'Ch " "
56
pppula.tiOn alone. (3 in-d~pe'ndent variables) ..... It ••• : ••• \ , ' •••••••• ~ .' ~ ••••• ' ••••••• '
:, ' . \ \ . 58
Ta,ble ~ Test four h)'. , .Analys!i.B for the English . .. ' . .. . I
popula t ion 'a 'lone ....... ~ .. , ' •• ; ••••• : ••••••••••• 1., ! ' . ' , " \ \ . '
, Table :10 .-Test Fives) ' • . :knalysiS \ for ,Q~ebe ,c alone ... , I . • . \ .: ' .
. table iI ' "Test five b) ~ Analysis for New , Br,unBwfc~. ·f a 10 n e. • •• ~ • • • e , ' • ~ • • • , ,: • • . ' .. , • • • • • • • • ~ • • • ~ . ' ,... . ' • • .
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, ' Table . 12 I Contingencytable of results f~! the five , . / variables showi,ng t ·he · percentage of people
60
61
·64
, I helping for each 'le'vel ()f t 'he ' independent
/' ya r ~ a b Ie's (loB t' 1 e,tt: e r.s) •• ~!. :.' . . . .. t, ••• ' , ' • • . • \0 • 67
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I, Popula'ti 'o 14 Provinces
15 PopuHti'o' New ' BruT}s
1~ Popu ~att' o , New , Bruns
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by ' mother tongue 'for ' Ca~;~da a~d )' - 1976. C·ensus •••••••••••• .••••••
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' ~elpitlg 8S a ,functi,on of .co.mmunit-y siz~ ·. ¥ ~ 'nd " .. -Il~pgua~e .... ' ,~ ~ •• '. ~'. ~ •• ': ' .' • "~. ' " • , •. •.• ~ • , •• ' .-.'
. , P.ercentage of help received ' by " theEngliah exper:Cmenter 'in 'dtiea and · t .owns r in ' each "
../ . ' ,' " , p-r:.Qvince' ••••• , , ............... , ~ ••• '., • ,," •. ~ •••• , ••
, , · .1 , ,'
P erc.en t ·ag.e 'of each p.opu la t iori ·h.e .lpi-ng c :iHea and towns in Quebec •••• ' •• , ~; •.•• ~
'.~ '. .' . , . ..'
in:
, Percent:age ,.o£eac.h experimenter ~'.
popula tio~ h"e :lping' ~ea 'ch' \. , . . .
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, / " , Introdu{tion'. ·C '. ! " . ~' . ' .
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' .,'
dismis s led as a 's oeia1 ,/ .
I , 1
,, // , 4 ' ,
fbl~qmber" of y .. ~s ,had", boon
force with which to : contend, 'we have' 'f ' ' • I
a. resurg,efce of ,the" e.xprE!ssfon ' of
ethnic / '
feelings at the Bubnation,al levefin many coun,tri,es. ~ " ,
"T'he, d E!s ire
,2 to remain in" some sen~~ , a ,part of' an 'ascriptivE!
still , ~ar/L, of mOd,~r. ,m~.'" cult're" (P~ter.'~. 1979~ p. ' 4). We haVe an example of.. this phenomenon herein
~~O\lP , is
,I
!III
Cana,<li:r, where fhe's lit between French and En'g-lish i"s said
by, some, to threa ten
.. , "Can'ada and it
protracte,d state of
.. ' I
he exis,t ence oJ; the c,?unt ry.
\
const i tut'ional system i's
c.'ri ,8 i s ll the Pepin-Robar~~ Task
in ' a'
Eorce on
C.anad ia nuni ty concluded . in19 7 9 · .(T·he 'Task Forc'e on , Can,adian
Unity. A , ",fut ~e together: Observations and .' .
,' r,~commenJat'i~~9~/ 1979, ' Cited , in:La~:r" 1979, irt ' prefa'ce)~ This is on,/Y one of th·'; 1ates t in a long ' list o'f repor ts on
.' / ', '
. the c o~nf 1'i c t tha t l1a be en pIa g u,in,g ' the c oun try ;s ince b e ,f ore
its fo.uudation, : ~ ,
, , I • , j .. : '. ,
' This conflict results from ·the , 'antagonism , e~istil1:g .. . I 7
between ~he two i f6unding 'llat,ions·t·he French and the'English. ,
popu la t ions, • >
,the'
. ~ . two cu]..tur,a1 ,groups s ,tillexi'st and ' retain 'enough of, their
·or.iginal identity 'and dist 'inc'tivene'ss to ,keep i:he- debat,e
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of this continuing' ant,agpni'sm" is' \- ' " .
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language of s~h,ooling, ia;'g~ag@ ~ '- .
,alive. A cru~ 1 fea(ur~" o . r • uri '" '
1 !...__. . . . .. ~ , , ': the figliit 'over language use, • 1-. ~ .
,>: of ,co~municat, ion , etc.
I'
' But , intergroup relations" as p~rtray 'ed.i~ ~the' medis may , . ' .
;create " an ", 'impre'ssion of ,~reateP ' 'negativity than reall~:"; , i
exists. EVen though ' thi<s repor,ting may fac :tuallyreqec t' I ,
'. o ' , .i,n dif~0ereni: spheres of national activit'l.~s, " " , , t ,he, events
. ~ .' ' .'
, , , ,\' (politi~s, fan confrontation at sporting " ~ven' ts, conttoversy'
over, t ,he ,' us e ,,' I , . ." • .11 of t~e " ,French' language ,in aviation tr,affic
...... 'iI.o . --- J . "
, contro,1 in ' '197-5":76, ,etc.) , it re~,ains B ,parrol'B.l view", (Media
r~p 'ort!ng,~,' wi'th , 1tB_ 'emph~Bis an the ' !1egativ~, D Side ,of, ,events ' , ,
• 8S mor~ newswo'rthy, is " partly repbnsib1e : fot. this image. ,) If I 0 ! . • 0 0
. ! .
to , an ap:pre c fllt '! on " of the s t ' te of we timit ourBelv~B , "
.r !'
aff'airs between 'the two ' groups at a generill lAd, wether \.\ : ' ! ' \
or " no't we have :jlgrasped, the esserlt'ial ' features of , their ',} 1 • ' " • ' : ' V " .1
" I ' ', re18. 't 'ion~ ' 'is op~n t 'o ' ques'tf.on. I~keles and L,Vi~,S~nJl ' ,(\l'lJ.~~..( ,,/"
, "
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advise us tq st,uPy ' behavior of individuals ~cross , n 'ational
character ' instead of ,re-Iying ,only on global 'asseBs~~n~' 'of
~esp,ective ~ttltudea . towards ' I ,.
e,Eich other. Contact ' b; etwee~ It\ " Pf ' . . '.
individual's r ,f the , culturAl groups may reveal , a ,differe,nt, ..
more POBi~iV~ rel~tion!hip. . :,
" . , For example this testimony ' from a French Quebecer
. tr ,aveHin~)~ the .,ater.n prov~ces: ,
,Les gens [le.s , Anglai'sl. di rig ea le1'l t 'plu't-at }eur ",
hostili,te , cori'tre " Ie ' Canada ' ft~aniaiB da'ne i SOIl
ensembl~ et non pas , contie mol en tant I'un d 'e ' / " .. '
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ses repr~seiltant8. · "'(M,ontreal ' Star, O~tob~r 6,
.' 197,6. ~ Cite;a ' bYBeriault~, l.n7,'y~ 159). ,7
~ h.ere ~ i8, 'then, the p08sihil,ity pf a , '. di'S~rep~y assessement' , of ·· the .. relations ' . be~ween (cultural ·' )OU!?B
in the
depe~ding .. onu th~ 'P'/tic~~a,~ level
f cY'cus • " '
which , we ' ~hoose at to
'.- '
.' -. ". -' ~-- , 'conf HC-t ' :wiH Si~ce ' any iesdlutiori of th~
,'1 ~
. , :: ,~
:recur,ri~ ' • '. '"' . ~ I •
. i . , be , ,at the ' ,politics,l '" level , arid invo,lve the ' two
tI . ' _ . - \ I
cu.1tural g+,oups :,as 's' whole it may n'ot be deem'e'd, ' importan'tt''o, u . ~ . )~' • . ' _ . ' ', .. I - , ,/ ' , ," . •.• ,.' .
know hc;>w indi~ic!ua"1S ' ~ irite'ract ' on a peTsona?~leveL' ' Most :, " . " .
approa'che,s " to this c?~s~ culturai problem have undJ~rplayed . \ ' . . ,. .... ~ ,. ' . . _. . ;a . : , : , . J • •
th,e ,_ importance of the be~avior of individuals 'of 'th,e two
maj~r c~ltu~al~roups when th~yactually meet : ea~~ " other • . .- i ' ••
II ',. We~ wa'n t 'to ' raise the qU"es tion of ' whe'th~r 'or n'ot interac tions '-" .. \ 0 , , " . . ' .
" ,
e ' . ' ~
at ' the individual level ar'e sitp.ply ' ,~ ' echoing whatever the
. na t ional ~ ' , ethos happens " to
test~~ony ,~o , ' th~ , '
be. Or,
" tremendous / .
are indiv'idu'al,
varieties , .
I
of
. '\nt,er~e~sonal ' b .ehaviors .. out o,f which lore may. ha,ve' falsely 0 , ~ t,
fis6i~neda ~i~piisti~ ~nd ' pe~ha~s unr~~listtc - ~~tio~al '
image • , ,
In : this , thesis 'this , -~oint of view will be -exp;!.ored ,
'hi , foc~sing on a f{eld .' ~f psy~hol?gy which has been
~ . ' '
e~ten'sively - researched :., , ', :
aJtr~ismiheiplng • , ,- '. I ,
1>eha.vior.
exten's·i:v,.e ' pre'vious ,~esearch , w'h.i~h· e:ids ts is an ,adv. antage . in .,. .
. tha't ' "1 t '~'ermit~ tbe ' selec tion' and specif,lca tion of . the
,:, features' pf a ' behavior,al . ~v.ent , best ' s 'ui ted , . " ~ .... :: \ ",
o to ' explore ' the
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, Altruism and Helping Behavior. , '
\ ~
Th'e concep'ts 'of altruism ,and help,i,ng are ' .iel'~' ted ~
in
tha't helping beh~vior , ,'i~ .a subset, of th, e , gh~e r al class of ,.
beh~vi~r~ ' called "al truis ,t i c:' ~ . , 'Of , three • " r.
recent ' books,
Bar-Tal , (1'976), ' wis·p e . (1978), and Rushton (1980) all agree
,on amini,m'U~ " defi~itioJ1 of al tru i stic beh-avior ' a~ "behavior . .' ,
app"a ren t ly carri'ed out ' in ' order ' fo benefit another." ," -'
(R u s h ton ~ , 19 8 0, ' p. 7) ~ . \.~
\ " I
Of the, ' three, '" Wispe (1978) would make the most
, "
altruism, ~ when compared ,to
" helpi,!i'g:/ "Altr'uism r~fe,rrs ,to '·self-"sacrificial , behavior ' in " ~' . . . ~
the grand !Ilanner; ·. helping rese~;.ch'has ,investiga'ted ,those ,
bits of , eV,ery ' ""day behavio"r by which social bonds " ar.e
reinforced" Bar-Tal ' (1976) equates all , ' ,-v~luntary b'ehav~or that is car.ried out to ' bene'fit .. s 'nothe:rj:
, , I
wit,heut ' ant~c:i.pation of ext,e:,najewar'dS 'and , is performed , t
:, .;-~
fer 'its own 'end with altruism-.: Si ilar ' behavf.or ,from / "a '" . . .'~! ' .
recipient,: who tries to rec'iprpc.e' e' the previ,o,usly r~ ,ceived i~.
" hel~ and , the b~havioi ef , ~ 4harmdoer who ' tr~es to compens~te
h is vic tim" "( P:' 7) is ',ca lled res t itu tien. Toge t her they
come under the heading of "prosoc'ial. ' behav'io~. , Rushton , " " \
(li80) ,holds a middle ground. Insk ead of dichot6m~zing the , . ' \
concepts he sees them as faliing .. along
helping/ , aiding at One ' end and altruism, \. ', ~
a continuum, with
blhavior UiD,;hlCh
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the outcome is maximized · for anoth"er, even ' at the exp~se ' o'f
the se·lf" · (p~ .- 8) at pie other end.
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We~ill first present a brief overview\ of the theor-ies
concerning the ·root·s - of altruism - to Be~-\he theoretical "
, I', "
: ba.c~grou·nd for ·.helping oel1av .. i9r. "-" .
, \
Many ca·.uses of altruism have been posited ~ . They can . I
g~~eraliy _ b~ Jivided int~ biological, sociocultural,. and ' Xhe
. _psycho·logical. For Wispe (19.78) it '. is part of human nature
and its genetic make-up. t
Hoffman (1981) ~lso ~ropo~e~ that - ' . .
altr~ism is part of · human nature.
"from ' ' ~iolo 'gy and psychology~ ••• for the gcquisition of
altrulstic •• '. structures in' · humans."
respons ... es, . empathy. A different or.der · of .' biological
explanation would lie i>ne ."b~i . (1 ~80~; who p'ostulates
an internal reward system, for-~'lt:ruistic ~c;:ts "activated by '
prior conditioni~g ' or evolutionarr p~aparation releasing " , ~
/
./ ·-moo~-contro lling . substances in the' _ brain I
o'r 'perhaps T ~ ...... '\ elsewhere ' in the b.OdY: ;' · (p .8-7) •
Altruism "c'l:,eatel;!, for the . behavioral
scientist" : (Wispe 19·78, .· .p. 304) '. Ame~ican psyc~ology has
been influenced 'by reinf0I:cement · th.eories · of behavior~- which
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, ~. '. ~, 6, are based \ on the notion that actions a're posed ,by an
organis,m 'pulled' by the variable probabtlity of positive ,or
"
negative r.inforce~~nt ' (see The
'. notion ' that an organism would act against "i ts own individual /
self-in,terest, i <
that it Il\ight act for 'the benefit o'f another , " " ~ ' " ,/; . : I'" "
without ,poB!t~ve ,r~~ards for itself and eyen ~he possl~ility .'. " ' . . ' f • i . . ' . . ~ I{ • \ t •
,, ~f ', harm dO,es , .n'ot fit 'naturally into ,t ,his. , pa~adigm. ' Cohen , , -':
(1978) argues that tne altr,uistic pa'~adox ' is ' resolv~d at the . . ~ . . , . ,/ . ,
cultural level n9t a't the biological. ' 'Campbell ' (197.8) , is in
/ag~eement." wi.th Cohen's (1978) vi~w ' statirig thai "s~lf
, 9upp.ort'ed by indoctrination rather \
than counter to \ , ~
genetically transmitted dispos ~ ti~ns" , (po 41).
A related view is one by , " those who take a social -:.z.,.
" , /, . nnbig .. . ~pppr~,chto altruism'. They would argue that
alt , uism is learned :like any other ~ehavior ' acquired . . .. ~
~h'r o~gho"ut "the de~e'lopmentJ of man. Bar-Tal " (916) "and ,
Rushtb'n (1980) fo~example ' review evidence pertinent to ' thfs
, poili. ' Both conclude tha.t ','parents , are vitally tmportan' t
ag ,EmtS 0/ -socialhation [!cir aH1:uia1)1 ' in p.'articul'al;]
their "c,hii"dren.," '(Ru"shton,1980, p~ )32) • . ' .. ,
l"h
for
" . ,, " ,_ II> , .(';:':; At, the psycholo~ical le~el, Krebs ,(1,918) argues that
the influence ' of thepeison 8Ild the', milieu, iir inter'a-ctio 'n, ' " ,
ar,e fundamental. ,
Furth~rmore personal variables "' should " ~6t
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be limfted to _... . . -r' "
the most ·superf.icia1 but should · .iWUls-t'igate
' the meaning , Of·th~.,:ct8, , tile 'i~'plicit r'~ieS-?f , COOt ' uct a~d' the IIn'ormative structure of , sociai , expec tat·;lons · . .. hat guide
'. , s ·~tial be,havior" (p. 147).· Kr~bs . out lines an": .ap~ ~~t''o' .
solve the problemcatledCOg,Litive dev'~;oP~l ··or
structural" ass'oeiated wi'th Piaget (1960) .and·. Kph~erg
. . '
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•
\' Cogl1ft'ive .;levelopmental · ·thepr; ·· tre'atseoncepts . 'l ike' altrui'sm as ' products . 'and . to·oIs of reasoning. -:,~,.
\ The ' .idea cif :a1 ~ruism exists pecauae i; . s ·Y~izE!:s--:'-,· , :';., . ·\a . set , ' of social phenome.na •.. People s -!-de,a about .-! .. !-I<.~,:.. altrbism e~6iv~ with ~ogniti~~ development. ~ _ ( p. - ! 5 '2,,) • . '. ....
. / '
, ~.
His .pa r t ieula r focus ·i s 01' , the, ,II'sign:i fic an ce 0 f'altr1-li 's'; as " '
a~ aspectbf mo~al , ~bligatici~"(~. i55-i56)~
.. People do 'Dd·t·: .. pass.~ ~:~y w'ait \ f or" s itua ti~ns ' · to affect them; they ' acti-vel_y seek. out . and construct situ~~{cns that are ' app~o~ri~te to their'lev~l cit dev~lopment. It, is inteirated p~t~er~~ Qf
·.b~havior that " charpeterize peopl~~ not lsolate~ ~cts. (p. 1~7). .
, : .
Argument~ aboui the pr~cise name )~to , be' - 'given . to a ;
..particular aet :~ ~ft ' b~come invol~ed if .ntecedent inteinal • . ,Q
~onditi6nB ' inf1uencin~ the behav~or ~u~h ~s- the . , ,' .
I possibility
In t ern'~i pre s s~ re s ,~.t'o,-;-a-C1:;' . degree of s el'f 1~ s s-ness • :,.4" • I , \ , \
~requi:red; .the 'expectations of ·:futwre ,'reciprocity, etc. ' I,' 'are "..-/ ', I A ' '. • •
' ,.
'.' ". ·brought , in.' Witliout denying the 'i ,mport:'loce of the study of
th~se conditions i ~oul§ ptefer ' togp ~long with Rushton , , , '
.(980) when he ' s'-rgues tha t--.dis·cus s ~ons to . c.Q' J:I..Q~I.QoE~l..t...-E~~~ .......
altruism exist have beenfrui tless-, since \
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one ' can.' ·mak'e ' a , .,
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j' ucigment on .' the ' apparent quality ' cif . an' act but noi: on the ' ;. , I
. ' . · iestri~t the definition of ~elpini t~ observable behavior,
.i.e., ·whether' or n~t a subject is 1ti-11i?g to spend .time to
. answer a . . number Cif . que~t i _ons;
pf·d~clding whether or not , a behavior is really , alt:ruistic.· . , ' . .
bas e'd reasons of ' t 'he persona • Q
/'
10 ~hh thesls weare 'nterested ,~ ' difr-.;e~t. situation whe.r.~ $e PYformance of ' ,helping
,option rather tY in the, Hyp~.;~el;cal c,ons truct a' . . given . as. . exp la na,tlo,n lan te ced en t s . ~,f ~ 1 trui sm.
It ~iliBuffice for o~r ~urpoae to kno~ - t~~t , ' . .
.,
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i'f' the
explana,tion for · ,altru~ .sm :and altru~is . ti~ acts lacks a ,unified,
~oint 9f vie~, the ~xistence ' of altruis~ . ltaelf does not
, .
./
a 'e~m 'i to be ques tioned.
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,Since , tile . . , study - , a'ima to . inves~lgate ~ th'e . ~ ;; level of, .
~
positive ' interaction exi~ting be~v~en . individ~;18
t~ each o~ .) th~ ~wo cult~ral ~roup8, _ . a' behavioral , .
should , be . .
·approp-rlat·e. yelping ~"be1!,ayior · . will • • • .. . ' 1 • . •
tha t '
.. A · number ' {'f ' ~i.YC~Olo~·ical steps , .
, ., • -'l
--are e nec~s8ary , ..
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~elping act ,takes ' plac,~ or' not'. " ,Bar-Tal (1976) /
,g,ives\ a good 'process \ '
and th e various factorstha't impinge upon ,it. The common
'e.1eme~\ts of , helping beh~vior that w~ find" in most of the . ! ') , . ,,'..
,,~, i'lt,era~ure , on helping" are ' repre"sented in Figure , 1.
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- .we\n~r' s . (1980) m~:d e C ;'~~le aokni'wledg ing .. th... . th~re ar,e a~ \1I,Iany de,~ermin~nts ,of"rhelp,in~ ~s therf ~r ,e ~Qurces of
motivati!qn" (p.' 197)' focuses, mainly on ', ' the ,following, I 1 •. I
, ' .• • • • " :"'. ~_ ' .. ' ,.. c
,sequenc.e! of ,events~ first internal to the' person .'~ :
,.
f~l1owed by ./'
overt be~avior' which, ' comprise, a helping act. / ihis is
"
, ' I , I ' rep,res'ented' . i~ , the fol 'lowing ,model of 'helping b'ehavior
: ,,/ . ,
divided' ' into ','a ,'three st~p "process: 1. , a'i~r,ibutio,nal
,analysis, caus , the need, ' (esp~-~:iaiiy' ~o'~trb,llaOility): . . ' I • • t ,'.~ ~ I , I ':.
, "/ request;i.n'g "help ,had 'contrlol" over " th'e , " I '
t.he r'eq ,uest; 2: bysta~der affective' , .! ~ " , ,. ' , ~(.
behavior. . I )
... ,
, .... '
reaction;: 3"
I " ,/ :t:Ieyer and ; M~fhe rin' s0.980.) inv~s t igat i~n. ,II'e'xp''!.ore [d)
, ' I
'further th~ ap 'plicab'flity of Wien'er' sattr'iJution~l' model of , " " , ' '! ' j, ft • . .' ~ II- •• ".' " t'
mot ivat ion ll (p' '' ' 203 ) 'by ,means 0 f ques,tionna i 'res. probing , ' the r' ' ' , /: ' , ,
"hi'potheti.cal / behavto< ', pf ithe Subjeci:!~ i~aced ,with 'various .' , : .1 ,I' l . . 4 _
conditions 9'f cap,sality(" and: TO,~nd confir/matory , eVid 'ence for ;/ , ' / ,'
it. ,I i '
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T~iandis ' (1976) and
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ji'i~ure L " DecISion-making'( prO,cess of 'altruistic be'haviqr,. " .
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" , :"Nbt'e.: F.rom, Prosocial behavior: ' Theory and research ,
by :;D~" Bar,~Tii-i .. '--- N-e;i ':Yo'rk: "Joh'n W,~ 1 ey & S~ons, T9 76,.' " , .. ;t
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i '" , , " I' t~~ee , componen ts of , help.!ng: af feet, self'-reinforcemen t , and
cognftio~. Triandis'. mod~1 in its . entirety is very , ,"., ·r '.' . "
~omprehensive, t~king into ' account at~ribu~ions .b~ut others D '
" .- , .1
be '~~~iqr '~ , on~" s o~n pr~~to,u; behavior,. habi ~' j'0thers , aC,t ion,
· .... · f~~llitating' · conditions, differences in interaction .,
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..
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' pot en t t$l • . and 'ind ,! vid ua'I " ' d if f erences. " " ; " I' . con's'ist of .the . sam",e~leine~~s "as Bar~,Tal's , model.
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' """
B~t ':. bas{cally, . it
11 , . S c h'w art z (1 9 77 )
. " ;
(~. 223) foc~sea more na~rowly ' onthr~e ~
types 'of. explanat'ions to ' account f 'or ' the' li~k between , '
exposure to' the need, ,pf a ,~othe'r , and , the , initia.tion ' , of
I ,
in ten t i o'n . t 0 he 1 p : ', . 1) ~ \
arousal of eu!otion, 2) 'arousal of , I~
. " . ( . , . '
so' cia 1 ex pee tat ion s " 3) a r 0 usa 1 0 f "'s elf ex pee ~ a t ion s . " He
,acknowledges thai' the thre~ are not mutually e~.clusive and
that they can cotitrib.ute 'in combinations to the dec'ision.
'r second The one
soci~ty~ Whether or "' not one 'conformsto i ~he'ir requirement , ~ . ") .
\ I ' ,
" , · is part , of. the cost\-r,ew"ard caICulat~Onjh~Wri' (n Bar-T.al~ s
_ _ __ (E.ig.u.r,e , . . l.) · ~ . Th'e th{rd'i~ ~lS~ .. gov~~n~d -: by -' ,riorms,. but in
' I
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this case ~.rson~l I , '
norms whichmay , even . run agairis~ th~
im~edi.te self interest o~ the ~erson~ " ,t ,
" .. '
Although ' .Bryan and , Test (1975) ' focused . on I.' \ "
."self";s~c~iiic·ing" '- behavior ,their ',model is a,ppllcable to '\
.less d .,:m~nd. ing 'acts of nO,n emer·geney helping. ', They propose, ' /
three. hypoth~ses' regarding the situational determinants: ' ' 1.
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, ! . , of reciprocity', wher,e in-dividuals ,will
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,-~ . .' :~,' h,elp f7=om them in the t, ast'-be~aus~ . th:yi ~x;:~t ' ;e'CiP~~'~al
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, :' behavior on : their part; 2. sO~ial'!re8P~nsibi 'lit 'Y norm" . \. ~.
' ~here depend~ncy on others evokes i
helping, I . ,,"
wpen · ' the""' pos8 'ibility\~f " exter~~1 ~ewar18 for the help 'e~, are
r ,e,mote; " 3. the pre'~~;;'~f ' helpin~' l , (or ' ,non hel~~~g) , , !
mO,d,els t where ' the ten~ency to help ,willi be' higher ,fo'r pe~op~e
wh'o ha"veobserved , ,80meone 'doing ,
Sch,war t¢ ,(1977~ " th; role ' of no'rms . ' I ,. : :
ca,ses ' out of ' three ' s 't least. J ..
! ' Da~+ey , ' and Batso~I, (1973) ~t :~te ': that ' p,erson~'lity
,;', 'variables would " be ' ap'pr~priate It'o ' inSl~de ~ ,if" we ' a ,re !
" intereste'd ' in the different ,forms ~'elP~ng behavior can take
but> 'that 'the ' de~i~ion"to ' ' hef~rlor ' not is situationaily
'cori,i:-rolled (the' second gro,up" of ,vlriables' of " influence :. in
Figure .1).
:" ",
,,'
' .. " Some author,s w,hi.le ' a:ckno~ledging ' t;he mulHple , .
d'eterminan ts ," oftll~ , , . helping act , see~ to ~ut mQre emph~~is
, I ,
up6n' the pers,onal'decisiori power ' of ' individuals (Personal 'I ' ' ,' " ;. ..)-,
v~,riilb ,lesl in ,F.igure l-r~ ' !:OtherSgiV~4,r '~" importance to
pressures , that arise from, the ,social ,' environm.ent ' (even if . 0 , ~
internalized) •
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e~ Ii '· ' ,ha'l'e
. be'en 8tu~ied as ' a~t~c~de~t8
.1e~ h or a · }f_ ~a dab
for helpi~g behavi r "few · of ",
'those related( to ' each ' other i ,n any . cohere,nt - ~ay~1 , (p~. 723) •. ........ - ,
'-" ,'J . ~
rejects a , p~r:elt sftuational
,a~truistic behavIor (h,is ', point ' il relevant ' to . I
K reb s -: ("" ( 1 9 7 8 )
t:he' more ;.
",~ restri<;:tive notion . of heJ,ping) on the gr?und that the liS~.
of poss i b Ie vari,ab les could . be·' extended ~ i!ldef i~iteJ.'Y • . / - ~- " "" " ~.,.- , ." . .
Indeed a '. n.um-a:e.r ,of ' papers reviewed were, takenglo'ba'I:!:t" no . . ' , .,. . . . . ' ' . ''''~~i:''"; .
mox;e tha'n ;, ... an ... .' .. accumulation , of sometimes , ingenious;~~,ut
I. ulti~,ately sup~rfic 'ial va~ ,i!itions. on a' theme' w'~hin i~self d~d no more than add foot,ootes to a point already made that
. ,/
' variat'ions in' 'situat'h)ns~' l:ead tovar:l-ations in helping. "
Krebs ("1970) , also . recogniz'es the difficulty' of. ' an
inte~~ated · pe~spe~tive.
riev~rthe1ess offered , an organizational framework for the
'variable,s ~ith ,? altruist;ic ~ behavior cross • '1"1,.
classified , a'long the' two di~en'~'ion ls :1 ' "" ,
of l chsl,"acteristics of
t ,he ,per sons involved and the lev'el of g.enerality. ' (Again-,r.
aitl10ugh :Ihe ' focuses on altruistic behavio'r "1 belie.v.e his ----- . . -..
. review is 'ap'plic'8'ble, to helping acts): .
The fi~st dimensio~ of cl~ssificatiori, ,tben, separates ' .' variables which ',' ', r'elate the chara~teriBtics ' of benefactors , that cause or
"
'correlate with a1 truism fr'om ' ,the al truism eliciting characteristic's , of recipients ~ •••
.:"'.j.!.-:' Independent , variables can 'also ,beclassi.fied according to their level of generaliti. . Research on al~ruism b.s ·, manipulated ~ndependen~ ~ariabies ,at . four .more on. less di~s' tinct levels of generlllity. ' The fi.r,st' .. levelinvoives . t ,empor.ary psyc~oJ:ogical states,-.. Tbe second l~v 'fi!l of
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"~I· ' , ' g~neraiit' involves personality t1"aits •• ~ .. At "t 'be 'thitd l~ver ' -~hat which invol~eB Bocial ' roles ' and. · ... 'iemographfc ":ariables such -as : soci~l c1a~s~ - age, a~d ' sex':.:" the level of , gpnerality , is even
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greater·... The" ·final . level, which deals wfth ." '" .' social norms, Is tb~ m~s~ ' general ' of the fou~
(P.p. :. 262 .... 2·63). . ,l.
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-': '/" ./ C
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:;: ,of
f . , - -. O~r -inte1"est in dimension one . concerns characteristica
'I' '. bQth . b'eriefactor and , recipient.
, .. In, dim ~ensio\n two gu·.r .
<inr::e~,est · go~s .beyond · Simple s' ituational ' variables to inClude -"--' '/ . ~ , .
~evel _ o~ gr6upaffiliatioQ ~nd nati~daiit~~ "
./ . , ,
"'IOur .interest .'stops ''pelow' tbe level of', ·' social norms I
..
.' Wh~\C~\.~8~: :Krebs (1970) states "are , so gene~al that the'y
: . ~ . ~ul'ply ~no,' 'info~rmation ,about the variance ' i,n .", incidences . of ..¢.
even at that · level . it ma~ be alt'ruism" I
(p. 263). :. However . 0
.. . possible to '- encountEir. cross , cultural differe'nces. TlJ,e norms , ' : I ' " .
. of ' .. he Ipi ng ~.ig h t ', die ta ted iff er.en t ac t ions ac co r 'ding to tb e
.. I , '
Culturai Identity~ Related Concep;s,Ethnicity~ :Language . .. • • . f· •
, .... . ~
. A question , to- b,e considered . 'is -how' the ', . concepts
. . ·. c-ultures • .
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cr.ucial ·' . I comp'onen t ' ~ -'
a of cuI tura.I
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of cU,lture t " 'and.
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."Lling 'ua~e is th 'e ' most , evident ;. expression
in . t .urn t,: ' a cultural : ~de-ntity,' revolves '
around and'· is· ~aint~:i.ne·d,by . shared , lan'guage" (Laxer" 19,79, . , i . ' . .", . ' '", . 0 ' "
p. 25) .• ' .' It it ' a ' most pr~~inent ~eature in , a ~erbal exchange ' , .' ., . . . \ ...
between individuals or groupS of different mo~her , ~ongues :
other in ' day to day
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1 ':,
(1977 )l fou~.d a , ~ ' .
' thr'ough , ·Gil'es, Taylor,, ' and Bourhis
multidimen&ional . . ,( . .
8c~ltng procedureJ with ' Welsh students that " "
language ' ~ven. took prece,~ence ' over ' cultural , back'groundand , , '\ '
geographical ',,· region for ,::" p'ersona '~ ident'ity. Bu·t ,tney aIs~ ' ~ , ·· f found t hat . ' wi t h '~ ncr ea's e s
'-,.' -'
.oth~r fa 'ctors
,salient. . "'. .. , .... . ":' ..... '
1 ' ./
,Tay~or, . Bassili~
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, s'ca lin'g ' s t tidy, , . , r· o
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in ,1=,1' a cu 1 tu ra 1
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in,' anoi:h,er
.time wi t li 'Fr Em'c h
""Canadians anCi" Eng'lish 'Can;di'ans, again found' the • • J -
, importance
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of .' }:anguage.' . However, ' in the case of , tqe French Canad,ians.
, I '
bB:ckground played , a v,ery. importan~ 1'0 e al~o, ' mo're , o ,,'.:.~. '
for 't~-e :' English , can~d;an'~. I The Fre' J h , ca~adi~ns ~ , '. '
c~l,tural
~~, : 'than
. . , - .' .,.. ,
'being a minority in North ~merica, have felt .: I'· ):' .
Qr,e acutely
," the : ' need
idE!Otlty. • #' •
· based "·' , o,n'
'ii, -
' for a common
This - i~ , ~chieyed
bondto ' presei~e their collect~v~,
th,rou'gli '~ n'~ t'i.onalia, ~ic I fee lings
a - shared c~u1ture' . ,
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·nationalisma,s .'lI an :e t~nsion of e,th.nic.itY Qr as -Baroti', (1947) , ..
: --.:.--~ ha a 0 • put _~~ 4
. e 'tbno',cu 1 tIH!:~'t., eo 1 idar 1 t Y' II • '. '. : ... . \ •• " \.,:) o;. ,~' •
it;, ' ; 'a~ ' org"anized . ,. : . ,' , .
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... j ~ Lain~ ' (197.6) ao·R·n •• ledgea . the ·re l>~·i ve im~rei iaion thai · r./:.· . . .', . : ," '. .' I
. .. has:. '. d~v lo~¢'d ' in wha t ·· . was .. t;h~ 'histo'rically, well d!!ffoed '.': '" , : . i . ..:. , . t •
0 , ethnic i"dent~ty, of our ancestors · .. ·who . f~ rs' t settled, on' thi,s , '. ' "
, Beca~se " . of ' . yast ' movemen t and i~t' erminglin.g of
P? \rlation~ .' t.he, terms " French' at\d~Eng1i.~ h' . are boun4 ' t.o, ~ ~ .,
he te I'O'S eneoue gr" ouP /:~ f . :i nd 'i v1d uais. St,i1l, :/
h .e ' fi.~S . that .... a ·.: ;'~espond~·n ~; S '"s ,elf definition ~f: ,: :'thelr " . "
ethnic , memba~sh~v . [do~s) show" a , high correlation wi th th_e ' . ' . '. / l '. . I ',' • • .... , ,
, ' ,'
and . , cor,respo,nding ' . . e ,thnic . '" , ' . .,. .. .... '
'spcike'n . a: t ~o~e, the ·. l~nguage· ;:.,.. . .
; o~erwhel~ingly ;' the language . t . ;.
I' .
~'po'k.en bes t is th·e . :ine~ .ofthe.i .r cultural .. group'. .," ..
, ~ . .... 1 r·' . . '," . "
. ... M c.'
"' ,
, ~~n'guage. wil'l play an-" important · role ' in cueing th'e , '~r :,t, ' r'
" ·st.ereotypes. 'v'~ h·a';'e.' de"veloped to apprehend a · set. of inferre if ' ." , , • 'I. , ,~~t ,.:" : , ..,., ",.
~' ",. ~, :' ' ·. qualities ofa .. ?rou,p, or. . of , ~ i-epree'.~ntative , .~~diV-idtialof
the gro~p· . ' · While st,ereotyop!ng is " c,ogni t i,v:e'l ,Y' -eco'nomical . i t , . , ',' ' , - I·' \ '
.;; . 'flao conceals ·i-nd.ividual dif f erertces. Language ci4ent if :lea':
. ,
~ , ,/' , .- ,
. people and is used as a way nj linki~g th~~ wi~~ a ;erceivea . \. , ', ;'
~ stereo~ype which ' then a,ff'ects their " iriteral~tion8. ..
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Cult-ur a 1 ld'ent i ty , and Xl t rufam/He lpi n8 BeH'av io r ~ I
"
, '17' "-
, " ,
, I . •
I , One , c<;>nte,p't which links culture' to altruistic/helping
! , I • I
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.1
',I behavior ' ' ia , the d'istin'ction "whfch most peopie -make betwee~ ingroup an:d out,sroup'. , Krebs (1970) cites work / by Friedrichs
. " -(1960),
, <:::ampbe.ll (196'5), and ' Hornstein, :Fisch and-'Hol'tnes
" ' :(1968), which . supports th~, idea of in group affi)iation as an
.' I:
, ,
e~~citor of al~ruism~ ~
I "
Altruism ~ r,emains, we :'believe, circums.cribed socially, , tl ' , "
,limited to a group ' ,significant, , for tpe per~on, 'e"g., " • J
immediate family and ~rily ,in rare ca~es including , all , . ' \
(1977) concurs', ' uIn ,
indi viduals : ;i,nd iscr imin's, tely. Hardin
~ars~ gro~p~ enlightened egoism isth~ mo.~ 'pow~rfui m6~~ve" . "
Taj~el (1978) de~onstrates , ~hat classificatipn bi
subj ec ,ts ,of 'people, int~ ingro'tlp" and oUftgroup occurs on the ,/-
. ' ,basis of ' the most trivial consfder.ation ~
An eXf~pie of , t~is' minimum ' require~ent
i ' i,
' for the
estab,lishment of , distinction Pbet'll\e-en, people 'is provided :by
,Pearce ( i 98,0). II
experiment' where . he He found, in ari
I ,' , , / ,tr'!lvelled States, th~t ~t~anget8 by' bus ~~ro~s the United
"' ,
J ,
when they cah ident{fyeachot~er,'even ifon1y because of
faciaL 'familiarity, , havingsesen ~each other-on the" vehicle , I'
'"are ' more willing to he'lp than '\.Then ~hey ,cannQ.,t ' :td~ntify each'~ '- c ;4... ,
," other. It seems logi'cal that if the identifi 'ca'tion is based : ; .
, ,
. , _ .l ._: .,' . __ , ... ...... ~ ..... _~ ... , .. _·I .... .: ' • • _ .~ ••• • _ " .. .. _ __ " .. _-: .. w_ .. ___ _ ~ ~ __ .' .. . _ _;
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.cin': ~, ~ro:ng~r, ' mote 'persot)al bonds the ~eadinesB to help ,would
, ' also be 9;~ro~g ,er '.~ Triandis , (19,76) proposes, that amount of
help is correlated with ' fee'ling of' respori~ibi.1ity to ingroup
menbers. This distiriction amo~g p~ople beco~es even mor~
,r, , , ,<
or actual with , t:-h~ ,;~outgroup Which is the case for \ '
,the French and English' ,in. 'Canada: ' ,', ,~
Feldman (1968) in a series of five experiments on
help ,ing, in Pa~is; Ath~ris and~os~on f~un~ d~ff~rentiai , ,~
r~teB of ' h~lping depending on ethnicity (~ompat~iot , versus , i
foreigner) and ianguage'used. In ~aris ~nd Boston, fellow , ,
,c 'ou\:ryinen rec~ived more , hel'p , but the 'fore,igners(all ' were
strangers) were ,trea'ted better ij} Athens (p. : 202). That N , , ~ ,
, !'i " , ' ,. , .. " GreekUr, , in ,Feldman's ~~,udy, ,were more helpflll td foreigners
' ~ ' '
than ~ounknown compatriots . ,p'o~nts to the flJFt ' 'that
'~at'egori,zatio,n does n,?1;. necessarily ' follo~ only cultural
In 'this • particular case " the rationale for
categorizati6n was ,the g~eater po er of interpersonal
attractiveness due to s1milarityor, high prest~g~ ~
, ,~n~ther exam~le of
other than cultur~l lines
, laborato,r'y
)
occurring , along
'1: ed ' by Be,r,kowitz (1966').
u.y'es tigat i ng -.. , .,:-national
diffe~ences in helping , behavior ,~ he effect1.v~lY f~un(L ,th(~,t '
, . ,
, ,
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I' " -:-if~ the economic background influenced 'level of helping': ,But it '.-
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"diffi'cult .to, ',draw conclus ions , from ' this '. s tud-y: ab.out . th'e·.~"" , . ... ' . .' .. . ,
r~lativ~ ~ .trength, of , '. " ,- ~.'
' \ ,
culfurai . and , ecoJ'\omic 'fac;to'rs' the , \.
across cultures;- si~ce he , could only study intracultural , '
.variations due to the differences b~tween ~he test for
two na,tiona1 gJ::OUps ' ~ Mann; ~nd Tayl~r (1974) exa~in~d ; the , ,
Canadi~ns " a,nd . :t;:ng'lish ' r
: Cana~ians. for b~'h~vior of m'embers of t:hei ~ ingr.5lup anlW"'(;r ./
: outgroup members. ' The results show tha't;' the Eng<r.ish mai:le <~~ , '
,g\reater us e, of social class informat{o~ ', i 'ntneir 'r'
.attributions. The French however~ut '· more emphasis , Qn . . , ~ ' . , " e'thnic diffex::ences. , .
, ,
, ,
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'" Karpieniand Zippel (~97~)found .no ethnic diff~renc;eB : :,
'T" '
when ' .. . " I· .
an experimenter assuming ~ri Irish or Italian identity, .. - ' . , ., "
by ~sing a name of t:h.e proper con~onance ' phoned pe,ople ' ,of
' ~itheridentity, · a~so identifie~by thefr ~amily na~e ~~d \' ':
their middle class background by cmeans 'of' the ,phone book;
arid asked for help in ~nswerirtg a ~ailed in questionnaire.
They int&rpret thts f~sult 'tomean tha~ sbcijl class of . the
requester not his ,' ethnic.ity ' is more important in g'ettin.g ,
help • . However, it is , possibleo
that the manipu~ation of
. ~ .thndc . ident~ty was n6t s ~r~ng ~npugh . for subjects to ' use dt ,. ,
;.
I asa ~asis f~r ' ~eciding ~hether 6i no~ to help~
the
..... ..... ..... ... - ...
. . 'I ,
T~ tompli~~iema(te~s fu~ther there is " ' eyidence :tha t
:same
, "
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p 'erson . .'may use differe,nt' ·t.ype~ : of infortriati~n hi .'
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his 'j,u"d,gment,of 'per'sons depend'ing on" whe th,e r " Or" not , ,they : ', ' , I "' '
" ,
.belong ," to ' h'is : ingr?up. " Aboud and Ta-ylor (197i l , stu.died' ;the'
't-,elativ"e importa~ce ' of ethnic and , role'~-stereotyp'es in person . " . ", . .'
'l;'hey found . "a pattern , of ~utg'roup' percept'ions , 4 and at e"r eo the,l:! ' p re dO~~ll ,an t .. ly involving. ,the use of ethnic
t' :' ' • . ' . , •
, ingroup perception relying on ,role s'tereotypes" (p. 22). s'o ,
·· £o~ ' ... mp;~:-:'1' ,it-u.iion whicb m.y ~equir.e ,ivin, h,i p , .f' out'gro~p " mem/~, Wil~ be judged , on his e~h~-lic m'eJilbership but,
...-an, ingtoup mem-ber will receive ' help or ' not ' t ,o ' the degree (- , " "','
that ~1s social ' "standin'g" compels /demands, ' i 't. , . '. . .' .
ThiB , sho'uld , ' , )
be a caut;1onary ,note ,that th,e p~rs9n8- ,in need of help " may. , ' , \' '
, no t be, j ~dged " , on on,e unique dimension.
, -\ " .. ' "
, , \
" ~ost , , fo,und
I ' 'uiii~g , th,e St,il! Hanson and s~ad'e" 's , i (J~77)~eiperiment,
'le~ tei, techni que
th,a't 'the number of letters returned was, lowest ' for' a , .... deViant, i.e.,
' fpr 'example, ,a ,meiub'er of , an extremist po11 tic a 1 p ,1.'I,r t y ~ , 0 r ,
,owner of ,a night club. If 'we' can as sume a similar '
" '\ for , ing~ouP-lu~,gr_oup ,
I ".
he~p to " i
, these , ,
show ' the deviant-riondev{ants, results
g'enerality of ' the procE!sf\ ,' , ' ..
. Ur'ban Space, ~ and Population .,Den"s1 ty. ... ' .' ' ::....
/
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relation :. to ' Cunninghllm{1979), for I
example foUnd ·t'ha t: the weather (degr'ee , of sunshine,
t"e_perature,humldity) i,nfluenced level of .. helping. Of the
stabl~~ . permane,nt" enyironmental featlfres; , . thli! (
rural-urban ' ~'dichotomy. ('Hanson ' and Slade, .1977; Feldman, '\ ) .'
19,68)" ha~'~n -stud i ed in· relat iort, t 'o J:telpi ng. Urba~ ~ize I ,' .'
" and , population -. density seem to 'be' the ~ most . '
, '
attributes : that, separately or in i ,ntera'ction, contribute to '.. . ! ' . J . .'
. t 'he distinctj,ve infl~ence' of ciLies~ '
;'U" One of the ~arliest ' .tll.~dein attempts at a ' !!'ystema~ic ''-.',
of urban phenom~~a . was· by the Chicago s ,chool
in ' the' l '920's of wh:f.ch L.Wlrth was a · n'otable , ' fi'gure. ' In' I
li:f.s . article. in the Am"erican Journal of SociologY"(1938)"
,'Urbanism ~s a .w~y of 'life' he saw threeta~tors' at th~~··rroot , .. ,,~ . . , .
6f urb·an\d'i.ffer.en~i·atiO'i1: ' \ ..," ,
}ize~ density; and heter,ogeneity~ They are he· ' elem~nt8thattlm8rk . it [the citylasa
distinctive Jo~e of, human group life" (Wirth, , 196 ,4, p,' 62}".
, '.
Wirth',s v ,iew ,s·till. ·has advocates, today ' such as ' Milgram , ... l'
(1970) who . still se~s number, density" and heterogen~it'y ; a8 '
the "root of any SOC:f.~'PSYCh:lcigiCal theory' ,of ~itY.' l~f'~ for . • \ 'I
they conditio~ all a 'spec'ts of our experience" (Milgram 1970, . . 'I ' .
,p • . '1461 ). In Wirth' s ,,,,basic proposition he sees " the need ,to ./
, \ interpose : a necess:ary . psychoiogical media.tor between ·what ., . .. / .
. are only "demographic , fac ,tors" and , the individual. His
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con.~ept, taken f 'rom syst,.em :-analys,i.s, :, is: II(L'er'ioa~". " II,City .... ',' ,'( '"
lif e is the: result , of ' , encoun,te l' w:i ~h 9ver l 'oad 'and ,' t;'he ,,\ "I
re!3ultant ,adaptation'~ , '(p; 1462)., " '
, " \"
•• ',' I
" '
, • ' Sada' l1a ' (1.9 :~8) , also think~ that" ,the, factors , ide It t if-iea , , ,
, '
by ' Wi1:th ' hav'e some v 'alidity. , In, the , 1978 ' article he re';'iews
'~~'idence that the size 0'£ ', urban center: ' in itself ' has·
i~partant ' s02ia1 ana psycho19gical consequences. , . -' .
Increase \
. ~'n ' sh,'e ', , by /tself ' would , .lead ' to a " ,, ' ,', , . , '
s t rluc turEll d'if f ~ren t ia tion.. c~~s e quen t 1y : inf 1 uencing 80 c,ia 1
, "
- \ ,~
, ', ' ,...t·~"" 4 :'~ _ . \ , ' , . ~ .; ~ " behavior of. ,city dweller"s. ', He lists , four conseque!1ce"s:
" ." ,) , '
'anonymi t y • deindivid~ation. ~ deviance, and .' person'alt,ty
• ?
r '
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" ,
. / , ' . '. . '"" ". . . " " 4ev'e 1 opme n t •
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"But Wirth hiin~elf in a later ' wo'rk ,"On ciites ,and ' 8~ci'al
lif ',e!' (1964), even though ' ' ,h'e cling.sto hi,s three ' fa.ctors
{ir.st ~laborated~n th~ , 1938 "artiel'e ' acknowledges ' : !?bme of ,
later ' criticisms, i,1: re,ceived , by qua1ify'iog his ' original I
vi,ews. H~ , admits tha~ ~aiiatio~~ between " t'
rutal and ' urban
personality are ' , the two en'd'sof a ,co,nt'inuum~ that ' --the-re i ]s
no abrupt_ chang 'e as ' we' move ' fr~m .'on~ ' e~d to the other; that
with the " grea ter '\
poss ib i1~ty' for communicat ion , and
tt:,aospor:tation. the influences of ci~ies has ,spread r to , the
-' ~ouqtryside; ' " the ' ui:ban~ay 'of life malY not be confined , ~ '
actual residence in a city.
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,He also brings 5 !,me e , points of a more tec,hoica! ~
. : I:': ';:~'p,:<,' 'na ture. Thes e r ,emarks shou'1 d be, warn.ing about o ,ur ; , r, .... ,
: ' (
un,critical adoption of census ' .d·,efin:[t!ons as ,be ing : the
' important , fe'at'ure~ ,for peop~e" in . their da:i1y life. ' For
example, the . census· de!: i nition of the' city , is an
administrative concep tj the ,census enumerates th~ night
. , I rather than the day popula,ti,ot:\ of an ·area •
, . Pa t ,terns ' ,of
. I. .,!
residence ' (the night
r ' ,
during the day time the 'citi,z,.ens of different ' s 'ectioris of ',' " ,. 1 ', :'" .
. ,' the "' urban area 'converge on the wo'r:ki~g ·" ae '~i: ,ors er'Bsing' the '. • • , ~ " "I
A~ ': . .... . \ ' -: '" .. ' "
nightly' division existing across ~-"t·h~it.< : :6~ d/o,rsoc, ~al cla~s ~ ~ ~
' dan'ger 'of . e,o,nf~iiog . urb'anism with ' " '
There , is . ,",
t ' ' I
industrialization and , ,modern ,cap it a liSD;l as ...
Dewey ' (1960)
criticized him of doing. , The . gre:at : diversity ~f ,cities
:amongthemselves would also have> tQ be considered. '
"
1 ' ,
'" , Dewey (1<960) saw Wirth's original ,propositi'ons as a
,failure to distinguish botween demOgrSPh~uence. o~ · the
one hand, density and' size ,of popul,.ati'on' , and ', influenc~ . of'" , ,
cuI ture, on' the other hand·. " Unlike I ' cultural ,factors,"
,demo.graphic facts , may "have un~ve'rsa.1. inf~uence that are not
time' bound. ' Never~heless . , lie finds' that den'sHy and
• '- l, ~
variations in ,S i ze ' induce five concomitan~ var iationsin .the
" qu alities of;
propositions j
They are 1.'
, iii ' ,
, t'Ue ~ ,' But 'they
'tltey vary along ' the
ano'nymity,2.
'1 i" I
rural urban ~ontinuum.
'of ' labor; , 3';' J '.
di.vision -.", ,
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,, 1.mper-sonal and fo r,mally 7 ' pr'es cr i bed,
symbols of ,status.:bicha,rl in~ep~~de:nt" '; ' : "'\ '-.I " 'I ,-I,'
:', 'heterogeneity', .' " .'. :'. . .
4.
'r e la t ioushi ps·" , ', ' .: ' . ('/
:s •
'-, .
" of" per sona'l :acq'uai n tance. '
I ' , . ,
.' , . .' ... ..... I Kitm,e'yer (1978) brings, ,out the ' i,nt~res'tfng ,point
, I ' that '
urban ' in~dweiling' : :d~n9ity, ", may '· in fact, Ib'e less 'than the .. , ", ,,' I' , ;t'ural one. Urban de'naity is ,orily,', highe,r ~heh we, ' consider-,
I
'its greatel numbe'r of dwelling u'i1its peri~tfa'ce 'a'r'ea.only,
the second d~firiition of derisity has ~een ,us~d , in the , I
It , may! not' be the m'ost , I literature reviewed so far.
! imp 0 r t a ,n ton e . ' '
/ ! I ' I
, / .. ' , . , I-, " ',l O'" ,! ,
Poplin (1972) is crid'cal' of , the / ,whole ' ent ,repriseof ' . " ',' i ' , ' "
the s~ud~ of urb~n phenomena. , The ; rural!urb~n concep~ can ~ " , I" '
be ' ide: t Hied with , hundr~ds of 'va~:i.Jbles " nO,t o~l'Y ' s'ize and , I'
, ", : . " ' " I ' J . , de~sity,'ecologfcal charact~ristic~, . .' . ... ~ ,
/ 10 -l so' e foeti 1 tur a 1 cha rae ter isties or
~ut adso legal status,
economic , , ' .. -~ . .... . ( " . !
nature ' of tgeir
predominant
h tn te r.'1 and. s activity. , The makes a." , ' , i"
difference. In ,fact he d,isoiissesi the :,urb.iiD! rural,'dichotomy , ' , J'
,since hep ,rop~ses , Ithat ' the ,urran way , ,of ,life ' is no .longer
d~'peri'dent on ' place of 'residence,i that the ' ",entire :popula'tion ' , " ' ~, " . " I '
of the Ull'itedStates" is trbanhed (pp.43':'44), tha,t
nowadays, the differences are , o~ly a matter of' , degree> ,that",
the ' lias ic features or Ame'~iJan ~o ,ciety, i ndividua'iism. : for ' . ,"
example, have, penetrated into" all comuiunities.
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" The ' resultsconcer.ning the r 'e'latio'n ' between urban size, . " ' .
, . \ l .-l: - ~ .' -: p()pula ·~ion density, .'and h,elpingare ' equivocal, some . s ' tudi~s
. find , les~ . helping in ' the city, som~ f~qdmore.
" .. .. , . '\ '/ ',. "'1 \. ..
.. '.:. Among the . au,th.O'~;ho ; find" less . helping ii;l .',: ' ~, ,, , " . . ' , .
," '
the
, '
' . , .: : Amat·,:, .. -(1981) measured , i'evel · ' of help in urban and " rll~,al· . . '.
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, .'.
.. , .settings in ' Au,si:rali~ ' iindthe ,United States • . -" The request ' . . ~ ,
f'or help was .from a . person wHo ' seemed pliy}si,cail'Y ,in. pai,n- a~d
. would fallon the ' sidew~lk. of , he'lping were , .
ti:1g\ler ,in th~ towns than in'· the ~it'1\s : in b~th ' c .ountr ·:les. ' r
'Rushton (1978) ' in~:J, of 'urba,n , , density and alt'~uism
. ~ . "
se.t in -C,anadi'an an ",inverse environment found : f J ',
th,e " .
r~lat:tonsh~p bet~e~n 'density an'dhelp giving,'. , th~ .bigger the
cbmm~unity. the less help a :;;tra't;lger' got , to a request • . , \. '
H~ advanc~d . two bypothesesto ac~ountfoi his data. One; ;.
, '
,/ that :/-
people' in ~ities . ?-·re."socia1ized ·di:f ,fe ·rentlyl.'(p. 989)
'f o"r '. • '. I . " " "-
than ' are people in smaller com~unit~es in '~onsid~ration .1 ' . .. ,I .
others. His . s'econd hypot1.1esis is ' s'imilar to Milgram' s " \
(i970)., pr'oposition (p. 990) that , stimulus overload '; lead~ _ e '
I
to shut · put stimuli of secondary importan~e, i.e.,
.all th'e 'ones not , required .to per{ormthe action, for example tJ '
getting .. ' from· ,point . a t 'o point b, iI!- which the! are Emgaged.,' , J
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'~~all~~r ' '!lrb~~' ~ente'['s' \-"sbowed mOJ:'e 'help'f ~lne's s. B';l't he :.note's' .. .. ,-J . £, . , "
.tba t :·· t·hesodoecon'omic,! st a tus ' o f r~~~~~de'~t . ~il'Y ' ha-v~ ' b\:~e~ , '8: ' • ~. J~ • . ', "
' more ' .
urbani~m ~ndet~rm:Lni;g the he ,~p·fulnes.s . of, I /: • , .' •
subj ec't's ," in . ' a 'j'
" . ~ .' .
: 'pa~~'icula' r: city .... : '.:!Ii . '
' ( . • 1 _ ~~.' • i ." . I· • . .' I . , ' . ,
. ,. ' : .Hoi .ohal\(1977) : a:~g~)ed "~ ' tha't : " p .ers'o~~l and ,s~~uat'~~:~~~'/, " \ '. ':
.... ". ",'
.. . .. . : : .. varA·sbl,es ' hay~ ' ~:~en I , d~.n· f~~~ded " ,'si'n~e '~rbari : 8u'~) ecfs bav'e " : . ,~ ,,~: "
. . ' bee~\:~tu'~i-ed 'OnlY in urba'~ , e ,nviron·inen·ts ari'd . . r~~a·l subj ects ' P ' .
. . ~. ,~.
, . ) on:ly~· Bmalleragglomeratio~.s . ox: :l.n the count·ry • . . Us.~ng , . ,;- " , f , . :. '. ' . "",
~tudents fro'\. :pome. towns .of diffeJent' size be' "administered
a s 'c"ale ,wh:ich ' mea.~ured their j~dgm~nt of-: ~?e . app'r'o 'pi:iaten,e 'sB , '" . . . ,~
re~p on~es" . ,( p. ' 3.79 >.: and , , , " . ,' . 'varyi ng :s i ze . helping ,pf " e
, , ,
lle',te ,rogeneity . of .environmenta • . and urgency , anq d 'egreeso'f :' .
.' , .
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, , ' , , . " " , ,
r,~kinvo lved. , ' His result s ·off"e, r evid ,ence . that: , " ,' , .' ,
, The ' reported ~n.willin 'gness ,of the ' urllan'fte to l~nd , ~ hel'ping hand ismorea· 'function of "situati.onal ~actors and of' interactio,ns between sitU:at '{oiiill 'and .', subject . vari.ables tban .. ··, of · " su})ject ,,' . ,. characteristics alone ' (p . ~ 381).... and · are " not
, ,inte'rnBlized and broa'dly ,general~zed . as norms ~f( . non,' responding . (p. 382)." ,1 : .-,
' Kamman (1979). using ' the lost letter " tlnniqU~ :fC)'und :'t,11a.t " b" . · ..
" , "" , ~' : . " . ' "immediB; te pedestt'i'an dens i..--ty is the more iel .ial]lepredi:C: tor , . , ,
"
0,£ non helping ', behav.i~r than ' city siie" :('p. 24·S). The
.. d i ftn,i on of · r,sE ib ~ liM'O dd p~. t.~ tia 11y a e c au. t • . eO.
vir.tuall·y ' · ali of, ', the data.- · ,
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-', -. -' -':-lto'use 'a 'nd WQ'l .·£ :(19'7'8 )re~ nalysi ng .'.the . dat~ , ~ rom ,> census ' . , .... .'
.'betw.een ' ·1'952': and '" 1.972.,. ', assul!li'ng ,
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"b ehavio r t , • > ' , .
to .a · r.eque-s.t ' for .
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,f ound " accord i ng . ' " .
· an · ) .. nterview , to b~ i helpful '
to : theirexp~~tations ' that the '. , : , '. I
rural: resid·en ts wer e ·more he~p f ul'"th 8Q. ,th e .ct t Y . ie's idents . .' ,·. 1 . ' .
. ·bu·t : that ' th~se repor,ted" dlfferen'ces ' beiwe~rt urban and' i:'uril1 ' . : . " .
. 'r esiden t;s, . were due :.more · .' .1. ... . than
: i.e., . are '" sHuati:Qn specif :ic ratl~~'r ' ~han ' stablefeat'rire. C?f' . ." . . / . t '" ;: . . , .
'~nd.ividua~s; ' 2. . that . diff eren\~es iri · · helping .· .behaviQr.
b .e t~een pl~e e 's ' of r esiden'ces . have .be come s ig~lfi c ant ~n' ly . 1n .... ' "
'. . . ., ,, Ii 'tb 'at . these · d .1ffer,ences
' . " 1 ' 1 ' ....
are tied tQ ' fluctuaJ:ions .':in level .of " c~~mi. ~l:'lity ,rather ' th~n ' ,' • D ) :, ', t
t'~ the' var1abl~~'we . associate'. wi t h urb ·an1s;n. popu l 'a tiQn. , , .. : .
:, "
, "!I
.' ' . ' . '. ' Among, those ' . ,'
. ,re;sidents, . · W'e:in'er
who , ";;1 ' m~'" .h,lping , .... oJa .' urban
: (~ :9;~) ' lil ' ~ " .. iab'o'ra'torY . expe.rimeri·t ·, . tesi:'ed . I
I ,' . ,':.
.a \ h:l:gh · o 'r l.ow " subjects from rural or uJ;'.ban r~sidenceQn ' f _ . • " , .: ....... . ,
" ai ... <. ';:1' . . ,overl·oad .. task comb~ned with an ' unforeseen (to the ,subj'e.cts)
' reque,st f.?r'help~ She' found th'at the' ru.ra<l an,d urban ' group . . .' .
, ! " .. , . ,
d.iff'eredeither .on ' task performance or on amo.unt of he Ip~ng.
rural grQUp , . was less . \ ..
helpful 'but ther,e' w~s n'o difference' · in the task perf.ormance · • .
In . the high·~,ov.·erloa· d 'conditi'on theie ' was'· no di:Eferen~e ' ~n: , ,
· a.mo~tof .. l:telfbetwe .e~ · 'the gr1uPs but the ' task perform~nce ,
of the · rural ,group waswor .se th'an .. fo,r 'the -urban grQup., . Spe'.
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.--- . . '-' 28
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per' s ,onalfty . ,'v'art·ables. , influence . the
,'predis'pofjitio,Ds : to ,, ' hel'p' " .. .' " ,
" ,," . va r fable's " that . si tua t.iona!.
iriflueiic,e · : its ' ., initiationan'd' that both ' .. tnt·eract · with ' \a , "
poi:entfal\· h~lp.e· ~' s i'experi'ential' ~oi'ld" (po .l23:) 0 ' . '
. ,: ' .. ' . ' '\ . : : " ~;' ".:' ,';<" :'~:~';' : '\ " . " , "
o .
.. , .~ .' . A st,u 'dy' .·, ' b:~ '. McKenna sniMo~g'en th~u ' ( ci. ~ed . ' iri . M.i l·gr~am~ . .
:; \ .. ..... , .1970) ~lso · .c~ntradictr the s-tere"ot.ype·· '~· f·i:he un~'ooper 'a~ive' ,
:, '~ ': 'uiban , r~'Sid~nt: o ' I~ :, , " 'l~~Jg dis t~nce terephone calrs ' urb~'n .·' ., .
getting ' : r. e~ueBts ··, for ': , information ' gavea' ,higher. . . . . ,'... . . . .,.' " '. "
leve:l of : help ,than .sma! ~ to,wn residents. , ' .} • • . ' I '
"
. ~t '. . ., .// .
Weinb erger wi t~ '. Glas~·( ( 1.9Si) • . in field ', .:
a
helping iri , the protot~pical big . c.ity, New' York,fou~d that ' . . , . \ .' ~ .
'. peopl~ ' were w.~lli!lg . to ge ~ involv:e4 ': wftQ strangers , . beyqnd ,< . - : answ~ri'ng'
., ... .-.. -; . .. ~ trivia.!.' J;'E!qu es t f 0'1i ' d irec·t·i 6na nd auch < ther e
r '
. ,
~ wss no comparison tp , smaller u'r~an lo~ations) .• , · '. ~ . . .. '. . . . . .
, .'
/ .
" : " .
~Cintr ,ai:y ' to Weiner (1976), 'Mils'ram (1970.) , denies -~tha t . . 'i . . . ' '/,. .. .. i
, the " diff,erences ,. are· . duet.a . nint ·~insfc · differences . . in . ~ht:! "', " .
' : · :·" ~ ... ' .personil.lities .of· r ,uraJ ' .and cityl' dwell~rsi, '. (p. 1465) but . • • i
' . i , , . , cpnte.ndl?
. " \
that ' it ·. is only a shor.t t .erm. ·r .evers .ibIe, adaptive .,. .
.,', >
. '. ' / ' .
.: : .. : ' , ~.Kor'te c:. (19.78) , reminds ' us ' . . ', . ~ . . y . "
di ve'~ s'1- t:y , ' I •
and · . of .. the , great . .
of' urba.n · space •. Whi:l~ his own : ·as'se,s·s.ment () ·f
.. " ''' ,expe:r i.menta.l "'·re:s1,11t·s : so .1, fa r . is
" ths·.t . they ' suppor t ' . 'th e
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29 : I . '.'
,'.' , "iiuii 'tatt-ans , ~f: these- ' finding s: . ',
• . .. L , ih~ c'a 'n~'ePt~~,ii~atio~ 'Of ' u'rb~~~Zatian" ::,wh~C~,, " l .·
, I
;~~ .' .
,ignores ' crucia'l ', ""rariatians, . arid compleXities related to ' ur,bantorin ,such' ,as' diffe,re'nces withf'xi ·it "siri'gle " ~rba~ envito'pment · a'n'd : b.etween , ":urboan ' :eti,vironmen,ts in d ifferen t . cultures , an~ . 2. ',., the ·. failure to identify .. the particul,ar factors that . are influencing., the ',I 'evel-' .of helpfulness ' and mutu'al aid (po 89) 0 , ' • "
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·, n :'is som'ewhat .d;l-fficultto · draw a . .:
. ,', II ':' :, ' ,~~ . gener.a ,~,' " C? rir::ius.io,n
'" ..... . " ' . '
~bout ali the'se ' t'ind'ings~': whetqer' , , i- .
urban ' e'nvir 'onmen:ts'
"fnfluences'" areinternalized .ar' not ,temporary or permanen, t; .'
-.- "'",~
o'r ' negative . . , '
. , .. ' ~ in . relat i()n . to . helping , behavior. At
' ~:east 'it seem's eVidim't ·that there fa no simple tela t ipnship
G~ven 'the ii.bs .e-nce of
'clarity surr6un.d.inf the ' con:~ept: 'af.
'~'
.. urb anism 'this is ' ,~ot
. 8,urp rising o' " ,
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,.',." . " '. " ,~ ' " , , . .' ,. , .. ~
; , . Ci ti es and ' Cul tural Identity' and Helping Behavior. ' .
'I. "
Th~ . v 'ariab'les cif cultural identity and ' u~binis·m, wi 1:1,. . ~- .'
.e,ach o~ , its ' own, 'a'nd in .inter·actioninflue.nc~. the level of , -' .. ~ ..
· ··. help for pe'ople . confronting each ' other'. .!
. W,e r·e'v.:I:e_'W_ .• he r e· , ' o . '
,<authar's .who have studied .the'ir m'~t'ual in,teractive \ i~:iluence
, ,', . ' i
" . , ' . I I .
that :ethnic' ,al).eg '1ance ~ay,well, , ! ' " ,I .
means ' of" cop1 ng .\<li t,h over 10al1 in' ' urban' ar,eas.
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.' out urban heter .og .enei~y 'by responii'n'g', along ' ¢th~ic. l in.es .. ·, •• '
:.,:: : ' 'over,ioed is·~ade . m~r~' · m~~ageablen . (p: '1463), '. '. Thisshou·id ; be
.,
relativel'Y ' " easY, ;' ·when .~ . . . .' . '
. the phys·ical features ' and/or
d ff ferenc.es in .. ..4'ress '~r e .·obvious '. less so when ' ,th'e'
dif ferenc·¢s . ;:, ar~ 'ies s .. a~pa r~n,tt .,a t the level ?f 'language , f,o 'r '. '-\y ,: example,. " In such a . case : tlle rel~vant '~'nform8tion WQuid, ~~lY'
, \ . ,. " . , , . . ,\ . . ..
. ~ . " I' : ~: • • • • . be " provided once . the' .. fn terae tian is underw'a·Y. Milg ra'm '.' ".. , ', ,: ~ ~ .. "
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. " :( dpn'e . in cit tes. only.) 'where. white. <> r :bl·ack . p, rs .ons pho~ed
.. .. :'.re pofts ' an . UtlPU~1.i8 hed .. exp~.rimen t . ~y . ,Ga,ert ne~ 'f~.~d Bl~ ,kman
. ~ , , . "
for . hel'p. Ho'rehelp was · gi:ven. : along, ethnic ' li'nes tha'n ' 9 ' .
. hcross.
'1 I
I
Hansqn andSia-de~ so . (197'7) ~: experiment , . ' . ."
'us 'ing . the'" lo~t ' ', : .. ,'
" ,leet'ertechnique, 'foundgrea'te( help ·.in .small .towns . co~par.e.d . . ...
' to ' urb 'an ce"nters except when the per,son in need of .'heip was <
:;
s , ,devian 't on . '.~ . social' 'dimen sion , . , In '. that:'·: cas'e '. the'
:dgferential helping ' rate8betw~'en ' i:h~e ' ' lo'c~tt'o'ns (111 but , ,;,' "
.· di.sappeared. , Whi.t~h.eaf ~nd ' ~etzge~ '(1981) repol.~~a~ed Han~o~~ ' .
. a~d . ,' Slade's ' 'study ' u~ing ' affiliation' with a ~9mo8e'xu'al'
:. organization I as . a 'measure ·of. dev.i'ancy,' Their i'esl!lts :'are
.. , were hig~er .fdrnon deviants.
','
.Weiner
" .~ .
" , ('1976).. mentions"
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il 31
- "i-- , ' ,/-.,
' the 'decision to help' or: not, for rural residents as ,oppos'ed '
" to , , urb'an residents (the ~xperiment , was done 'in the
l~b~Fa~o~y using ' rural ~nd urba~ re~red college stud~nt').
" On the c~ntkary Edwa~ds (1977) , repor.ts ' st,udies by '
Fishman ' (1966) gr~ater d~scrimination along,~ultur~l " ~ '
liries would ~ainly ~~cur ~n th~ largei urba~, centersi " I
_~ ,Ethnic self-awareness ' and nationalistic , feeling ,s are ,urban " ' p~en,oillena... Urban environments are
, ~~re likely to be those produ~~ng, individuals and , '_/ .~.g;-OUp'g'- c..oncerne'd with langua'ge maintenance, and
' ... " C-' rev iva 1. , ( p • 2 7 8 ) •
o , " ,
\
!' ' , i , /'
I 't / .-1'
,SO ' the , interaction of residence" and ethnic allegiance ,"- ,J'
,I ',may 'contribute to' alter ,the ' re:lation between community size
, ' I
'and' helpfulness. Results ,from the laboratory' and fr-om' the' o
field. / show that ethnic" knowledge ,'of the, p,ersons in;volved,' i "n
t~e helping act will modify:its occurence ot mag~itude. ,
, ,
person's t
cultural exp,erience is an
~is/he~ pe~so~ality., on~ w~ich will always be ,- manifeat
A
'.,
. \ " ~ i . v'
~ the presence of ~tl;ler, ~ and eVen when ' by-'himself/: her~e~fit \ ,
will at ii'l shape hj,s I,her way'of ' thinking and acting., ,In
. :: ... su,mary some studies, suggest more helpfulness ,in urbani~e~
• "due to.'~r'7ater indifferehc'e to , . , ' . l , I,
cu'ltl,Ira1:" 'divers'ify or ,to
' cogni,tive ,complexf'ty ' (Wein;~r • .l976) .. , , , Som~. on the coritra~y. ,-' s~ggest le'sshelpfulness ,on thep,srt of, the urbani'tes due ', to
, / ,
oy~rload ',sele,ctivity :management along cultural li'nes. ,,- . . . , ' , . )
', f
"
','
'f _
, ,
::- .... ~ ~ ... -. ~ .~ •. -- •• .:. -.- . . , --_ . ~-..._ .... __ .,. .. _.-..'.\ .. ' ..... " .... ' .. _ .......... 'II.' ...................... -.-; .... : ... ----":----_ .. , ..... ,! --:" • ....:-. ___ ......... ' .. , ........ _ ... _~'-.- ... -:'-~ - . :
"
"
....... . .r '
"
r:
" ~
I,
I
"
i.· ; . . ,' , "
\' ....
I, , "
, ;
, , I I ,
,;.
I' f
, , ~ ',:, ____ ",. J:~ '
:"
I ~
' , f
~, i f
'j I
I I
" f
I ' :, !',
' "
" q
, '
\ f
, .
, . ;
I i ' ' ... ' .. ,~. '" , ... -: ..
.~
:;3. , : '") ,
. ... ~ . 3.2'
"
Ovefview. , " '\ . ~
" , '-', . , f " .' , ....... . '--;"'
", ~C~,,0It .. iS , propo'sed ' that, ' th'e level of altru113m/helping
" beha:y:Cbr is affected,by, t.he characteristics.of ,the persons c I • ' .'
invoLved ' in the heltSing s'ituation" as , r :equ~sters or as
persons . I . .
bei, ng asked for help 'and b~ , the type of ' environme~t
in ,·which the request, t~kes , place. In the present, experiment
I ' . •
the r~l~vantcharacter±~tic of the per sop is t~eir cultural .' , " . .
.identity "as revealed t.hr,Qi'gh t;he~r, ~anguag,~, an~ th;"e of
envi'rfonme~t is , the urban size~ " Given the ' lack of clarity, ,1
arol}nd the , coricept of tir,b'llD si,ze its , e,ff~ct wir'l' be examined ;r 0'
:, . : but nop~eaictio~ is ma~e : coric~%nin~~ts effect:
to
Two experiment~ , were cdnducted in which the willipg~ess
of ' ass 'ista~le; ' of members' C!f ·the two ,cultural groups , , be '
t6w~rd~ each other,was assesseft: in one " J . ' '< _ I';
exper'iment , t.h't~ " a/'~~F
'J "
was" 'done by Ii ve in tervi'ews; in the , other, used'to pro7"ide
corroborati~~ e~idence, it,~a~ ' d6ne , with th~ lost lett~r
tech~ique ', ,,(Milgram 'et iiI, 1965). The' independ?t. variables
were the ;~a-ng:uage ' in which a request for hel'p was , mad'e, the
language o~ the responden't ,and .' wher~' ,Co , reques~ ' was 'inade.
The/ locations\ were ':cit'ie 's and towns iIi New Brunswick ' and '" \ " • ' ~ , . . . . '
• 'J
' Quebec. The ' ,
met'hod experimenters~ involved two ,- one
b 1:11.ngual fr.ancop,h,pne and ·6n.e b iU,;ngual anglophone', , "I meeting '"
,~ , I'
persons ' ori i the str~,t ,and as~iIig them , '. I'
a few ,questions about <:
t~~it lang~a~e usage and, th~ir place ' tif ~e~idence. The , "
:, r ' .' /, ,
, .,' .... -_._, . -~-~j --~-'.-' -.- - I .~ ....... --.-!--- ":' .... _ .. :.' ...... : ~ '.~ .. . . ~ . . -. " ' <'j . '
"
\~ ...
, I
,- ,
)
"
, 'J
; 't '
/
" ' . , ,
, ,
-~,
i .
L' l
. ~ .
'.},
\ -,\
,..,
" , '
,,/
,
)
i '
~ •• ". ~ ~ ~_:. " l ', ' .. , , ~ . ' " ~. ~ .
' 0
r "
. r! - I
"-
'..,f": '
33
,depend'e,nt ,measure was , the': 'w~gness, of 'peop'le to an 'swer
q~estio~s put to them by ,a ' ~be~ of' their own ', cultural { . " ' ........
' group (ingroup) or ' by a'~embe~ 'of the dther cultural $~OUP
(outgroup). ' , '\ '
' . .:
, 0 exp~m~n~· ' .. the" ' lost , letter .~
t e c~:rli que
prov~d 'ed ' an u,nobstrusiye , m'ethod' of behavior , assesmen t.
t 'et ters bearing, 'only an address and a ' l
stamp but " notpos.t
.' marked were'lost'· in , different 'locations. Th,e ,behayioral'
measu~e '~as numb~~ pf ' lettersmaile~ back\ Whe ther ' " the '
decision to mail the letter a~ not -is influenced by , the
,'.id:ntit y (FrenChorj EngliSh) of the , person to whom His
addressed '. should , be ,r:eflec ted, by t 'h~' d iff erences f~ re turn
,rates. , '
In both . experimen~s if , t 'he p~p.~lat !ma-gra of the
relati~nship
• qndi~gs in
" \
,'betweeI)..l'the two .cultural grp'ups, s~ppported ' by ,
theli'tt::ure ' suc~' las " Tajfel, ' (~9i8Y; .' is \
accurate we shoul'd 'find in our results that ingroup memb,.rr:s ....
give ,more help to ingroup , membe~stha~ t9f:~uts'iders. , .'
, , On the otb 'er; , hand if 'there is no s:\gnifi-eant , diffe,re,nce • I, " . '
between the level -ofhelp'rec~iv~~ by each expe~~menter it
" would , 1=end to suppo~t . the opposit'e l~e"" , that individual. . , " ,', .. . . ~
interactions will b.e, 1 more .. posi ti ve', than ,'accoU'nt 1ngat the ' ,. '..:, " , : ' "
group ' le~el wo~ld predict. i
" , . ,
, ", ,'1'
,/ \.
" "
. , "
,'. \ ,
\ , ! ' , , ,
I ,i i
. i' I
' . , . ,
,. I
;':
~ -....... ~ .',., "
'\ .J' /.
.'
EXPERIME~T . 1
Method .. . , "
Subjects. A p'ilot . study · was . done" 8S'
; . .. '
\ . ' . '\.
practi.ce, and
, "
34
to . ; .,..~ ..
. . . \ . . '. '
Appendix., A for details) '" 'A total of 384 persons ' were ask.ed " ,
.. ', ..:-
"
. \
:-,:.. , . :
for:, ~elp. Pe6pl~ ' judged ; t6 h.e 18 .'Years old or older, w-\\o "-
were .alone and had their . hands {ree, were ' approached, and •
aSke~ · ·tor ~~i~; as they got~out 6£ a cai. • " " • , • r ' •
,. . , ,
Evaluation,.2.!. potential subjects, :' A. dec'isi.on was , made .'
ahtays \ as k'·'. the' i ni tial ·gu.es tion -. that the exp'erimen ters would /. ., ,
in the . langu'age of the Ioca tion in .wh i ch they . £ ound\. ..
; .' them'selves arid that onG subj ec ts who a~ '~wered, ' at .le.a,s t th~' . ' ' ,'
.. '
flr'st an.d second ,questions pro·perly, . would count . towards the .,I " '~ ' . ' . .
" . goal of . reaching the re'quired ~u'mber of , subj ects in each"
location. P'roper ',answers to the "twof;lrst questions :meant ·
that a) the 'su~j ec t
.. their "main language a't
~lved ~n ~he ' cQmmunity~ and b) that .. ' ~ ' . : . , ' , , home was the s~me as the language of
t ·h·e area· we were' working in ' •
. in Table ' 1. "
Neve'~theless ev'€:r~~ubj e~ t ' :s.· answers w'ere tf;:' record·ed · in ' '" \ " ,
' seq~en~e ~ven ' if they were riot of the pr~p~r ~ultural '.
_ ' ~ I ':"'" "
identity and/.- or locati .o~ cir, .if ~hey could ' nct .,be identified
on th·ese. variables • . , , . ~
.,
' .. , ' . '.: . ,' .
" ~ : ... ,
. '
.. . _- _._-- -_.,._--- --.. __ ...:._-- -..-.- .- :-- ,, '-,- -_ . . . ,'-- ., .... ~ . . .... . .. .. '. ~ I " .
" ,J
.~
..
: ;
' ..
.' -.
, . , ' :
t ....
-,l,.:' "
.. , /
,/
. ., P •• "' _ _ 4 ' .' . ", .
,' ,
'1 ."
I" ( : ,
',' , ,'-.-1 ' I, . .
: .\ , "
j "
; " ','
--
.. 1' .\
: "
. :
" ' ,:
' . t".
, ; -' ,
" I .
• i
'. ;
; .• j .. , ' : 110
! 1 '.1 ', ~
1
; . , : , ~' f'l , ..
r .
t 1
'J . 1 "
.\ .". l
'1 ",,'
i:' ;'
", ' .:~ ~;, , t
,. .. " \ ., ' : .., . ' ': ":'1 ' . .
,..-:1 .- .' :. ' .... . , "
. ' '
,~ .
. ': .
" . ",'
.. ... '. ' • • _ 'I . ·Ii .,_~_·· .• _ •. .... , .' ", ,
,,-~ ._ ......... ,_ ... #. ".,.. "" .... , .. , -.-~ .. - ...... ""-",,,, , ;.
: i ' , " .: .. . : '
'_ 'r' , '
.' , ' ,,,
" ;' " , i , . ! . :. '
. ;' " .. ,~ ,','
, I
, , . _:_~ :- ~h ._
.,1
.. ,' . . ,"
-,I,
': : .
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" " . t' , ' .. ; .. :' .. ~ ,.:, .. ..
, (
/ .
','
,', J . -,
,.: /
. !:
I ' .' , i , . , ' .
" I f'/-':. .
, . ' . :
,,' . ·· .. 1' .: , '
.r- J',
' ,>-
P,
; "
. !
, • '1,
i ..
..... . . \' ,
" '
'," , ' ,'
. ',1
,
; ..
·· _0" ·· -
, .. ' " /. ;
"
.. .. .
~'
,/
, , '
. ,.~'
. . : : ')
, " . " . ' . ' . .~ ". '
: ' o f
," " ,
", ,' : " , -
~ . .. '"., '
,' , " .
/ .
. '",
.. . ~ .'
: • • 1 " " , .'
," <h~ueSH :.;:: ::: ' : f '::i~ " ~~: Jeets ', ', • ',. ' " , . '. ' , ' .,' .
. : '
. , .'
-"~I
, L Wh.~ la~gtiag~' d~ yo~ 'F,rench or ,En'g l}sh'~'
" . . ' ,
, , ' '. , I
'1 .
.. ..
."
. 3,: How. l'onghave y~ubee~ ·, livfng'; heref' (in' ·Years'). .' . ' . ',f "
(, . , 4~ ' ,9f " the : ' la~g~age's you und':~ '~:tand whi~h Qnedid ,you. .. learn
i.' ".-" ~ , fi~8~,~ , : ~rigii',8h . ' Or · Fr,e~nc'il. " (""" " . " " '!t.
'. :,: ;. ' , ,',5.:, Wha·t langu.a,ge do .,}r'ou. mo,~ .t ·. often us.\a t W9rk' whe~ talki~g . . ,., : , _ . . ~o: a). you'r fellow workers, b) your · ,upervis,or?'
( .' " . .
6· . .. ·1n · what 18nguage did ' you ~~ceive yo'~r : instruCt.ion ·at.· pr,i,nary ' school? ' .' French or Eng,lish~ ' ' . ' , . . ', ' ' .
. ~ ..
'e ' ,/ ... .. ,,'
. '.
, "
... \ :.: .. ' ," '; " , ..
"
" '. ! - ,
.,
'1 : • r
. ~. '.-
'~ , ,, " / />
:.'
,:'
I-','
~ ,. I J.; 'J .' . I"
: '. ;' '! '. I
'/ • I ' f
' / ! " / i'
" / '
" '
" -, /
.. / " .. '
" .;
,"
., ;' ,i
, ; . ; ,
. ' , . 0, , . . J., .
. '. :. ' . . :-
. • ~ : I' " '\
" .... , ~ I • ,,'.'. { . ' • .
. ' ',/ . '
" I ', , .
" , ' , " , "
, .. ,: '. ',' ',' --;; .
: ' . .. ,' , .
, /
" , ', ' • .'· ·0 • , " ,:
,- ,
.- .. . ,' . IJ'
..... : .'~ : . . .' .
c · ';' ,', ",'1 ,' , ' .... " " , .
.. " . . . ~...-: ,'. : ' .1 , ' " . '
' . ': :",, : ' "1 ,.:
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,, ·· c,. , .' " , .', , " . ,. '*,
, . ' . . ,., ~ .
-.: --....... :.,., .• : ........ --:"': .. --.. ...... - ..... :",....-:'"'?-..-~'.- .• :: '. ' ~ . ~ . " "
". '. , ;
" .... ----: .. ~. ~.~. : .
.'1'1:, ••.. , .-... ", .~." .' ,"~ h~~-,-,-~-· .. ~~:~·~
" . I _ .... ..,r ,
", ' . ,,. -, ' . ' . '. ; .
, I
"
' :
', r _
. '~- ' .:......:- .
" '
, "
" " '
36 :
~~l~c~ion of locations. rd~al situations ,being n~n-exl~tent . ; .'
' in : demography as else~~ere~ , : diBPari~ oC, curr~d 'betw~en locations -in' ratio of Fren-ch speakers to English speakers,
. . ' ~ . .
size of c~m~unities, , dis~ances between locatidns, distan~e
between s~all towns , ~~d : citi~s, ratio qf urban to _ ,rural , -
_ populations , in ' the" two p,rovinces, etc. 'Locati'ons'selectiop ., -:-.' .
was based on 197'6 census ,da'ta inform~atlon ' about , lang~ ,
1979). , Ho'wev~r' in that Y,ear only one
questio~, 'was asked/ab,out ' mother, tongue,: "The first'language
learned by c~ildren and Istill spoken or ,the language of the , '
home, whether " the person h'as , learned it < or not (e. g ... , ,
1,980, p.18). This questipn may not
reflect the' 'co.ntemporary ,language usag'e , of' - the
are 0 n 1 y- , s'o m e 0 f ' t Ii e mas t 0 b v i 0 it s
might have influenced the rel~tionship ' ,
, betw~~n the two cultural Jroups.
" [.
, -I Heeding the information supplied by Gil~s, Bourhfs, &, ,
Taylor - (1977) about the Variables that influence the,
'vitality oJ ethnolinguistic groups, ' , locations ' were sought
which we,re 'inhabitated by sufficient numbe'rs of people of '
~ach iden~ity for ih~m.to achieve a kind of 'criiical mas,s'
necessa.ry for , their ' e,xistence a~ cultural gro,ups ,. For 'the,
, /, ' ' ' , -two c'it'ies a ,populati0t?- of around 50,000' ,' was ,sought', -- each
i,nhabitated by ' French people , ,and English, people in
approximately equal number. " (Se~ Appendix ' I 'for additio'nal
'r':!
"-.'
"
J -,-
-' --_ .... _, _:. __ ~ ______ .' ___ :;-._ • --•. : .... _.,_n' ... .:., .. ... _~.~_.: ........ _ .. .... __ .~ ............ , ..... , , , \ •. '" . ~- ' .... ,. ..... ' •• '*-'" '- ", , \ • • ' . ........ ,.
, " . '
~ '.,
-', (
< '
, ~ .
, . l , ' " I '
, f
'.,
t , ' .
. !
. . , ,
. ~
-,
, '
,' .
",, ' . ,
. \
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)
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, '
;/ , , f. ~\ 4 _ ~ ~ •• ,_
, ,
, ' ,.. . ~ - ,-- ~ - ----_ ...... . _ ......... _. - ... ~ ... -~ •. -, <, . "
, ""
'\ 37
information on city ' · selec,tion. and Table 15 showing the
' population ,breakd'o,w'n ' .for ,the French and 'the EnglisQ';in the
r cities.)
For ~h~~mall t~~n~(population 3 to 6 thousand) we
'C'ho,s e ' , to equate on the . number ; Qf ,' spe~kers of each " langua~e
not enough' communities had ., proporti~)Os o~ ~ngli8h ' and , F~ench
,of s~ff, ;f:cient size , to ,make it practically possible. , t;:o ' meet
th~ . ~equired nqmber of ,ub~ects of ~achcultur~l . bac~iround "J , • • . \ • I • . ','" , '
within ~ne town. We therefore selected four towns in each "
. ---two 'majori~y French ~ommun~ties and two .majorit:,Y/ provinc~. "
&ngl iS,h ones.
~alient ~e also re~uired that the to~ns . ,have at least 100 /" '
persons of ,the, opposite mother, tongue. , The towns" .. s "elected .......
, ' and ;
their populations a.re pr.esent~d in Tab.le ' 16 in' App.endix
; I.
proc'edu'r~8. Two ,'e~p,eiimente~s were used, one ' 2 ~lingual
pers,?,n ~h08e I mot~e:~ ' ·ton:gue , was ' Fr'ench and one bilingual :, .....
person whose mo:fh-e~ ,tongue ' was English. Both :w'ere from ,the i ,/
, ' ~rovi~ce tif Qu~~ec b~t ' they were nqt evenl! mat~hed iti their
IThe origin~:t intent had been to avoid the ,downtown areas, ' exp~ctfng \ the mix , o( cultu:.;al identities to be' , greater there. However. th'ey ' had to ' be , used :. as on residentiar' streets it' would have , taken , too muc,h time to I
mee t the required- number of , subj ,ec ts" .r;;
",
" -
-.-- - . - ~ ---- .•. - -;' ... -.. ... .. --------.. -....-._. --"' """:.--"~---':"'.--'-,":,". :-
,.
,.
, I-, j , >
i'
r' .'
.:': '
"
" '
! .. i · )'
I r ..
"
"
. ,
)
"
I ' "
' J,
I ,
I ,
,I,'
J"" ,
, ,
. :' , '
./
\ , ..
, ',
J '
: f
t.
" .' ' ..... ,
"~
' \ . . I ~
" a'p iii t y ", tau a e their aes-ond language, the ' French ,'
,'experimenter ',being more fluent than the English" one:.:, ,To
a~oid a , sequence effe~t the " loca~i~~s were vi~tted I t~ice,
. lonce' 'whi.l ,e travelling from Quebec ' to ~\.;., Brunswick ~rd otic'e: '
~l:1 ile coming back to Quebec.
Ii , Iri each of the two 'cities 64'. sup.jects ' we.re to ' be met · . r '
32 · frbm the . predominantly French enumera~ion . are~s and 32 , , '
from the Englishinumerati6ns areas. , Each experimenter was ' J
" , to mee1: ' 16 subjects in each location, always a~king ' (he
J ' , ' J ~ !
,questions in the m~jority languagedf ~he enumeration ar~8.
"
In each of.the : eig'ht towrl's 32 subjects
32 in two ' French communities and' 32'
', co,mmuni ties in Quebec; the aame' thing was
were ~~ met,
itf tw\ English , , to ' be" tione 'in
'. '
New Brunswick. Aga,in" 'each experimenter was' to meet :'16' ,
subfects in each . locati'on-,_--c~.~~'~Ys aski"ng ' \
the quas pons ' 'in
the lI).ajoiity lan'guage o'fthe enumeral:ion
, . 2 area ~
I '
, ,-
2 ' - ".- \ T,he total ' numbe'r of 's ,ubj'ec ts aimed for was " changed
from ' 480 "to ' 384 once t ,he experiment 'was ', underway. There'af t'e'r ttl ~ .- in ten t i~~ wa s to have , 16 ! sub j ec t s i~ ea ch location but this could ,not always ', be done. ' The actual
" , I ' , ' -number of subjects in each ' ,location may vary , slightly due· to
, , the limited amount of time that could be 8"pent 'in "each location, 'in ,wh;Lch casj;ls " the sessions may hilve :'been ter~~nated before the , required number ,was reached. ;- --('See '
,block ' diagrams in Append iees ' F ' and G f or the ' ae -tual numbers.) ,
~--' I--
.' " '
I ' ',', . " -,.- --T . ___ . _· __ .. _.~~4 ,. __ ._--..,..-_._ , . , ... . ......... . . -~ ... - . ~-. - . ........ -.~, -.- ,-- -.- ~-' - _¥, ",_ . , .- ' / , ' " ' " ,
, " , I ~ ;' ,
" .
, :, I,
' I, '
:_;/" , ,
,'_ r "
\ , ,'./
( oi
, :~ .
"
... ~'
;' /
': 1
i , I I
. ! I .
, \
·l
/
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. ' . " .... ' . .
1 ., ,
; '
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i i
,
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,
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. . , .-
~ • ". , II
. '. ~. _. "--~¥~~-,":"'''' ''''.~~- , ' ' ''- ... ,- . -''-- .. .. ~ - '-' ,'
/ / .39 . .
)2f'"
. . ' O-~h t~'e .' liv'e . '~n~'er~~~w' and . the " lost 'letter, experiments , ;/ , '. . . . '"
ere , conduct~~ ' conc~~~:ntlY." To mi~tm:i.z~ I. e~perime~ter bia~ ',L
,I and · to keep . s~bj ~c t selection-- cons .tant , , .the in two.
. ". /' experi.mentS, · the 1 '. .
subjects ~ere ' to be peo~le :, •. , I. " .
g.et ti~g : out or ~xperime ,n 't;all
' ; "
> . .;... .. --
the i r . car. b.y : thems .e I ves •
. --~
At the start of '
se~s iO,n . the first , person . ·.doing t:l o was to be . i
randomly , i
\ fo ·r . at\ assigned to .experiment one or two. i . e. ', a . . subj e,ct
I . 3 , ~~terv~e~ or for
./ . a lost le t t ,er. \
\ \ ..
The second potential subject was assigned, to the o,ther " .
e 'xperimen t (the idst letter if a ' live" interview had just
occurred or vice versa). The third p'otential . subject . , w:as
, I ' . -~~aln randomly as~!gned to ' ~ither experiment. and the fourt~
one to : th'e alternate ' and so on until the 'req~lred minimu!l1
nrnber : of sub'j ects . had · been reached Eprthe location. .'
. Th. standatd format used · t~rQughout was , ,
ass:istance " (in French or English d'epending on t .he location) /.
for. survey in the fo~lowing fa~hion; "Excus~ ' me ~i~/Ms. ~
I'm ." ~o'ing . a surv,ey on culturaf identify_ I would .like to . ,
ask you a few ques~lon~~This should only take 15 or. 20
. , ,
, ,- ..
, . ·.,3Itwa~ no 't Y ' al;~YB'- '- pos~ible' ·. to ··. · alternate ·. the .::xperiments like ' this. som~' easB c9uld not be use~to lose ' the J.etters: · tocvman'y people watching-,·· people .' pa,rki'ng in
' front 'of .:the' s~9res ' where . th y went shopping, etc •.
1,
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··· ·minute.s 'of }'our time • . Do you · agr.e ·e?"
;j ,
, '
, " , . ... : , '
: , . . 40
. \. . : . .of :. , .,
,. ' ,',
. ~ns·we.rB were B~ught to a .t least , the .' fi.rst . second .' .. ,
to . e.8· t: ·a~li~h" . . the · c .tiltur·U identity ' and ' 'place of, . ' , '. , " '
res idenceof ~he 'subj ec ts • . . Whe th'er -qr not l we p!Qc·eeded . . to ' ..
'. t .he othin . ques t 10.ns . ' .depe.nd.!:!d
two • . If they 'were 'appr' o\priaf~'
on the
I '. e ... a '
ads~erB to the £Irst . '. )
subj ec ~ of ·the · ·"at?e ..
~ulturaL . identity as th~ location. we ·were working ,in ' (same I
. " 1 .
the' city . .or', .town,· w·e. -, " . . bome lan~uage) . ~~d residing ' in
• - 1
.proce,eded, If th~ . sub~ct was wiliing, ' to' ask the 'r,est of '
. the que.stl_on·s (£o.r ' 8 ' complete list 01 ' the quest.ions·. see ' o . '. " ~ : . . \.'. '., ..
. ,-' . - Ap'pencitx :'B "I'iln 'EngUsh), "Appendix C : li,u·: French]'). I ' ' " . " "
.. .'
Defining ' Subj eO'ts; Answers • . The classification of .' s~b:t~cts '
' a~ : h~lpirig ' ~ 6r . pat
decliion se~uencei
, ,
helpin'g was
' </. ' -' . ,. ,' ,1. .Is t he per son of ·the . pr~p .e.r cuI tl;l;ra.1 · id en t ·ft'y .?
,. . :'\ .
,'j
,~Ye8/rio. '.
. . '( .
. 4:iri . the . ·experiment .' onl-y .. ethnic,' inf~rmatio·n·· . was meant to be p:rov).ded ' at, the ' in~ti·ai:ion of cont.acts with subjects • . But in cases' wher·.e subj ects' ~ant~d to know" more' . about us before making their . dec 'ieion ·to .help or .not we did ' v ·olunt.eer tha.t · we were university E,!:uden't~ (i. :e •. ' role· · information). '
.'So · 89me" 'subjecte had bott). , type- olf . information ' a-vailable"
: . , . - .
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. ...
, , I.
.. '·2, .' }s ': the ·pers.on. living in the , city' o'r town? ' " ,
~1
3 • ... ' : "'. . ' \
Is · the person wi.lltng t,o ~nswer . all ' the ' . qu'estioIis?, : . Yes/no~ • . .,;,.-. .
. , " , \. :1 , If- · the i' a'nswe,rs " were yes to·, ' al-1 .the · ques.tionsthe , . ... ' ".,-.'
,': subjei:it , was" ci~ssified a~'a ·~elpe ,~ • .;. }f.:.the ims'w'ers were ~es
c.l'as.sifi'ed as , .
a non·
.~elper. If the answer was no on · either .of t~e first two th~
subjec twas dismi 'ssed ~. In cases wher :e ,.the s,ubj es,ts refused
tp . answer any q'destions and. 'so did not ' provide the relevant
. ' inform~tion; ' they were classified arb i -i:ra.r lly. a~non hel:per~"l < , • • ' , t ' • "
of th~~roper cultural iden~ity a~d lo~ation. A relatively '
. high number of those cases", 'non 'rB:ndolll:.ly distribute~" might'
have . alter'ed " . 'I
the; r~sults. · Howevei since we actually got .,' . . ... ' \ .
·I ei.oly 14 of . these ' cases or less than four .. per·cent· . ot . ,the . '
to,tal ,they ' were elim'ina ted from'. the analysis ~ (-~ppendic es
·. B, .C, and, D ' c~ntaiIi8 : theforms 'us,ed in . data recording'.) 4 '
\ ' . , " i ·
,
. I \ " . i
! . '"~ I . ,
, . . . .
, '.
. j
EXPERIMENT .. 2
" Meth'o'd
-. I
• ;
In thi~ ei~eriment 6~lping ~~havior 'was to be me~sured
'by the '. 'LO~~ letter .t~choique·. (Milgram et ai, ' 1965,) ~.The
de.p·endent variable i .s a s~bjec·t.'s willingnes.s to go to the
trouble to ~ail anap~arentli'lost letter which ~as been
· ~tamped aod ; addres~ed hu~ has not ~een post ~arked. lh~
, ... . , . '/
; .
. .. _ .... _ . ... c. ','" -: . . "'_-'_ .. _:....." ... L.;. _' • .' I . , ~ .' • • '
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" .... ,'
, ..........
" .. ,:
• " "A . ' .
ra 'tio,nale, , for t 'his expe'r.im.en t 'was " . '.. ,"
u·no.btrus ive measur~~f . h~lpin~ , , :.. ', \. ' ." .. " b'ehavio·r • .
: :' .;, '//:: ' :.,,'
'c'
Pr'ocedtires ' . In each locai~~n th~ same
::.
. "
, ..... i.'
~u~ber, of · letiers , ,' . '\ . '
·,?ere.· to" be . los .~ : . as .. the' nulDb!!'r ", . of .subj ec ts" in the live ,'. .
. ,I
, '
.. '. ---: ' '. '
. ' : ';. '
.' ··~· interview, ha·lf ·of :,thoseby eac'Ii · experimen'terj. half ,in ea~h .. · ~ " . ' '
'.'
"
. ',
lcc.st.ion (French or En·glish, · asdete1;mined by' , the census)and ,, ' .-"'" '. '. ' ', ,' ..
·half wn il e'. tra'velling in 'one 'directio:O imd ' half wht"le . coming
back~ In fact lo,s.ing the letters incons.picuously . .'during th ,e .\
day prov.ed i:q ', be ,v.e,ry ·difficult · an~ ~i~e ·, consuming. FbI'
'·these ',' reasons we '~e~ided ' ,· to termina'te " this ' parti·cular . ' ·exp·eri~en t after . having don:e ,half . the t r~ p " ( . g~i'rig . one .way
puly,) . .. -Also . 'one ' town in ' Que,bec :.' :and . 'two ' . fown 'fI . in ' New
Br~.nswickproved :too'- small . ~o :. effe~tively' : - :,
ca rry, . ou:t ,. th is'
. ex~e.r1m~n .t · i .n. them_·. , ..
.J •
" '
" . , .
" Material. ' Th~ ' fett'era were' ·s·tan'dard white ' .envelope·s, ,'·each . .
. ..-- . . of which bore a 17 cent·s stamp and anadd 'ress with, no return
" ' r. - .
:add ress ·. The ' addr~!lf:J fis,elf e:l,ther ~ritten a.11 . ilr . I . - ,--"
F.rench · or ' all in . 'English, including ~n ~ddresgee with ~
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French name, . in ,the first case and an ' Engli~hname ' 'iil . 'the
second. , .
Th.e ,addr.esB was ' alway,s' th'e· ' s 'ame ~ a post ' offic~ box :" · L"""'·; ., , i, I
: in St. John's,. Se~~a~pl~~below. , ,: "
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·Ja.cques M'art'in· " Bottep~st~l~ ' 12S3 Succursale C. t. ,. St.'Jean', Terre Ne\lve Ale SN9 "
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£ ' ,John Mart i~ , ~ . p .~O. B'Olt. I4S3' .
Station C •• , . St. John" s, :N~~foundland
' . '.Auj 5N9: \,,,. . .
'.' .'
, .
'. , Iti case the :envelo'pes were .. open'e4 , .
. v:ague '. ,. message about' a, r'equ~s t · . l· , .
typej! in the appropriate. language.' See s mple
" Al'pe· pi:t/.n~ ... rd· "i'bX' e ,iow. (As .. ample . .of the French let ' e:r. i .
l H)~ .', A .codi~j ,riumber w.s ~y~e~ ~~ , . .
of "E.ng1ish
included in '
ve'l,opes , to
id,entify the,m as tD location where ' the:lffl w
on what. day etc •
los by whom~
",," -
• " Y
. ., . "Sa1DpTe', Engllsh letter.,
[EngH,sh add [email protected]] . .' .
. Dear -John, . l) {
. '" . "
>-- .
." Th.anks f or 'your .inter.es t in our ' organi'zat ion. , . . '
./_ ,We Will. soon • end you tbe. i ~f ona ;;;; ~~~~:::u:~. t •
I , ~ ", . ' , -'.
./ .-. "
'. '
"letters ' at ' __ ., Experimenters ~ere to try to ' distribute' ... . ' .. . , ' ., /. ,
relatively equal dis t!lncefrom .,mai l' box,es. or-
. eqU~l~~ a.moun1;· , of eH.o,J;'·t · f In'ders' would
t offices to
,to' . extend
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'·.· -, .r'~---"'" ',~ , ,- ':--"~" •• ","~.~-----:-j.'" "-:. ' ",' ":,:~-:-'---~~ , -" ' '',: " "> ,, . ,: ' 'j\ . : ., ~, ,'''' - " ..
:' ,. ". " . '1 " , . " '~
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:_". ___ .... ~~,,...: .. _._ ... -:.._.,_. ~ ......... ~ 'r_"" , ..... , .... _,. ........ _ ..... ~ .... _ .... "' .. . ~_, ... '_ .. _ ."'" ;.~'" J ...... .,. .. ~ •• ~ ........ ' .......... _. ~ _ • '. "
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.I .' --t 44
·~feasibie • . · 'In's~ailtow~s· , ·'. the layout 'di'd not 'lend itself to , . , , ' .' :"', ,'., ' . " ,....-
such a . balanced. 'design', an4 , ' the p'ost ,offices' were one of .. '
. the few pla,ces .,where there was ,enough: ' traffi'c:,tP , m~~e ' i,t " ; .
possible 'to do. th.e ' :subj ~c. ts ' ,in" a . r 'easonable" time. " , .
. Approxima'tely a ' moti~h . ' . I"'; . '
the
,' . '
,:
.:, "
./
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' I .'
',,, ',' . .. ~ . " ,'
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.;..
expe~iment th~ numbets 'of letters .returned · wa,s , calc~,1ated. ", . . '.
an,d ·an· analysis si~i~a'~ : to.' t ·he one" for the,liv,e ~, . ' '" .
in tervie',ws '
,/ .. .,.,::-~ . . ::.'
,' . . was ,performed. ·
t, :t .p ' ', '
. " ,l .-
:.' . ,. ' , . EXPERUiENT :l
' 0, " . ," ..
'}i:,' .:, .
", '
. '
" ., .
... . ,. "
, . Results
were
. ,"- ... ., ', - ' . '
. . " .
'""ar'fables: . cu It'~ra I ,iden t.HY o'f the' ·expe·riment~·r:~·: ct.tl tuta f , . ~ .. ."" ' .\" ', ' . . . '... . . .
~"" . ide~'t1t'y of the . popula'tion',~ urban size,': province ~ ', ' .~nd,. o~e
~e~ende~t va~iable, h~lp~ \
: I.
cu~tural· identity 'of t)1e . ' ,I
. . , " : .~ ,
..' -'
" '. !
\'
'oJ " .' to . " • ,
maiti · intet'!!"s t ·\.we're: .' thie .' . . ~.
, ~ . , ~ ~ . ' ,
. e~pe,rim~n te r' , (CUPEX:) .' and ,. the:
• j for a· list' of th.e ' variJ1bl.es)'o The, urha~ .size (U_RBNs~i'i.n " ahd..
" .'
G.:
.. ,
. , .' . , " , , .
.' .
i' 1-.,
" '0,'
o ·
' . . . '
l ' "
. ' . , .: .
cultural '1dent.ity· of ' ,t
f'" population' (CULTPO,P) '~e~Tab~e : . •
~ . -. ' , . . ,- ; ... '.-: ;;:" ' " the province (PROVIN9'E) variables· were' of secondary· 'in tel'i~'s t .
',- ' ; " I ' i ..
because, as ,we '. 1
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-c ' ',', :.
• ~ .................. ' .. . " ", ,r, ... - .,' .': -'~ -. ~.~ --,- v·.~ __ ; :... .. .-:....'._ .... _ 'r •.
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'. , , .-."'y '. ! ,
, ~' , , ,
', ' , . , ' .. / Tab~e 2
\ ' ,
Va'riabfeNaines and Symbo"ls Used .1p theA'~~lY8i~
'~
, i
'~ '" ,
, Variables '
' \ cuI tural identity ,of the ,
.1.
. ' . , '
eXi>erimeriter
cultural , identity of the .
" '-. populat'ion
Urban .'8i~e ..... . .
, Province'
Nam¢s ",
CULTEXP
CULTPOP
URBNS~ZE
PROVIN,CE "
C?tegory
F.rench experimenter '"
'English experimen ter'
French poi;u!il ti9n
Englisb popu18t'ion
.ci ty
town '
, b '
o·
,r ' ,New Brunswick , ,:
, ...... :
.. , , HELP .'
" ....
~- ---'no
, 0 , ' _N_o_t_e , ~ , ' T~e variable " riames . a~e used ', in ' the tables fc;r.
',conciseness'. . /
,. -
'. ~
, ,~
f"'"' . , .'
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· the . pre ·c\~se influeo'ce of urbanism has yet . to ' be . worked out
. s~tis· factori.1y and e because province wa-s considered to be a
demogx:aphic' variable whose , contribution it ~as important ' to
evaluate but which was ndt · ~x~ected · to ~dd greatiy to the
" ..
'var ianc·e. .. ) " , . . , \
\
As Bishop, . F.ienberg, and. H011 a:nd ('1975, p • . 31 ), Everitt .,
(1977, p. 70) , a.nd . Upton . (1978, .p • 42) note ... ..
a multiway ;.' ~ . /
table should nO.t be collapsed into ' a serie~ of two
, way-tables before ' th"e .presence or a·bse·nce of i .nterac·tions. at
" the higher . level SIG is as se ss ed.
' .. 1f
,3 -.
I
I /
The results · were . t 'abui'at:e~ initially ' i>11 '. a" contipgency-
table cross .clas·sified for . ~~ the .fi've · var.iables of help, ......
' cul.tural indentity of , the ex'per'imen~er, 'cultural ide~ti.tY of u
the population; urban size!, an.d p'rovince (see Table 3). ~.
/' . . The .:results were analysed with · t1!.e Blomecifcal . Computer
' .' , -::~ . .. . Prog'r'ams, P series, (l97in. the progra.appropri~ti~jor
. " =.'
analysis .of ' contingency ta'bles ~s " P,3F, multiway frequency ,- . :./ .. . . S· '\
1979, ~p. 297-332)~ taQ.les ·, the log-lin,ear m!Jdel '(Brown, - • .> '
J ' ,. The ~omputer · analysi~ . provides two chi square
"
. " va1ues.
! 5' .' .,
Programs · 4eveloped ~t the Health s~iences computing facility, UCLA. " Heal th s~iences I' compu,t in~ . f;adH. ty i 's spoosered by NIH f!JpeCial research re,s~ur.cesgrsnt RR-3'. . I'
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- I', . . 'J' . • - _ " , _'\ ~ _ _ .. _ ~_. I , . .... " . t · .. . _~ .. "J';~ " -'::" ' ~ . _-' .... _ ~._
: ,'
.' ! . ~
, '
.. . .. , .
" ~
... # •
..
./ \ . " ' .
.' , . " ,
" . "
. . / . .,' ~~ '"
. .,: .Taole · 3.
. : . Contingency : Ta'bleShc)wing , the Percen'tage of:F·~op1e :Hel·pfng , ' . , and" the ·Tota~ · NutQber': of People . Asked,' for . . Each Lev¢l of the
, . '. , 'Four ' lridependen i: Variabhs , (ilve "int,erviews) ,.' '
--..,.-------.,-----------...;...----.,;.--"------'---.,;.~--:--- :; ~ "
'URBNS'IZE . . ' ,
Ql1ebec city
, .' , , .~ . tc;>wn"
-,
town .
.. ..
I
.~ J" .. ' . . .:~ . I
' , l ,
,'.'
CULT PO, , cULTEXP
trnchpop. · frnchexp" ~nglsexp
englspop , , 'frnchexp
eng-l'sexp . .
frnchpop , frnchex'l'. englsexp . . /
engl~p6~ , frnchexp , . englsexp
~rnchpop . frnchexp . eriglSexp
' englspci,p ' frn.chexp. ' . . ' engl .. sexp
" " , ,
, :.frn,chpop . . frnchexp . 'englsexp
englspop frnchexp , , englsexp
. "
. '. ~, ' , . '" . . ': , ' . ~ .
.,/'" . ",
, t ,
.... 1
f'
·.HE].P . , \ %he1,ping ' Tot.
.-
47% : . 47%
21% , , 53%
I
30%' . 61%
, ;'41% " ·' S.2%
38% 65%
40% 60% .
38·% 48%
47%' 63%
' ~ " ' "
.' . " , , : ' ' , '
, (,
(17 ) (15 ) .
:(14 ), ' (17) .
.' (33) ,.:... (3,1) .
(34.) " (34) , .
(13 ) .( 1 7 )
(15 ). <. 15 )
(32 ) , (29 '),
(32) (32.)
, .'
". '. . ~ ,
, ' "
. j '
,. l ,
" '
. / \
"l' . ,
• J"
. ,.-
, (
I' '. ' ' I ' •
. \
r ",'
j . '
l "
: r '~' \"> " ,
' / . . " , . \
• ,1 , " ' , .' " ',"; - : :: · ·: --c~·i$ : ,-: -~ -c~-~~~--~, , .~-, --' -. :~"""":T~"',--': , •. " ! ' , : . ' ,, ' . " ', \ , " I
"'-- "--, ' ,'
" .
. ' , , l
j . ..... .'
I . j ' F.J "
.1
-.
", .
,f) :
' . '
" ' .
. . ' .
1/ ..
•
" , "
, , .. ~ . ' ...... . - ~ , .... ~ :' '',
I, ', '
, ,' , I '
.. " 48 ,;
, : : i, i , "
This is to help .s~lect . the.tnte,ractions" of , borderline
s'ignific~nc:e which migh.t ' be rej'ected outright ,otherwise: • " ~", 1 " •
/ ,I,,! . , . " The' test of ,/ any ef,t'ect in a log-:-linear ,model
-, ' dependS~ I!Iwh,ioh ' t>ther effects are included in the model'. th refore no singl~ test determines the relative " iml?ortance of an- effect. B~'own (,1976) ,
" '\"~ 8nugge8')::e~ the u ,se " of ' .two tests --margina'l' 'and . , ,Lp-artial ~flsociation:-- to sC, ~e.en effect:s • .' (Brown,
'-19,79,; p' ,B03J.
, "
"
,By ,using the~e. two . ,tests' 'simultaneously' ' eff~cts can be , ': " ", \, ' , '
classified as needed ~ not ',.neede,d , and , indef inite (if
'f .. ~.
. ' .
.' , , ,
.1/',
., ' ~ . ' ' .
... .:
, ~
sig~ificant 'for' one . test but not ' the ' oth'~r). ,(See Appendix '
/ .
' ., . J for ' furt?er explana~iO~~>. I'
" / '
The,first \ analysis was done · to determine where , the
significant iriteract~ans, if , ~ny, h~cured. The 'sig'nifica-nt'
fig~r~~ an,d ' b~rderl 'ine ' cases '( •. 05< l' <.10) wil,1 be . presentled,
':( s "ee Table 4). ' ,,. .....
-,
Further analyses were done a 'f t 'er , or
.condit{oning on Borne of the variables. . "
Cond~tionnin~ is
s.ilnilar t~ ,controlling for the ' levels ' ' of a variable as . , "
I '
explained · in , : ' \
Blalock ( 1972, p. 3.02 and ' following).' ( S~'e
Ap pend ix' J .f or ' d et a Vs)'. . , , ' . ! "
"-"
d '. , . " " ,
., val;'iables, with ' succes,sivecq.1:\'spsing ' or ' ~ 'ond(tio'nniilg of
" / sub,sets of the orig irial four . in~ependeri.tvar iables.
" .
d.
" . , , ,
, " "
~ , ,
. . , ,, '
, ' ,'. . (
" I
. '
/ .
. - ' . '
! ;,..: .
i /
"
"
.' "
. \' ' I ,
'" ;-. "
, j ' ,::" ,
, ., "
! ' .• " ' ..
1', ' . '.
:' : -"'-':-~ ; -.~. -~-. -. ,- . -.~,-- .. ; - . ,:" .-----::.-.-~-;:.-, - -7---·-----:'-.----:-- - r ", - '_. .. ':" t' ~~i~, ' .... ~ ; .. " .
; .
\ '
, ..
·1 '
· i , l " . ' .'1/:
. '1 · i
.' .' "Ii .' . j.
.. i .. " I
I . 1 ~
!".
, .. " "
. /
I ' I
,:-"
{ .
....
" .'
':',-
','
,."
! .... " · ~ ,
:;):. , '.
, I
'. ,,.
. . , .. ' . , .:'~ :. ... , , , , . . - ~ ... "-... -".-.---. ",P-, .~ - .",,,-~ ...... _ .. . . • _. ' .... ,.. ,, ·~r • . : : .,'/ '. , ,,_. I ••• • •• , .~ (. .,~"~ ~ 'or'" " ..", ~ . - .... \ .. -' _
/' " :: " -.. -','- .
. "
, ,
. ,'
" .' !'
.. I,
' ..
.' \
.,
' .
" ..
. , " '
• ~II , . , .: : 3
t · .' :. ,', ".~
. I
. ' TEST ONE . ~ (<?ur) wi i:h
, . ,. ' .
. :' , , --;
, , "', .' .
" ,"
.', . . .... ~ . . '/~ , , "
" .'
,-. '
.' . . /, ."
" ,- . ' f ,, ' ' ,:
"
, .;. " . ' i . " ' Significa~~ Interactions (~n contingency table '
' Four' !tidepe:nden t ' Variabl e's and 9ne De.p·e,nd env One
. '
A t~st of. partial associa~~on of the factor.
. A tes t of ·.marginal as,so.. c :i: a t, :I::PTn 0 f the f act 0 r 8 •
· ·Effect
H,ELP by . :,?ULT,EXP ,
HBLP -' by C;ULTP·OP by URBNS IZE
1
. 1
~ I a ' " / . lr chisq . prob.
' . 20.73 ,' .~1
3.70 '.0544
i ,
, : "",,:
. lr cqisq I
'prah ~ , p< .,
20.57 .0001:. , "r
•. 0.6 6~·
, ..
,.. ' '. :' \ ., " " :-
. " '. -I ' , "
' 1' .,,', "' ~
'J , , '
.. '
.-/ ' .' .
. ' .
...
...
. j ', '
.: . ~
....
I ·
. .
" '. . . ' ;;
i ..
' .
, : ; r"
. ' ,
" ' " ,
"
" .
' .
. ;
/ '
" .
i • • 1 . . 1 ' .
., .
" , '
, " ,"" .~ " ~ : .. ~:~ .. - ..;-.: ~ .. ~~.- .. -~.~ .. ~- .;-.:~.-~,;~~.:~U":_.-.-.;-·-~~.~~~.~~"~,~~~~_~+~.·· ... '_':" ,:~,_~_, , . . : . :" : . ' .. ,",' ' .. '. - , ' " ,' .' ' . , ,;. ,I ,:''; ;.:.'
. . . ~ . '~ '.'
.'
"
"
j " ' j ~' •
,, '
. ' , "
, .
'"
"
, "
, , I ,
In the ' first an~'i'Y8is .there ' are two significant
\ " , '\: 50,
i • , "\
. \" effe1cts
on help ,. first of the cultural' identity of the , experimenter, ' > . '. )
, .' t
,a~d se~~rl,d of the ; in-teraction 'between llrban size, and
c'ultural ,iden,tHy' of the ' popullitio~~ In the first case th~
irenchexperim~~t~~was "helped signiflcan~ly l~s~ (3~%) than
'the Englishexper~menter (62%).
The seco,nd ' interaction' indicates, th'at the French
populat_ion was slightty m,ore helpful (5,0%) , th~Ii the :Eng'lish
pop~lation ,~, cities ,,('44%)' -·but in J.,~wn6 , the Fr~..t::.~ \. . .. '
"
pop'ulation was less " helpful > (~4%) than the English ~
p;o'PQlation (58%) '(see . Figure 2). "
"
' ,n~ inter~rovincial diff~rences ~w~re of secondary inter~st ' . \
~t was , colla~sedonto .the other variables and · the analysi~
reru~'· fsee Table 5) •
, 'The probab,ility level s, for' the remaining. vaHables ?,
aft~r c6llapsink~ stay the same as in test ONE~ Only the
cultural identity of the experimenter by,. itael.f, and the
cult;ural . . identity 'of'·~the popUlation by urban . size
interaction affect the level 'of h·elp\, signif'icantly. \
\\\'" '
~l.";'!" .... .
. '. Again si.c~ urban size .ss '~.ly of' . 1con~"ty .. interest .'
we wanted ' to see · 'how 'the' var .iables of,;nain interest were '. . . , .,./ .
. " , .\
.\
,, -; .
, ,
. " .
.. .' . , . '
?0" "
.' .' " .
! , "
. , :'. , .. . .
. ,
. . ,' .• •.• •. '. I
. " !' .' , J
'.' . : j:\" , .' . , I ' ',:. .' :, ,I .' ,0';"'" . i '.
, )
" '.", ..• .. "'''. ,
, .... ; . ' !
.:. , ,.:
,':'
. ,' . , :.
.. ... , r
" , :' r,' " "
? " "
,'j.' . , ,I.
, ./
/! . I' '.
.'
. \
;'
;. ,
, ~ .: • • • '" • I .,
,.:-. / '
/.: , ' . , \ '
, , . ~ ~
-: '"
• I .. ' t
',( .', ',
\
) I ; , i '
. "l .''-',
,'.! .
.. ( .
, .' '. 1
. '
\. 1 , '"
, "
. ' ~ "
, . . .
'0' •
.<, :, ;
": , ' "
,:,., . ." I
.' " . ' ,,'
, : lo .. ~. ; , ' ;" -= ,
' .. ,.' , . ,
. 60
b1 S:: .
,,-j . ~ ' ,;./ al ' II:
.' s:: ' 0
',-j " . ~ +'
III
"
r-'f 50 _" ,.& . ' 0
Pl . ..c:,
" u , , Ill '. '. ,ri! '
'. dP
410 ,
.. .. \' '\: ' . "
', t ,
" ,
, ,
"
. ' ,
Engl'ish .population ·.·
, r . .. ' . ,
.~ ." , ..... " .. ,'"
44% " \.. ' . . \,,'
..
Towns . : .... . " '
Urban .. siz-e
'Figure.· 2. · Helpi'ng as . a · ,fUnc:tionof co~unity':'
'"
. -size '. and language. . , '.' '. . , , I .
" ' .. : :
,' , . , ,'.
" ,
' .. .,I' / ,
,' .. /~/
, ,'" / '
.1 I
'f' ( .
:0" .'
': ' 1
, , ,
. : "
. ,. ,
, ' .', '
i
'. ,,'
., ,;,1
: .... "
. '
') '
' ~
<' ,
: , ' , , '
_r '. ' • •• ,
, .,' 51 , 1
" \
', .' ,
, . ,
'.1
' . . " 1 , t,
I ,
. ",1'
"
,. >'
I. ' ,,' I ,, '
. j: .. i
'. ' .. ~ ..
' " ' .,. , :,' ",/. '. ' '.'
" .., .. ,' ,,'.,,$". " j
".,. , j.
,,'
', ' " ' '', '
, ..
, , " \, .
. ,.
.. ;
, .'.
". ,~
1-,.:' , , " . ~ ,'.: ".
.' "
: , ' .
. ,
.. r .. , ;" .. I'; .... ':
. . . '. 1 '. :,: , ,',,' . .. , , ' :,' ;;. ':>,~.
.' .. ..
I ." , \ '.I .' --;-:, ," ~' ",
"',:',
I
.' ."
' :.'
"!.
I :1
'1 i
, , 1
: ,'
:1 .
,,: I . \ '1
... . .
, .
,. J
:' ,
. / ' . . ' " , , ~ . ' ..
/~I . _ ~ .. . .. .. . . , ,_
, "
S2
" , ; ., ." , I
""
" , ' "
/. "
' . , , ' , 1
'/ , ~ . ' ,
, ' .
.' .. ,.' .
"' ,
."'i.
' . . . " ,'"
): . ;
J "
,. '
-. " . , . ~ ',' ,J • • ,
' .' :rEST TWO • . .Independent
," ,
, .. , .
. " .
Conti~gency' :, T~b le,lv! th Three " V~ria~l~s ' (pro~ince eollaps~d) '
, ' . . 1
' . , URBNSIZE CULTPOP ~ CULTEX~ HELP '
%he Ipfng . 'Tbt,. ' . .
.~-' ----------~------------------~-r--~~-----------. c;ity " frnchp.op frnchexp
eng~sexp
43% 56%
(30) (32 )
\ . "::'
1 ,"
."
engisp.op frnchexp ertglsexp
. :" 3-1% ,' (29) ~' } ' ' . ,
56% ·(32) ' ,:~ ." ', ------:-------:-:---:-----:----f---:--,-'-:------"-------'" ' .. ' . .
, ,
" ,' ,
. ~ " ,', :
' ... · . .tow~ ·, , f-r.pchpop -, ~ "
';' .
. :. engispop'
frnchexp 34% (65,) englsexP i 5~% ' : 160)
~inehexp engls,exp
,
44% 73%
(66 y. (66 )
A ,test ~f par~ial asso-6iati6nof the fa~tpr:
'A ti~~ o~ ~argin~l · aS80~ eiation of the · factoi~.
Effec t
HELP "by CULTE~P . ../
. HELP by CULTPO,P by l1RBNS IZE
. ' . { ,' .
.. ( .... - : ' " . "
d.f ir cl1isq
,1 ' 20.72:
1, 3.66
" ,
" ,", ' . :','
t · :
pTob • . P<.
.0001
·9557
) , , -
'-:" : , .
/'
,; : ' ..... . " . ,'
lr ' chisq
2Q.5,1
3.3'7 . .
I .....
.' , . , , .
. prob~ p< ,
'.0001
.• 0665
, ' .
.. .....
. " "
, .' . , • • _ _ . ..... _ ,_, _._ ... _,-:-._~.,....;.. _ _ -:-: " .1" , ••
. : .•.. . .. __ ._._- --;---..-.. __ .. -:; "7 .... :-. .... " . ' . . , . ...
., ~
I '
. " . . , ,'
, " ',~ . , .
\ . ;.: ':. ",
', ' ! .
, ,' ..... , :.
:. . "
, ', "
\ .. I .
,',
'J ' .
....
;'~~~:';i' (i .. -, . , ·r·-" ':.
.' \. ....
"
" " . ,* .
}.,'."" \"
; .: ,
, :
) , , \ .. '
,j
..... '
i .'
', '
. ': I ~ / \ . ... /
! . ' . I;J
' . . .
. I
" /
. '
53
. , , '/" . .
affeceed when it. and the ' province variablelwer'e ' ~ollapsed at " 1 " .
. the same ·time. Also ' to see 1f ' the var:iable urban ' size ' would
, ' show some significance , when the" , other effect . wer~ . '
/
dis count ed" th 'e, ' variables of : cuI tura I id.en tHy of the
popu. 1a ,t~on ' an~ . province were ~ollapse.d .. in subsequent ·tests. ' .. ,
,None ' of. these manipula t ions 'provid~d new · information.
" , 1 '
.The . main eff~c t of the cultural ' ident'ity o£'· the
.experimenter was of ' ,ove~whelming - importance in the
significant .results so far. , In fact, as we will consider ~n
the discussion secti,on we can . .only b.e ,certain ' that so~e '
characteristics of the ,ex'perimenters made a difference ' in
the, level of he lp ob t a'ined. To draw th-e conclusion tha 't · it
was , their cultural ' indentity
hazardo\s:
that was 1;'espo~sible
/ " diff erences , be:t~een the
' is
1 '
Since there , were .' significant
o'f h ~elp "obtai-ned :: 'h~t t no' experimenters in . the level
, interaction between the . cuI tursI , identity of the
expe'rimenters and the cuitural ' id'entity of the populations, ,
sep ,arate analyses were conducted fo'r each · level of these I,'
variables.
Appendix J).
tests, .. ' The:
first' , then,
Tables 6 and
\ ,
'..!' •
• " 1 '
In P3F this ;is call"ed , cbndi'tionning (s~'e
NQ variable,!l-- were c~llapsed prior to. . these
ana1Y9is
' for
1)~
is' ,done 'for the French experirilenter '
the .' English
I.'
,', experi~eni:er ~
,.
( see
~ .
, ,
'-.,-, -'----~'------., :--,--~-::-::" " , "
. :1
I,' -, I
" . .. ' , ,, '
:1 . I
I , I r
'-1 '.' I
-',
.. ': ,I
, .
: , . ,'
54
' .
, . . .The French . experimenter, 'by 'himself, . didn~t · 'p.roduce'·:-','
. _. J' • • "':: ,'{' . . ,
," any '," S 'i 'gnific~nt' .. effec:t ':. :(see .'. :Ta'ble '6) • . ,The . 1.owest .·
.: ;.S~bl1ity ~s due . to .the . . .1~teraction .. C!~/B, PU~~ .. tio~,.,. ~~d · .
"J" - ·· .. ·:. u:rb~n · si .~e : .an·d -it is no~~:ignificant. · . ' .- i'~
, ,'.
f/,. ,' "
. ' "
.' exper.imeti"i:·er . by. himself . there' was a trend 'for: ,the" English
expe.;imen t~~f or' the ' inte~a cti~n ' of" urban s i~,.~:· aI'\d prov.t'n·ce . 1
'English ' . exper imen ter I . .
did be t ter iil
Quebec towns . than in I
the 72% .,
~gainst . 50% i 'n the . .
la-tter.. . But · he did bener in the New Br,uns'wic'k ' ci ty than in • t' '. •
' the . towns getti'nghelp 63% of the time , , . ,r .'
in the ' .. former · bu·t .
. only' . 56 % of> ' the time 1 • ,
in the la'tter (see Figure, )) ' ,',Hil?
. res 'ult 's ', also . . show a . trend for " c u'l t u r ali d' e n tit Y ' 0 f , . the
. " .. popul~. tion . w:ith th e , Frenc ·~ · popu la tion ·t end ing tc! .he,lp les s
than would b'e 'expec .ted, 55% of " . ~ .. , . " ,
time. and the . : Eng ~:ish . ' . I
popUlation tending toh~lp . mor~~ . 67%' of ' th.e time-, ,
I .
I .
We -repeated'. t ,he analysis . a.~ove. this tim'e using . the ' " '
ide~tity ·o·f . the ·~ population as · tne condi~ionning ' • , ',' I •
I. -
The analysis was done for the -French po.pula ti~n
fir'st and . then for the English .one, (see Tables 8 and·.9)' ";.'
-' J " ,
When .theFr.ench .po.pulation . is .. considered : by it'self ,.
'.' f
identity . of ~he ~xperiment~r's', th.eFrenCh populati9n'," givi~"g . 1 ..
.~ ... ........ , .. ....... ,/~
~~;.;~.~ .... ,
. 11 • • • •••• :. ," .. ~ _:"' ... ~_::.v.'···
.--:-~.-.-. .-.... - ... ...... ~-'-.=-:'~ .. "'a:~~:-:-::--.:.~ ... :-"-.~~.~ .... ..u~<_ •• ~~.,,_ ..... ,-;_ . _ • ..:...-._. _ ... _ . """::-" ....... ... ' ... ...:.~~ .. '!' .. ~ ... _ .. ......... .. 'y, ....... ~ ..... _ ... ..... _ , .. , .. I
' . .-" "
. ~
." . '
\ . "
. .. , \, ..
I. " : . ' ,
' . ' ; " .--. , . 1
"
" ,
'. ·1.
. ·f \ . . ' , ; , '
':1
,' . . • I !
, ::' .;
. : . ! .
! I·
"
'"
" , "
;" " i, " , ,;.
. ' .'. , " " .
; , "
i'
I>,:. i . , "'I' : ', '
" . " : ~", ! • : II "
,.'. !':.". '.' ,
" ' , f' . -; ,
I.' e'
. , ~ ,'.
I .\
' ,I
,i , '\
, ,j' .. ;,', ".' \
. , , ,. ': :,' ,
"
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. J, .. ,t
. ', . "·1'
L f' ,
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• ,!
.. :
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. ~, '.: . . ,,~ .
.' ' : "
:' ; '. ' ' ,' ,,' , .
"
""-',~: '.-~. ", .. -... ,.:.~-,-~ : :~~-,-"~ .. :..".,,;.:~,, :-:.~"~~-: .. ,-:~.: ... ~.,:-.. -,:,::,, ,,:,-, :--~ ... '~- :' ~~'. ~ , ..
.. ' , ,' . o L _ " , :
" . , ',.: -"
. ,~,
. ,',t", • • • '
~:. ' -." ' ~ ' r
. } '.
',".
.} .' -~
, "
I 'j
.' . '
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I ~ .-
'. : ',"
"
. ', ',
, ':
" / .
.. ' ' .
.,'
, . . ,' ,' ;'
" .
" ".\
'. . , ~',
.. _. '--!~. -.-;-..... ;-- - _ .... --:;
55 ... ",
,t!,
~ , '. - :' ...
.' : . .•.. :
.. ,
~ '. ,. ,
. .. ,,-",
. --.--:-- "
,r ..
" : -';/' . '. , .~ ' .. (, I',' . ,', . " , ,' .
. " -:,: . ,
, ;. ~ .:' ~ , ." .,
-.' " ,' !' . .. ~ ..... '-, \
. :,';' ". ,', '
." ,':; , -" t " ,. ,'.
. ' " ,'. '" .:: ,- .. .-".0_
. • r. ", -' :-' .
. '. ' " .,'
, .
., ,r, 0 \ • ," •
" '.- ' t', ",':_.'
~ .". .:' ., ! .
, ' , . .~ . " .
' ..
rtf" ,.: : .
. ,' - " .
w' .,1, ·.t·
, :':
-':', :- .
-.~',: ~ ~;.~; , " . '. . , ~
.. " " , .. ' .
:,Tab·I.e' 6 , ~ : . '. ' . '
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, .. ~ .-
<- PROVINCE \' '. URB~S'izE
" I,
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'., "
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1 '.
,47%·-2q
30% -41%
,38% ~O%
.'}8%, .47%
, .
'( 1.7-)"''(14), '
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:.TE-ST T:aREE"': ~) .' 1 'Ana ·l YBi'~ " .F e.rio~~ed 'ori: ·t~ ,e, :·.'Da t ' e! ' fo r ""the . Elig~iB h- ;Expe r , im'ente r Alane. ~ . ",(3 fud:ep,ende.nt, varia b ~e'B)
PROVINCE ~
" . .. .. ' Q,!e.be~
. ' .: .
. ,". -#, ;,
~RBNS~ZE : 'CUL:rPOP
ci'ty
town
,'. ) ' ,
frnchpop ,en,gls p op '~ , ~'.
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,", HELP. %help'in~ '. To·t
(15 ) :(17 )
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,"' .. frnchpop englspop. :
. ·(31 ) ,(3'4)
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....
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,.Erf ect:. ·
':,: .' HE.LP· ,by "; 'CULTPOP
' or ' '. '*
, town
,' ,
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.frncbpop en·glspop ·. .. " . '.' .
, ;frncllpop .eng 1.,·s.p op , ~
65% (n) 60% '. ' (15 j ,
4.8% '.". 63%
(29) " ( 32), "
', ' , " ."
·A. teSt ,of par tial as 80-
.ciatfon ' :0'£ ·.the fact·Dr .• A..t~s t ' of ma,rg.inala~so"'; d,a.t:i.o·n of . the fac 'tors_
. ,, '
'lJ: chisq It ch'isq. ' ",'-.. ' . . 'prob" .:
1. .2'.74 .• 0980 2. 85 . .. 0913 -
;. "
., . ,: .
...... I
.HELP · ,by ' . tiRB~S IZE'by PROVI:~CE .
,,- 0. 491 ' ).
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' - · ,~'·" .al ~·~ · · ;" '-"'" ~ " ' ~ '-" ·~·"' · -~' - "':i"-: - - '~ ' ." ''''' ......... - I- . . . ' . . . \ '. ,
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fr++++ 'fr+++.+ fr++++ r+-++.++ I'
,I ft-++++ '.50%' fr++++ . ft++++
fJ:++++ ft++++ fr++++ fr++++
. +++++ +++.++ . +-++++
Quebec
... ....
;)' ..
' . . l+-+H+ ;I.ft++++
'fr:t-+++ '1 •
., '.
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l ' Town's '
~' ,; .. ' . ,.63%
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> '
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56% +++++ .f-l:++"+ . ++H·+· +++++ '+++++
.+++++ +++++ ."' " +++++ .+++++
',~ .ft-++++ . "' ++-1'++
'_ . . rt++++ L
, ft-i-+++ f+-++++
. New
.! "
exper imenter . ' . ;~, ' . .
/' >
English
3((,,:.... percentage. of help ' re . ' ved . 'by 'thl; ' 1;;£n'gli shexperime . . in ·.ci,ties '.and towns~n. each ,p:rc:ivirlCe ,:', ' ' .' . .
, , .' ~ - .
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I , I .:t
, '-', , r 'o URBNSizE " ',',
,','
'~} , , ' . ,1 ', ' . ..
" ' Quebec '
,',
CULTEXJ;> .....
frnchexp' \ ,engisexp'
~ Jo '
, ,HEtP , , ,I ,
%'heiping', To't ~ " / ' "
47% .47%
. . ', '
' (17,) , (I5)
"
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58 ' . ~ , "
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,0
, "/" i' -~ ,', t.own, ;'" fr'nche.xp!
, engls,e~:p:
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(3'3' )' , ( 3'1)'
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."
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';
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',,; ' <I>, " ftnc~,exp , e'ngl,iI~ xp
, 38~ ,65%
, . , , t,
,~ .
, ' : I
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, : "
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. ,', .
,Eft'ect ,
HELP ,' by' , CULTEXP "
.' ~ , :
' town
d lr ', chisq
i l
i:rnchexp ' engl'sexp ... . ,- .
,p~ob.,
~O1'l2
.,
3, ~% 48%"
A: test of marginal' a:ss~~>.,' c'iatio'n of ~ the factoTs; I i:' ..
, " ,
-lr 'chiaq prob,. "
6.54 <'
. ' --------------~~~'~,----------------~----------------~------, -,-!~------------------~----~----'.~ .( I.. " .
.' " . " : '/
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t" " !
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. . .. . .... " ~ . : .• J,~ ~
, . _.',_ • .. .. . - •• :.~ ~."lr .... _· .... · .. : · . .... " .. U".{_ , .. . ~ .... , ...... J _' • • _ : ...... -. .. . __ ..... __ ___ • •• _.. .. _ ... " ", ~ • ~. L. ,
", .
i' ,. ....
. ' /
I.
i i ' , , ' i !
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59
less help.' (-37%) . to ·the Fre'nch experim.en't·er., than to, the
E~gl~sh experim.enter (55%). The~e ·~e~ulis p~rall~lthose
found in .~he overall tea t repo:r ted in Table 4 and Table 5 •
We repeated the analys.is for the · En·~1~li--popu1ati.'on. '.. , .... "".
. ' r '~ .
II!,
A~n the 'effect of ' the ·cul tural of the
I ' aI . , ,
e'xperimenters , i.'s . significant
" 'i.!
" ' .. ·· ·g1vingless help ' to the 'Frenc·~ expe·rime~ter.(40%) thJl-D to
'\ the ' Engli,sh exp'erim~\nte. r. (67%). (see Table 9):
. ' ''!~ ~ . -, ". . I Q ' . "
,-
.1
r I .. . . I .
/ . /. The ' Engl~,sh po..pula~ionis more helpful · in ·towns than in
./ ' cities, . g~ving 'help only 44% of the t \ime in. cities 'but 58%
" " ,
qf the time i~ tOWRS. /' ·
' . . ~
To ' " inves t 'igate whe th~.r .' ·' , might ' exis t ' , r - •
~!n~OVin'Ciai" ' differences .in w~a t bad been assumed to be ' a ' .. • . I " , . ) ' . ~ •
s ,hared cultural ~dentity for '~he French population -alid , the
'~ngli~h~~jula~to~ an ' analysi~ was dobe for the pr?vinc~
·variable.· ... The ana1Y,sis ~~sdone for'" th~ 'province of Qtiebet!\.
first ' '~ then for the piovince of ,N,ev Brunswick (see 'Tables 10 , ' \ '
and .' ln·
'. ~' I~ti- ' f "
,;';' " The 'results for " . ...
l-I , I
" the I I
\, .'
' i \ ',. , province of ' Qtiebei
- . 10)
para~lelthe. ,x:esults of tests one 'and : two. :. The PopulB:tion . .. . .; ' ~nf.:Quebec gtve's " mor-e' h ·elp. t.o' the En'glish , ex~erimenter , , (65%) . :~ ' " . ' ' " \ ' ' .
/ '
; ,
. ~
'\
.- ,
' . \J.. . , i"
I"
, ,
'J ' '
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• \.. r'--~'
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: ~ "\ ,/. '
I .J
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. j ' .. ~
(j.
.I
"
. ~ : .. , . , " , . \ .
. . ,.. ~ ... _ • • ,. ~ . ,_ .•. ,_. , t
/
: I
-': "
. , ' , '
\ .\'
'-" ./
'"
Table 9
..... " "
..
'.
..
. > •
. " ,.-. .. !. f • • ~ .:. _ : . ~'
" "
. ,
"
..
60 '
;.
. '
/ .
, . ' .' .. ) . ' , ,' ,
URBNS IZE . ..
" .1 i
PROV-I'&rCE , .
. ' .
/
' , ':.'
. '
. ci.ty "
town'
city.
town /
1
frnc'he.xp en'g'l ,sexp "
I frnchexp . englsexp
. frnchexp! . ' engl~exp
frnchexp en~1gexp .
. HELp·· ·. %helPi·ng:;.;tt' ~ .
21% .1
53%~
(lid· 07)
(34) . ( 3'4 ) .
/ , ,
(15 ) (15)
...... .. ~
,0 " 4 7.%' 63%
, ( 3 2·) (,32)
. ~ ','
... I' •
... (\ . . Effect
,) . " ~HELP ,by, . . CQ~TEXP
, " HELP. by ' o· URBNS I 4E
,/.~ . : .
A t~st of par 'tia1 assQ~ "':' A 'tei}t 'of marginal association .o'f the Jacto't:. · c.iation- of th"e . factors;"
df · . ·' ~~iSqprob ·. . '/ '" " p<
1 15 .• 33 .0001
( '-.' , , ','
:.
. ' . . . ' .~\. -11:' chisq~'
··· ., '14.70
.. ... ' L 3.32
probe p<
.0001.
/.
· V , ~ .
,1 ••
./ ..
/ '
- , .
~ , . , .
• ; " ',
j '.
. ! . ,
\ .
" . I : . ~
./~ • ." 1 '
. -i;' .: ~ ' .
• :" :,1 • • > . . 'if .
\. ,", ',: . ~ " , " , " ,. , ' .. ' . ~. i .. "
. I , . ":' • If- .'
.. ~ .'
;. . '. ' ' .,' \ I
" . . . ~ . .
1 "it.
. ,'" ' .. ~ . ! . • "
,-' .. ,~ , . f ' : '
, ' . ' .'
;, " , , /.
"
W~J""'~~~~~~~~~'~~";::~~'\:~~'~~~ ,;, '. "-.-' :':~~'~7'-:- '~~ ; ': - :.; ,.: .,.; :":-.. ~ "'~:' ::' :: ~:::- : -, . , :,: . :.-:; :,:~-:~'~ ; '''.
' . . OJ' .. C .......... . • '. ' " I
i , J ; .
!
i
r
\'
' . . ' ,
i '.
: "
. \
'! I
: t I
-'
" 'I ,
:\ .
"
• l . '
• I , ' .
.~ i
I . {
" .' .• !I " . ~ .
·1.' ,,' (
.. , . "'; ,' .} ,
: : . , '. ".' , ',
o . " •
.. : . ..
, .. '. .
"
:. I
. ' .. / , I · .. ' . ,r '
'~. " .. /
11' .
",! ' " ' .
. , -....
. . .
" . ~ ' . I 't '
.61 --:
"6" '·"';" . . . " . : . " '
" '., : .. ' \ .. '
:. ... .
. { . ~, J ., .. .'::,,'\ '. .. . .. . " Table ;10.
" ,' ~_, _.;., ... .;.;, .. :_ .. .::I,~., _'T_e_' . ~_._~ \.:..._F..;.I_V_E,..· _._'a_)_·.;..~ --:-A_. n-;-'._8.;...l_Y;... ~_i_S __ ~-:-o_r_Q_. u_ .. _~'_.b_e_c_ .. '_' ,.---:~ -,~_n_e_. -:,-,-:-,-_·_" -:-·' ·---:--: ' ,
" '
URBNSIZE! ClJLTPOP
. . / .
, CULT.EXP\ 1 \ : ,,' .
.', HELP 11 ~ ' . I ,' " .' .
. '.', . , . ,
%Helping .Tot •
"
"
, .
.\
frne,hpo'p ' . frnche~p englsexp
' ~nglsi~p . ·' .frnchexp I . " englsexp
\
. ,
50.% ~ ' (16 ) ' 47% (15 )
21% 04) 53% . qn
.,
.. '. town frnchpop frnchexp . ' englsexp
30.% (33 )
. , "
61% (31 ) ....- . ,
'englspop ' frne.hexp . englserP'
4.1% ' (34) 82% (34) .
--: . ... Eff~ct ' .. '
A test bf parti~l as so.da,d,or{ Of . the. f aetor~ .
.!!!. lr ,chisq prob •
HELP by CULTEXP ,
HE~P by . CULTPOP b.y . URBNSIZE
1
" 1. '
p< i7.D7 · .0.0.01 '
3.56 • .059,3 '
. , . . '
\ '
" ,
A test qf ~arginal .as~o~ 'ciation !Jf ,the :fa,ctor·~.
"
· 2.61
1 , • •
'/ --,
.'
probe p<
.0.001.
. . ~
.1(}61
.. ' '
.' .
" .
. ,
..'
0 0 •• • •
. ' .. '
" i' ':, . "
i r •
. ,
. '.'
.. {f
./
I ' .'
. : /' .
-, .
. .
, .
, :
, ;
r . . ..
, : . . ... .. .
. {:: .
, .'
,/ , .. \
.• ". '''~ ' "V .. '''' - ' •. ~ ...... " ............ ,, ~ , ....... , •• ~ .• " . .... " •• ~_ ....... ~,:_ ... . _~_. .. _ • _ .• ' ," • ,_ . ~ .,. , ' . _. _ .• ~ 'j .. ") '
. "
'.I
" " " 62,
'.
There is also an Q ,,/" '," ,
e~fect for : ~he interaction between . c~~tUtl , identity, ~f _____ the
, pop~la tion" and ur'ban size, although ' it is significant only
partial assQciati6n tes t " and not significant I . ' .
fo~ the ma~gina1 'one', I , The French pop~lation fs
a:proximiltelY' as hdpfu1:- in the city 'as i n t,~ ' ~owns " ~ 32%
vs. 31%) ' respective'ly), ,but the Eng1i,sh, ,population is ' less
he 1 p f u 1 ' i nth e ' ,c i t y t h ani in ' t h. e , , t 0 wn s (28% ' vs. ,' 38% /' "
respectively) (see Figure 4).
the provin~e ,' 6f
New Br~dsw~~k (Table1l).
"
For the province of N~w Bruns.ick the only significa~t "
" "
0 ,
effect the cu'l tura1 identity of th~ ,'
,experimente'r~. ~gain the Fren~h experimenter g6t le~s ' he1p
"
(29%) than the Engl~8h e~peri~~nter (37%). The resul ts of l
main impor~ance in ~he experi~ent,concerningthe effect o~ I ,
p'opu1ations, and experimenters on helpini ~reBummarized iri i ,
• . , . ' . . I
Figure , 5. · T,he results as pre,sented are ,taken froJII Tests 3 ," ,
:a, ' and " 3 b. They are shown on ' tb'e same Fig,u_re ' but they do ' ...,... \ . ~ I ' ' ...
not ,represent a two w~yinteraction of cult'ura1 identity of
-.. "
cU:ltur~l -----\
,.' the exp'eriment.er , -by ~dentity of t 'he po~ulation on ,
i level p£ help ,obtained. /
. I
'I
, , , , , ', . ' .. I
/'
" '
. . ' ,- ' • I ' .
'~'''' .''''~_~''';'-''-''''''~'''''_~''''-.''''_''''I .. ______ ·~_._ ;.A _"~'~ __ ."" ~'-' __ ~" __ .... ~ , _ . ...-,', , I
I
" /' '
, I
..
/~ .'
, '
/ '
O'!
' ...
. j ' "
. . ,
, ' . . '
: \
! ..... ". '"
1. "
!' ' .
J'
.. "', ,.
. \.;
,,' ,
. i
': , ;
~.
r .!. ' ,.
f' . . \
··. i
, . . '. . ~
,. .'
.. . . ___ ._ . • ~ .......... : . ... ... . ' . 1.
', '
\
. ' . /
t .
" ':" .
J ' .
\ ,.
. . ":' .
.\ . ' ......
: ..
, . . '
-\ \
. 1.
. . . ..... .. ....... - .... " .. ~ ... ,.- ~ ... . " ...... _....: __ ._-... -.... ~ .. ~ .~-:.-.. -.~ .... "-_.' ., .......... _ ... _ ..... ~-- .,. -I ~ , ' . . '. .1' ". I
". ' ,
~ " .' ' \
,. . ' rIP
Figure 4.
.'\
"
. ' .
.\
D', ':, ' .. ,Ci ti.es . . '. .
'- . / ,'. +++++ . +'++++ Towns' +++'++ .
·32% 31%
ft-+++t' f\-++++
.f\-++++ ft++++ . fr++++ fr++++ +++++ +++++ .
+.+++ French
, . '.
.. 38% [t++++
Ift++++ ft+++:+ . ft++++ ft++++ fH+++ ft++++ ·
'. ft++++ . ft++'+-+
' ,28%· t++++ ft+++~ ft++++ ~++++ ir+.+++ +++++ . f\-++++
Eng11sh \
"
'. 1
, ' .
, (
PQ.pulatiOl\S . of . Quebec ' \ . ..
Perc.ent;.age of" 'each population. helping in. cities and to'WJl·s -in Quebec. ' .'
; '1
. ~.; . "
. -..:..
.',
"
... ,' . .'
.1 • •
': .' . ': . .' ., ,
. ....
63 ... , ,
J '
; ,
.. .... '.
• -. : ~j .' .
.. ..,(' ..
1 '. ' .
t . •
. ' "
, . .,.
I ,
'. 1:4 '
'. I' ' j , i
I· , .
"
,'.
' ;/':. ' .: , "
-.--~-p p' ' - .. '
-: .: , ' .) .
. . •• ••••• I ... "; ' _ ,: .'.;.. ... ~ •• , ' . " •• ..:......, . ............ . __ . _ •• ..... ;._';' ... , .... -;- .. ·,,-... ·· .. · ·~-7"'-·7 .... ~--.~-·-. -', .. --~··'7. 7 .. --r. --'-:--."", . ..,-,-- -. --.-,' ~-"-"7~;~ ':',",:' .:: ' :-.~~:.~.:-:;::.~ .-.~.-. \" '.
, .. '\'
.\ " , . ~ '.'. . . ' .~, .' '. .. . ~ .", .. ~:. , .. -:.... . '-,.' . .
, , - ....... ... , , , . .. ~- ••• ~~ . ..... .,.. .. M~ t· ,· ~"" .... _4 ''''~ _ .. .. 1 ..... • .... ' • • __ " . _. _. .~ ••.• , . ... . ' , ...4, ... . . , :, : ._i . . " .. : . . :."# .
"
: ".
/ '
, "I '. !.
, i
. . "
'I
;: / '
j I
, ' "
" '
,"
. : , ' .
, ,' .
! '
. ' ,I
. ' .. ' . ..-,.:.".,
, . .. . , . '
. -'.
"
,, '
. , - . ,' ,
•• 'I'
: .. . ",' ,
-,'/
, __ 0" -
,: " '. ' ,' . " '
. ' ", .... " 'T 8 b 1 e/ '11 ' / '
, ',
,-
, .J ....
.' .. , . ...
- -,
, . " ...... rESTFl'VE b), . ' : AnalysiS' , for ~ew ,Bruns,wick -Alone
. ~RtIZE .cULTPOP CUL TEXP
C
HELP
, , -
" .'
town -
/ "
.... '
'frnc;:hpop..-' f rnctiexp , engls~xp ,
;-
' englspop " fr~~h.xp 'englsexp ,
~rnchp9~ , frnchexp / engls,exp , '
~ng{8exp ' frnche,x'p , englsexp
%helping Tot.
38% " (13) ' 65% (17)
40% 60%
38% 48%
47% 63%,-
, (15 ) (15 )
(32) ,( 29.)
02 ) , ,(32) "
1' 1 ,
"
' ~ ~eat ' of ' ~a~~ial ' 8SS0-
', ciatiori oi~h~ ' fact~r. A , te's t of ',JIlarg,fnal ' asso'ciat'ion 'oethe factors '.
, , ,
Effec t '; ,, : d£ ': lr ,chlsq , prob. , probe , ::' • .t .
. ,
HELP b,i CUt'£.E'1:'P
, 1 5 •. 2i .0224 5 .. 2,2 r<, .0223 ,' , \
" , ,
7 ( "
" . . ' " .. , '
./;' , ,
. --.'" "
:, .... , . 'C~ , I ~ ...... ' : .. '"
/- ' , ' , " > ' • • .' "
. , .~.
, . ' , .-.' .
./
, ' ' .. : .'
, ,. ' , /
.' . " ."
" ' '. " -,
" " , tr ; .. '
" , ....
. '
, .
; , :
/ ' , '
/ ,
'. , " . . , , "
" ,
., ' .
: ....
" ' ,'
, , " '
,,:., .
:. . , ..I, "
, "
i ! ,.
,', .
.. " , , ' . , · ' . .
" :<. , , , ....
· i
., , /' '- '
': .
\I " , ..
, " ' .
" . ' .
' .. I '
Q " ,
"·70 . " . . . . ~,
.' .:
. - , '\ ' ,.: ,"'., '
" . .: .
:-! " , "
, .'. . . , .
',' " \'. \ .
. \ . .
" ,',
. .. "
.' .... . ' ., '
· , ;, ! ' . i
.• ' []Fre~Ch pqpulat>on , . ..... ;~~/ . ' : , . , .
; .. - -- ~- -' - - -' , ' ' : . . ,
'. ." '. . " ., " ~
. : . " ' ,
,. \ .
.. '.'
" :-', ~ :': 1 '. ,. ' - " " ., . " .. ', '. 60 · ~ , , . ~, "
" • I
. .'~
.. , :
', , ' /.
.' . . ' . . . . . . . .
' . , ~ /
l . , . I
· .'
. :
· (
· ,\ , . ,~, · " · r. . :- f , ,
. ' ' .
, .. " ', '.'
..•. ;. - ',-" .
.. !
, : . ~ ' ...
, ", '
, , "
. . . " " .
.. _--'-
. '. -
' tn . s::
.r-{ . ~ ~ . . Q)
. :rl .'
" S:: .'; a - r-{ +J ' ro 50 ~ . & /
. 0 : Il!.
': '..c:: •. ' . . CJ
...
ro o r.l
, 4-1 ' , 0
·1 \. 40 '. , . . ,
. '30
.. I
I
'-- ' :, . ' 1.
'". : " I'
I.,'.
. ) '
\ . I " :, :
. I
. '~ ' .. ; . . . . , " ..
- ! .
' .. '
. , . ' . 40%
36% '
" -. '
.' .'
~*perin\enters
/1// ' . ' . jIll /1// //// ', 1/// . II/! 1/11 11//
, 1/11 55% . . 111/ -' .
III/ . //// . /1/1 . III/
" jill ·11/1 '.
.:- ji-/ / : ·-/It// · 11// .
' i/// 1/1/ .'.
, . ' ///1' jill 11//
.( 11I1 , I/I( .
'. .-, . "
.' 1 .'
II .
'. f • .-" .
..
1/// . . 'f.~> j~jj - .-' .. ; III/ 1/// . ' 1//1 If/I /1/ 1// /1/1 1/1/ . 1/1 i
, . ,
\ . ", . ,.'
" . I
.' i , .. ' , ,Figllre 5. pe~ce~'tage of ea~h popuia'tion helpi~g
. ,I'.
· I • . ! "
, " , . . each ex~r~en~er . .' . .. .. "
" ' 0··,7 . ' ... ,
. ,
· ! , .. ' !. , \
" . " . , ., ., . ,.'
.. ,.
, ; .
, . , . /"
' . , ' . '. ', .. " :;r'
. , ' ,
,'.
'. . '. I , ' .
',' l
1 . ,' .
, .'. . .. .
'. f, I.
. I' ' . ! .
,'!,
. ' ,
. . ' . , . . ' ~_ ;. , .. :r ... _, __ . . _: . '
.. 1: . " '0 , : : .: ' ,,' I
.' .' ' ... : \ ." .
.. "' . .' .,.:, '., '::':. .. '-'-.:...."-•. ~ .. ~:~~~: .... -:~.-:-~:;.~:~-. ..:,:~-"'::"- -"- . -:-'''': -",. :~~; -'. ,: .--- . '.-., :-: -:- "::.--- . "
~ . , '" " ~ ' .'. . : .. ' '.' ',' . I , ~ : .: ',:, \: ' ' .• , .. . . , " • I •• .' . ' , ' " ~ " •
,. ,
. ' ,?
, , , .... . .... ... .. - . .. ~-; .. -- .... -. -,-, ._.
' ~, ,.I ' .
! ' I : j I
. ~ ..
', 1 i
)
, .. . --;~ 6.6 , "
\
',' ,./' , ' .. ' ,
"
" : Re suIt s, ' ' , ,
\ In thls ex~eriment ; ther~ were .. four i nd,ep end en t
.' ' I .
variables: " , cultural ,identityof ' the' ad'dress'on, ,,!:he 'l~ 'tt~i, , "' \ : /7 ,
"
cultura 1 ' . id,,:ntity , : of, the' 'popu'la ~ ion, ti rban , 'size, and I, ,
province', one " dependent number of letteDs
Th~ rationahe Jor ' this experim~nt ,' and the type of , .'i' • ~ ,
, , ~ • to'
analyiis'perfor~e~ on the data w~re ex~ctly th~ sa~e as'in , "
. experiment one~T~e cine change was in the use of the
letters, addressed ' either in ' French or, " in' English, as'
repres~nting the 6~ltural identi~yof the person I[ •
requ~sti:ng , ,
This v~riable was represented by the s;ymbol CtiLTLP:T.
in · the 'tabl.es.
The results were tabulat'ed in ' a contingency table cro~ ~ ' cIa'sstfied for the five variables of help, cultural identity
. " ," 'Of the le,~ter, cultural ~ent;ty ,of " the~ PdPulat;i~n,
• " ,'L...\ ', urban' J
size, ' and province ,. (se~ Table 12)."
Al~ of the " sa~e analy~~s , were performed on the data , as /c'
',in c;>ne. .;~~gqifii.nt iesults Je~e o~tai~ed in~
any analysis. . . " .' . I : '
, , , ii ' '
" t
, . , '
" , \.
" " . f ,' .
'--7""'--... ....... -........ ---.f .... ~-· .......,....,-........ ,-,: .. :--, ~ ... ~""t.~~~.{.u;,}..~~)9'I~~w~'A."'!-' r ...... ~~ "" ....... }'~ ~, ... ~~r .... \:. iC~ .I .. <." •• ~,~,~.~ ~."'~'iI '''''' .... ~ .. ,~~~.~'''* ~ ... " .. : ..... , .. , ~ .. " J,
.. ..... ' ... 1 ~ .. '
'. ' ~
, ,----
, I
,, '
"
L ",'
~ ,
, " , I
i ( :'.-':-
,~ .. : ' .. '
" , I
! " ..
. , r '
:/ " '," "
,.;
'0..... __ ~ __ . , . '
.. : - . - ~ .. --'~-- - , .. _. -.. ,. -.. .:. _ ... .. -. --- .-:. _. ! ,
,67 , !
" '.
.! ',' . '. /, . ' "
,,'
\' ..
, '
r'" .' .. ____ "_. _~ _ _ . C~n~.ii:lgency Table of Resu'lts for ' tb~ 'Five '" Sho,wing the Percent:age of ' People Help'ing
Level 'of the independeni Variables (~ost
Variables for Each
.-, " ..
,
.....
"
.r
1 ,i ., ,
," '''i
. .' i
" . '
, ,.,. i
' J .-;.j ,
, ~ , , , ~ :
: ~
;
. ~'~ !
..... ,
-' "
, I '
. .. ' . :
, ,
" "
. -
, I" ,
PROVINCE
Q4eb~c .
. , I \I
URBNSIZE , CULTPOP
frncbpop ,
"I ertglspop
CULTLET
fqlcblet englslet
,f rnchle't ,: englslet "
Ie tters)
, .
HELP %he1ping Tot.
"
60% (10 ) 60% (10 )
,60% .0,0 ) .-50% I (10 )
frnchpop . __ ._-------
, towns frnchlet 7.0,%. ~ (10) englslet 60% ' (10) ........
, 'I
engl,spop f rn,chle t ,72% ' ' (18)a '
englslet ' ' / 66% (18 )a
, ' ,
frnchpop frnchlet 75%' ,~, ' (8) IJ englslet 88% (8)
, \
V
NBrJlBWick city
englspop fr,nc;1tlet 50% {8,i · englslet 88% (8 )
, ' ':' .
" ' frnchpop frnchlet '50% (8) town~
engls1et iJ 88% (8)
, englspop , frnchlet ' 88%'\' (8)
englsle't : ' 7~ (~)
'~wo English towns were , done ' in Quebec~e, where , 10 ,. ,' letter's of each cultural identity wer,e los,t and one ' where ' 8 letters weti lost. In N~w ~runswickonly nne English ' t6wri , was done where 8 letters of ea~h we~e losi~ ' ..
, ,-. "
•
"
, , , .. ,!'" r .:,-
i '
. , "
"
.r. "
.. -. .. . ' ,'- " -" "" " . - .. ~ .,~-. ' 'r • '-'~~'. ~'. " ~-:'-'---':"':'- .. - - .- ..".:---... - -. ; .. - .... ~ • .,.... - - - -:~t'Cl(""U:~I'i,'. , ". ' , .
. , ' I ~ .:..-.... " ~.' .
. '.' . ' . , .1 .
. , . ', I' ... .. "; ,; , .... ... _. ,.- . ~ _ _ " .... I. .... ~~._ .-::_ .:.. ~ _ ~ . ~ • • __ ._ .. .. ~ _.~ .... . .... .:.2. ~ . ,.
. " ' . . , IIi the
. " , .... -...
'.- . \ . . . . DIS USSION
'1 ' . : ,'
I:· " '," ... 'int~oduct1on;! two poss i~le '
', ' :-
--- '
" , . . 68
\ . -- .
,
. . <?utcomes were
,. .considered ·. ·The .. first · one ' wafj' - -_. . . - ', 'fiJ~ . "-.-.
that . ther~ ~ould be no ' J ' . ' "
,-.
di{ference <be·tween ·· ,the " ·level .. \ . ' . of ·help : received ,. ·by e~ch
'~.
"", exp'e rimen t e:r . for ." e·ach . . · r.esp~c dV'e . .. ,." . popul~rt:ion • . This would '
. " .' . ~ .
. 1 .evei, eve~ .. when :only cultural infprmation .was available. to
.. .. : thesubjects·, · could. be more positive .: · th·an ' , past global ' . .
.;
cultural lines. The l?econd p09sibleo~lcom.e was that there '
would .be '8, diffe:(?uce in ' th'e levels of help received ~··bY each ' . .' .. -; - .. ' . ', , '
. .' .1 . ' .1 . .
... ~xpe ·rimenter · from each pO'.Pul.ation~ This would · add to th~· ··
findings already pointing tb ihe phenomena ·· of .group .... .. :.~
" " "
di·scriminatio·n. ~ Unfortunately the results are. ·not . so . , ." . . clear "
. -- .
, cut .as to permit a ' confident choice beiween ~hose two ... - ~ :,
a·lternatives. ',. II
o·
·The result of maj or importance.', in Experimen?t 1, the " . , . , 1
is that;; there ' exists " 8 strong· main . ef~· ect iiv~ ' ~nterview8', , ,
l .
experimehteis. \ the Enilisb ' . expeii~enter . . . . / i ·
between ~ the
o:btain:Lng m~re help over.alll then. the French experimenter
: (see Figu~le 5). · This reSU~I~'iS +es:
•• : 1
. ;'f I
interaction be~w~en the cultural
.. expe'ri'Dlenter and that .of thE! pop'ulation ,
. ,I ' '. • " ' . ! ' : • " ' . 1 ' . . ' ':'. " ' " , ' '~ . . ' ., I , . " : " ~ .-. -":-.-~.,,- .------<--- . ; ..... · 1 .. ·_ .. '1- ---.,....-.• '." - -- _.,.-j.._ - .... -... -_ .....
interestIng' than an .,'
Identi,ty of tlie '
would . have ' bee'ri· •
/. :
"
. ' .
" "
"
, "
. " ~ . . ~
'. 1 .
, .\.
, .
i "
; .
i I
'.1)
; ,
; .... ,
, ' j ' , ' , "
'1l i
, '
\
,,-- " , .
"
.' , .'
" ,
69
, The results obltained ' ",are " open to ' two •• ' 11
types
' e.xpianations," one ' qthat ~hey, )nedue to 'cu'lturill phenomena - ,
and the ,oth ,er " ~s :th,8.t , they are a methodological ~r .. tifaci: •
• I
' The ~or~ pTo~aic expl~n~tio~ ~s ~hat ~he reiult~ h~ve a
' basis ~ , ~7' 1
in, methodology, ' ei ther '. '. - . . perso~~lity , differences or
different~a~p~ing t~chniq~es , betw~en th~ ' experiment~rs. In . . ' ,
t' e'rins I '
of pe~soriality. ~hat the , French populatio~. like the
E'nglish. I " '
d'ould ' be
.. the , English e;x:perime~ter
, , . ' . ' • I wo~ld givemor~ help to
du~' to ' some ' personal characteristics, which made him , Ij, , . " ~\e tt~r
--...:..-,~------------:;- /'
&It ': , ' I "
abl~ , to ~olicit ~nd obtain more , help.
r , ;
.. ,. '
The other p08sibility~ sampi~pg ~ias, can be eval~ate~ ;,
, by exa~ining' the number , of '/~tsons rejected i~ each location " '
be,cause they , did not ' satisfy ' the: ', language and/or ' the ..:~~~.; .
residence' , JJ \ •
criteria. A t~ s~ ~imilar to test one w~s ~on~.
wit'h~' the , one changetha't th~:- :dep'enlen~' variable of ,helping
was replaced by ' 'a '/d'~pen:dent variable. aC,ceptability, of
whether or' not a per-s~n ~as accepted OF re'jected as I '
, suitable f~ interviewing. Thefollowing'categori~ ~
used: accepted. the sum of' a ,1.l ' the peop:i!e < approached
being
t wer.e
who
\ or refused to' be int.e~V-iewed (the , sum of the , y ,es and
no categorieso£ , the help ~ariable); , ,
rejected, the " ~um of
,all the peop~le ,WiJ:h which ' w~ int'errupted the interview after ;" , , .
. j'
" <I' '
rea'lizing that ,they did not ' ~atisfy ~one or ' both of ' the ' , : \: "-
criterion. ' T~ese , data , and the siJn{~icant resulti are
/ " ,
" "
'i'
, ,
i i
f ,-
\ ' ','; "'," ~ ", ,:',,) ,,', " ,'(2) ' ' ' ' . " ', '
• ' ,_" . . •• _~. ' -;-.... . ~ ---:--.~.~ .... ....... - .. _ • .: .. _ • ...:....! ...... _._ ........... _ ... .I L1 • • • ~ - ....... , . - ... -~ • •• ·.~7'·77-·-.:...'0#···--...-·.--....1 _ _ _ ~ .. .. _ ..... __ ... _ . . ~ - -----, __ ..: .
\'
, ,
,\
L' '-:' " ,
" '
' "
t , , " ,
. . '. ~ , .. .
, , ~
, 70 , , , -,
pr~i~niea, in Table 13~ ,,',
.-, ,
Tw,o results ,are ~a's11y interpretable. One, for the , , ,I , , , " , " '
'Afect of ' the experim1enter on a ,c.ceptab;l'lit'y, we , see that the
' n~mber or rejee ts f~:!.'.he Fr.rieh,' expuime'oter ' i9' mush 'higher ,
t~an , for ' the Englirh~' ~or the same numb~r , of ~eo~le
actually tntervh~wed jY each ,(190), the , French . exp,erimenter
rejected 'more ' than ' twIce as many ' people (206 vs. 98) as the'
' English expe,rime'nter.. The re~son for ' this is '--- , I believe,.
' simply' a ' divergence in samp1ing ' procedure, i ,.e., in the
strictness with , ,whiFh ' each experimenter applied the
'criterion' a ,t each . step of the decisio.n seq~~nC:e ' u8~d to'
exp~rimente~ may . . ~ " . . "
hav'e accep ,te,d as ' po,tential,' subj e,ct.s ' people who , lived near a
I ! - --: - • ': 1
location but not in it, or who had r~centli moved out. For
what'e:ver other ,' reasons if he was m'ore lax in : ac .ceptanc~ 'of
. ,_subj ec ts ', i"t ,i's pO,s~,ible . ' tha~t hisriumb~r- of 'iI!j e~ ted subj e'c ts
" would ThiS might " b'7 tied to a differential
h'eip.'ing rate ,. , (Such 'spe.culation~ are based 01;1 informal
talks ' between the experimenters throughout ,the three weeks
, ~f the ~xpiriment). 0 ,
, . JJ
, I
, The , second result " accept-sbil:Lty by cultural, ,\ '
of " (he ' population by provinc~'i is' ' only of
. ., ". ;-interest. We 'see -tha t~e , stl,bj ects belonging to the '
, ' . ' .
mino'd ty;ln each provinGe r (Englis~ ' iil Quebec, French in New
" , I . , _._-----_ . _ .. - -----,. ' ,;
.. ~ ' " . , ;
\
':
, I
"
, .' .. ,' .
" .
: ,' ,
"
,; . -: -;- ~.-.-.,.- ..: --:- .. --.. ~ -.. , . -:....:."-.--- ~.-.-.- .- .. ~.- ... --~..- -"~ , ~ ....... ~ ........ -~ . -. ...... ~ ~ . ' .. . ,
" I ,' (' . I,' "
"
i . ! ,
, .
, ;,
... !l, h
.:-. " . · " ,, '
. !
· . :~ '
. ~ .
,~ i , I
. i " . 1·
i .\: . 1 .
'" I
'\T
\ " :
• " I~ " I
, ;
, \
."
,. ,
' . ' · ".. ~ :~
.f
;
'\ .. .. - ~ ', -... :... :. . : .. : - . ' .-. ' .. ":, " .. - -,, ' _. - ~ ' ~ - .:..:- .. -,: . . .' .- ,'- - ' -- ... -. '. ' . " .
. .' \
.. ,:
"
" .. " '
"
I . . [
, \ \ I .. 1
'. ,
.' '
. ' : . . " ~j'l ' .. . .. v·· .. · " '.0 . ' ~" . /1 ..
, Ml • . 13 . .. . . " ' ~ . ' • .•..
. '" I " , ;., ~. " •. , ..
Percentage!>f . 'People Acc'ep 't~d for t~' he ' {~ve . I~views ' , . 'out of, the , 'Total 'of the Person ' et . . , ' ~ .
, " , ~ - " . . ~ . . ' ~.
. ' " ~ . ' .
. 1 .'.
o
PROVINCE '" . URBNSIZE CUtT~X~, .
. Quebec c tty frnch'exp englshexp
: . .
',. %AcCJ'td. 'Tot.
.' 68% " (25) ' 63% ' (24)
' ,,; ."
, . " · ,\ .
' ., .
" .
,' . ,' .
': ,town
englspopfrnch~xp
englsexp
frnchexp eng.lsexp' · :
engispo~ ' frn~he~p englsexp
_.t ..
2.9% 63%
60% 86% '
44% 73'%
(48) (27) .
(55 )' (36 j'
(77 ) (52)
.' NB~n9~ckclty , frnchpop frnchexp 28% ' (47) ' , . 46%. . (a7)
Ef-fec t
. \ englspo,p
town !frnchpop " .~
. '
englsexp
frnche:icp en'glsexp
. \' frnchexp, e.nglsexp
56% ' ( 27-) 83%. (18) '
45% 5$%
(71) .
(50)
--:' A ~es ,t , pf ' parti~i ~ss"o- . A ,tes't " ~--nar-~:s'o.', dation ~r t,~e fa ·c.t ,or. ' ,~~f:fh:. - ~ac~or,s~ .,; .
.!f lr 'chlsq pr~b. yr C~iBq probe p< p< :' .:
22~:'59 .0001 22.09 ' .000[ ' ,( '
' ·1
..:.ACCEPTABILI. l byCUL:r'EXP
, "
" "
. AC·CEPTABILr. 1 by CULTP,OP .
, by PROVINCE " .
' / -- t ' .. ~ ' .! ' _,: ' ,
" , ~J, .
- . · ... 1.
, " ~' ,
/'" -.. , .
" . ~ .
., ~ . "
i~ l ' 't . '{.
34.65 .' -.0 , . '
.0 . '. .. " .'
~' , i----- - '" 1.-'
..
.. , , , · ,.
';J " ,
" .~
, .' . ..... . ,' . ,':
· ,
..
~ , .
: - ":-~ -'- " ---· 1'--'
'.:.. , ' ! . 0 . ~ "
-. _- ... _---"
, . - , , , - ..
" ' .. I .
, . .. .. . . J.
" o' , . .. ·.-:--r.---:. i\," -{:' .
. : ", ~ :,.1, ',_ -.... ~.-_._._ .• ~ ___ ._ ....:... ._~_ -_ .. .!. ' - -. --.~'1vfao:-'" ," ;.~r
:-::..... ..
o " . '\.'
. : '
, '
" '
I "' ~'i' :,'
/'" : •• • _ ~~ '~, _ _ ._.~_ • • ". - .... ~ .. . _ ¥~_ •• ' r ~ ~ ·_ ... , ....... ...... _ . _~~. __ ~_ .. _ .. .. ~:: •• _ '_ ._ . _ ...... ,; ,,:-'. __ • _ ~ •. ' • :/' • 0" " , '
." \
, , .... \
, 72,- , -'-'
., ' , " ,
, ~run~~:ick ):, ar~, "'rej eC: :~~d "~o~e,' ,:of~~n ~ 70% :of" t\l,e', ~~~e~ ' ,f or the ' .. , ' , ..
the"' cases for th,e' latter~than " sub'j'e,d'ts : of , .
f or,mer, ,75 % ", of
'more' to find , prope~ subje'cts ,.J " ,'
, "
" '"pop.~la tion---than ir'om a bigger 'one. .. :)~/ ; ,
" " ) ,
An explanation based onhulturai factor' ,couid b.e:, that
,~~j0),: ':, "ii, w,e ' assume that ' ~~<EJ\gUsh ,~~,~e,rime~ter ' represented, ~ " highe'r status person 'than the ,Fr'e,nch, th'en' psychological
~< cat'e~o'rizaeio~ by , 'thes '~,~j~::ts'~'OUld ' not; fa~or' t .lle ingroup
" ,\',.
L , " ,
c: " , ' I.,"
A'
: • -0 \
" ,
. '- '
,both , , . ,
'. ,.
'0 popul~tions ' . ' ' This ' is , s i mil a r " to ' ' Feldman~s (1968)
eip lanation for · the Greeks I ', be t t'~T trea tm~n t , ' ~ ,
of "fqreigners
, than'their unknown cO,,!lntr,ymep.
, C-
~rci!j ("p' ,'F .'1. '
" '
L~mbert, Hodgson, Gardner-, ' and' Fill~nbaum (1960-) fou~t; , ' ;, ' " ' • ./,' <5 '
'_ ', ' r~sults. supporting , such ~ possibility by u~ing , th.e "~~tched ':.-.
giilse ', technique". , This , ,technique used , ap'e recorded , voices ~' ,-. .} " . . . ' ) ; , " -. :: ~ e:~ 11::::': b::: S ::: S ::::1::b:': :~~:we;e O::~:bi:,~,th ~ ...
number , ' of qualities of the persons. They w'e~e. unaware that • , • ~.! . • " , ~,, " . .... • ••
the same p.ers?n , had, been rli!corded ill diH~re,n't ianguag~s. · ' . " , , , ' , ' :' ". ~, " , ',
, \1. " .~.
, ,' " .' ,: .. ~ . , . , .
Canadian' and '-., "., '
La'mber:t et a1 used ' f '
, French .. C\ . ' . ..
, , - - - . ,'-----'---
---:---Englh Ii Canad ian uni ver si ty' 's tu , ~ot 8urpri9ing1y .~~e , \ ~ . " . . " .' .' .
'E-ngli~h ~an.~dian8 showed a . . '. --
--'-'---'-:-'----; ' ;' :"
'" ' ~ , 0
, . ' .. ,',-' " ;.-
favor , o'f ,the "EngliSh' ,
" c ' ; I,
" '
'.
I .~
i 1
! . "
_., ' ,
'~.' f
: : - :.
, \',
.\ , I'
l" I __ ,, __ •• __ --,-' tf < ' " ~-'I""-:-' -~---!-t.-~--:-\-:· · "-,-, . - ............ " . ; .. , '
.\ /I , "
, ' \ I '
~.
j ,' . , ,
i . ~ . , ! ' , '
""; . \ .. ,
, . j .. ,
, ' ,.,
,.'" ,"" "'-~---'. '--, : \I
1, ' ~:. '
~ '. ,
I , '
,.
I l'
.... j i I k : I \ . t I"
~ i \. ... : ~
~ " ,.'
',,/ 1 "
, i
. ' I
i ," .,'.;
, .,' 0 ,
I .... !
"
. 1 .1 .. ,,' : "' :.'
" " . ~ ""
"
t . ,:
' v '
/
.I .
' ~ . " .1'·
. ..... .... . ~ "
.I '
'.
,.
" . " '/ :-
, J '. I \ : ....
\. . . ", . '
",I • • .... :-~- .. ...... :...:..... ... .... . ~~~''''-'''''' _ 1 ____ ~ __ . ''''.''~ .... _: •. . . _ . "
. . , I , 7·3'
U , ' / , . , guises but' _ wha-t should be less expected is that th~ Fren'ch ,
' \ " . . ' . '
, Ca'nadianS ~howed . th.e same ' posi tiv'e bias ,toward,s ~·he , En,glis,h ' ,: ' . l '
' Canad ian gi;J.ls.es, c ,ompared to tl.te'. French Canad ian guise's. " The ' L • ,
, ' -French Canadian judges' rating of voices , repr,esenting
, • • I 01 oJ' • • •
their
, ci~n. ' cultural group was e~~n lower '· than the~ratings by ' the ;/ ,
granted
Canadiari , ' 'judges ,......-..-.'
the " Fr.enc'h Canadians 0 was
lower 'status
# ' '
sixtle8 '~ when 'the
the'mselves as ' true~
eX,IJ.eriment , wss ·done) ' intern~lized ' , by o ~ . ," f>
, . .I , ,
. , ,Bndings can be 8S a.
explanation for , the higher ieve'( pf help 'given by both the,
Fre.rich an'd' "the English \
popu'latlons to 'the English
experime~'t,er ~" He ' 'ms"y ' 'h 'ave ' re,presen,ted " a higher ·sta tUB
per~on. Thu8~he , willin'n~1~/ de8i~e to help hi~~might haye - I ' .. .
been ~troriger than for th, French experime~ter. '/ '
t .
' ·The data from 'Lambert ' et. al (1960) are relatively" old.
It
' . mainly) . has
'among /~
French eanad ians. , ' '- , I
' (Quebecers
mo4ified ,the , rela',ti ,~,nship between " the two"
that . : ~he , /
status inequal.ity. has b~een
{f ,!;lot , r~~ov,ed complet'ely. / 'For ,:: example t ,he '*:; I , • \ . • • . "./ . " •
\ J / ' .. . co'mparative ' social sta'tus of the French , anc} , English. ' might
• \ .', , /' "'; I " \.
have ' ' shif,t~d ' ' ,:Lri' the ,last 20 ;~ars d~~ 'to <' the' em~rgencie ' It I . . . ,' .. I, .. .. .... : . " ' .
/ " . ; . .. infre'aSingl1 ' ~ationalistic :
r ~ I
I "'" I .:
governm~nt~ ,
" .. I ,., .. .
and
, ,
pro 'test , " I'
~ . '.
. ' " ', /I
, , ,.'
' .'
, .
~:
, .
:.;
\
"
, '
I
r ;, " /1 , ~>
i '" J ,"
. i,,; ,', I" .
. ,;., "
: ' ., . .... . :,. , ,
,"
: : ,' "
, , .. ' . . ... . .,. .. " .-.. ~" .~ ':.- ,
. " .. ," :; .' .. , ,,:, ",,' ::::', ':)':~' ,:''::<:'-;-'''''~'~ . ,,: :,~':; :':: . '~ . ' " , "';. .. ' . ~ . ./
. \ , ' .
-', . ',.
/' ", , lit.
:',
.... :,':
; , '
" . ~"-,, .. "
......
',4",
" . , .
" ,
~ "
" .. . , ' , ~ , ;
.' . . ~ .,
'. II "~- ' , . , ~ ... /-
. \ ~ ', ' J ·f • • 74 :,:..",, ' . ~
. \ .
. ! .
. " '
, , o
' . " , ,
ni'ovemen t ,s in QuebeG. How,ever,the pres!,!n t ·- re'sul ts sug'gea t . / .
I • •
~h~t tha~ is not correct~
", ' '
' . . ,
~ , .. '..,.. : Andth~r a~pect'. bf, ' theres~lts .~e~idi the fact that the: . . ' , .
"" ' " , '" I
. Biench . experim~nter obtained less help ' from both populations /, . " ' '" :i'" .
1~.· tha 't · ·t.~'er~ .was a1;so' : no si gn1f ican t '~':d'if 'ference ill the'
, I • level'. ' of. 'help , he
ThiB specific r.:s~lt got fro'm e.ither th~ , French or Engl~sh. , I
{/ ..
.', .
. '
,\, \ -, "', ,'i'
t , I ,
conforms to . our hypothesis , ' that . the
strifeex1sting : ' between the two ' cultural :groups w~~ld tiot '. -. .. . ) , ';
' ne~~s~a"rilY 'be ref1ect'ed~.t · the level .: of tndivid~al~. As , 'x, f at! ,as the French exper.imen ter 'is conc'~rned t:'he Frehch~and·.··'o>,;:
. '_ . ..... .
Eng1i~h vop~latioti are eqball~ , . I'J
• -'!' '
helPfu.,~( or unhel"~ful ). ' .
' 0
The. E~~lish . exp~rimenter~' on , · the ~oritrary '_pbtained , " , ,(. -""," I " ' '
Sig~ifiCan~~ mQ.re helpfrQl'Dpeople fro'm his own cultural.
group' thar/' , from the ' French :p~p,~l~tio·n. This re.sult",
".'t. .' -. . ' . • .. . 'couwared ~to the · one for ' the French experimenter', ·.appea"rs ,to
be paradox1eal ' ill . . t~~t. it':' ~s ' m~r~ ~as" ilY ~~o taki~g .\ ' ;.' ': ' ./. , ', ,
the vi~wopposi te ·to the' : pr~cedi~g ' o~e ' ~bout th~ absence · of \'.' I
. I
',diHer.ence / in c'rOBa li', cu~:,tura 'i ' he lpipg:: , ~
For . . , ~! >
'English '.
" , . . experi~.enter ·popu·lat1.ons " ./".
French - a~d ' E~gliah ,
, ." , " . ; f'.::· .' the:f,r ' wiH~ng,~eBs ·to h'e'lp •
the can , '. ,- :~
~ . , .," 1 ..(;1
' To . summarize . fhe di~cus8ion 80 far, lOO~hi{ ·at , the ', ' ~ J~ ' " ' • , • • ' • ,.\ ' • , •
!': .. < . , •• • .' ',' overa11 ·· ' ,res'ul,ts,: ~or ·.b~th eXRerim'~int 'e'~'~ it \re'ma:l:~8 th'ateven , . . ' .' .. : ,. ' , .... ") " ...... . ' ," .. ' " ' .. , ' .. , '., !'
" ':,', " - ' ,
!' ,
. ",
j '\ ' " .
., )
" ','
" ' , ~ " " .
.. ",'. '
'. ' ',: :
" , ' .. ,
, \ .. . > .
",
......
'- ,' oJ'
" . ; .
; ,
~ , '
,; ,
,i : ''\ . , " '- ~ -
.'. "
. ,: ;:: ' "
,;1 '. "
" . , ~.
<: , I
" \. , ' ._>,-,
. ' ' '" . ,', .J,': ' . .;. ~, ", .
Ai' ·· · · ·,ll·/ " ·'
. ~.
, "
I ,
. '
, ' ,',
' "
' r
','
, "
, ' , i I t
,:i I ;
,1
,I ! ! .J-: . i '
! " ,
.i
. i " I
'"
I. ,
I I I ,
,! "
,!
I : . .
, . . j ,!
/
) , '
,r
I ••
' j
"
' " , : I ' , ,
\ , • I : "
" ' 1 " , _ . ,
'. ' . ' . .. ' • • . . .... ~ . __ .' ~ ___ '~'_''''''''''''\ ''·._;' '''''''''''· ~ '~''''h''1_~ ' ''' ''':''' - , ....... ~." ... .. .. __ •• - ~ 't- '
" ,
'J ,
,'- . I
" , \
," "
I I
I"
75,
received ~iJ. ; . , ' , -
if , the ' English ~xperimenter ,from ;, the help '
Ep,gltSb population t;<J1an' from .th,~/Fre~ch p'~Ijul8.tion"at' the
same time b~th iopu1ations give more I
he~p.,:_; t:0/ the Engi i'sh , , ' ,' / ' " \ '
-to , tbe,_,:Frenc-h as shown in the test ,:controfling for . t~ , { " ., than
"
population, variable'. /"7
I ~
-,
So . '
indivfdual , interactions, 'bi'tween th'e ' two either
' '' cultural groups ,disc'lose a ,m,ore 'posLtive ~r at" least neutral
state of #'fairs than ; wh~t could be', pred i.e ted- from the ~ , '
, ,
" " social context 'Qy, .the r"e..isults for the French
I exp,erimen e'er. ' Or , s ta tus d 1-f ferences pe rmit t..o_e 'd" the ' Engli sh
exp'erim~Ji te~ to re~ei ve , ov}e~atl mQre ' h~lp from' both cultural .\ ' '
\ ---;. . . ~roups as sho~n by _the ,result~ for ,the English ,experim"enter;:
unles's , a third ' , ·.option could ' somehow" i~tegr'a~e both~ ,
, . Unfortunately th~ , results ' are , ~quivocel.
'- I ' \ ' ' " , ,
1 , A , replic'ation,
, using several' participant-experimenters.
identity could help ' to ' BQlve ' this prob.lem" by- mi,nimi.zing the , I ' ,
. ,, " I
,and/or idi.o ~ ~n,cra t ~c
, inter'pret;ation 'of , the pro~ed~res of , the single ~~pe,, '~' im"en
of ~ach culture actdqlly used.
\ \ . i
effects per 'sonafi t y, of , the
fl
Wh-en . the influence , ot: ufba~ , size , is , examined
results show ,that it inte~acts" a), wi,t,h ,the cultural .illen'tity ""', '" ' "~' " ,
' " '
,Ij ,~
.\ .
"
,# - •
I: i' !
, .
I ,
"
"
,"
, " ""', "
, ,
i 'I\~.:',~ ,
!\ :.( ",,_ ~;f , ~,he population"and als '~ , b) wiJ,h thepl'o;Vin<;:e , varill~:le •.
~~ ' \ ' I ' / ' .' \
','I'Y" , I '" ~ ',' ' / ' ¥, "
," , , ! .: . '. . . <,~ ,.'
" ' l , I
. , , , ~ " .'
I
" '
.I !
, ,I I
I " ..:,. ', '
,,.
. ,,'
'. "
. , . ~.
,',
" " l , ' " ' I , -- . . • ", -,1 ' •• ' .... ~'l:I .......... '.: ~ .. __ ..................... --.-._ •. • ___ ._ . ... ... ___ . ~ ..... ~_. __ , __ •• • ____ • " .: ....... . _._ . . • _ •• - .. ... _ _ •• _ •• " , '_ ... ' . _,' __ -0, . ' _'.'
.
I ,
, (
..
/'"
..
',' ,
-\
i r
"
\ , , ,
,,'
.... 76 " ,
In the first case we found that , overal'l, the ' French
population was mo're helpful in citiesthatl in ,towns " and that
on the contrary the Eiiglish populati,on wa~ ~ore helP~f 'in , ~
, the towns than , i~ the 'C,ities. This conclusion is , rthe~
Bup,portE7d, but fo 'r ',the. English p'op'illati~ '~ only, by the
result ' of
, sepl1f,rately. ,
\. ,I
"', .. the' test which looked at ,each , ' population
,/'
The " French p,opulation by itsel; did~ot ' produce'
s u C h ' a 11 in t era c t ion .• "
"
I ,
,- ". 'For the 'English experimenter it , appears that urbap size
interacts .: wi'th the p'r~vinc'e variable so that in, ,Quebec , he
reci!! ved ' more help ' in t6wns than in thec i ty but , tha,t , on the f ' ., ,
contrary '"fn ,New Brunswick h~ received mor~ ',helpb' the ,city.
: t~~ h'f towns., . AIt bou. h the . Fr,. c hex';. r im'.n t eT . by . himself did not ,F ,roduce stich ' a.n 'inters'ction. , ,/
o . ~ Urban size see,med. , then, to influence ' lev.el ' ofl1elp '
g'ive,i oJ? - recei'ved, " . " • . I , t .
through irite~action ~ith the cultural
fdentity of ' the population or' of , one . of , the , '
expe:r i m:e ters '. ' .. " \
As in , the' case 'of the': first interac'ti,on of s,ignific,B:nce, , ~he , ,
the -patt .~rn is not ':self ,eVident;" " My r ·evt'ew ,of , ' . ',' ',~ ,: , . . . ,, '
" , . '
r' : .' ~.,.' (
"
"
, ,
." :J.n ' preparation for , this ':'exper:Lment does not ,suggest why one ,
' c,,~tur., g~,ouP wou 1N~ow 'v er s 11mor. he1.; .. " behali ~ :.<;Z , ...... ··1. ' , one type " ,q£ environme,nt , (cit;l.es), and, 't::h~ other, grou; in~'i;'
, ' • I • ' , , I ' a'notheron~ (;to~ns). Perhaps , li~erature " on , cross , cult'ural ,
[ ,
, I' , . , , .' . ~
.to ' mo 're , dtv,,~rse , gro~ps . would:,:: provide' stud:l.e~ • applied .~. .
I \ ' ,j '\ . I , , , )
. , " ::\ " ,--
( ' I •
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"
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• . . i ~ .. !
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o'
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,: r ;
'.
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, "
';' . , . .
\,
',. ,'. , .
. ' .
. :-... / ,
, . . \ \\' Inst'~~ce!, of such i,nteractions. ' It would ' reulain t6be seen.
how ' ~uch .a find~ng c~uld be ~pplied to the cul~urai grou~s
~ studied here. wh~ch have ach·ieved •. ,I bel~eve,comparable
"
levels of urban~zat ion ~ ." ,This appli~s also inth~ case of
"
~he i~~eract~on ' of the ~xp~rime~terand' ftrban . size.
, '. Anri~h~r.poi~t is th~~ in the ' ·.presen't experiment . the '
, '/'
, cities wer.e ,,,only of : a ,popula tion 'si'ze 'of abo~t · 50.000'. In r
most'exper 'i~~nts ' in tn.e '. literature tha.t ' dize rep~esents 'a ,
small agglomeration. ~o.'~o han (l 9.J.7) for example ' i~ ' ·his \. eftieriment clas~ifi·es .. locations '-Of less
,population as small. .i ,
ptZin~e. ~ .;.;: . .
,province ' variable i'8 . .
in i~sinteracto~, wlth · the urban size
'influencing , ,
level of help rec·e. ~v d by the English
exper;l:mertt'er which I 'd~s ·cusse·d . above.' . "
. "'- -""~ . , . . ... .':.~ :" .,
' Problems of ,interpretation • . I wou14 some J 'of
the ,weakil'esses . · of the experim~nt an' some pos'sible .' \
.. , ..
.Q~·e of the most evident weal9t ]>oi . ts in ·the ls.1g,n. is ·
'cult'Urewa's used. /
the ' fact that . onlY lon,e experimeter of each . '. . , 'b
. ·1'
, .
, . I .
I
, ' . . \ ; I
.,'
"'1' , ...... . . . \.' j'" . . . (";'
I ' . I, " !.
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.1
r,
; .'. ~ ': , .', ", ... ;-__ ._._ ............ ~._~M~_._ .. ... . __ ~' ,
/, :; ' . '~' " ;;,~ :, . ,~ .. ,.':'_._.-.. ___ .. --=-__ . _ _ ' _', _ '1 '. ..' .. . 0 ,
:,' -;::::----.,-, -, .----,.-' ...." .,""':':--:-; -.. :--.~~ -t "' ~ ::.: ' . i · \ '
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It, is , 'difficult to ~ntang;te what personal I
78
characteristics \
'are respon~lble for ,the d'ifferetices' in helping level bet~een
them, Jinancial constraints .~ pl~ced limitation" on the '
, '\, , , number of e,xpe rimen tel'S who could beus~d,
t~e English ~xperi~~nter' gen~iated. by , himself~ ~uch strong
in'teracti:~~~ that they may , haye obliterated more 9ub'~,
c01l).p"iex ones, This pcissi'bility was .. for.eseen at the start Jf 1 , I
But it was hop~d that, ' by trying to m.tch . I • . .... .
experimenters ' ~n sex ', age, phy.s1~~I ' , , ' , . " .. - - --: ,';/
appearance: (dress and
build), ~nd ~duc~tion~l bac~ground. d if f erenc esbe tween 'tn em . '. ~ " . . ~,~
would mainly , ?c~ur in interactionwiih ~he tulf~ralidentity
of t.hepop'ulati~n. , and 'also ths'tthe other ,e:xperime,n\ with , .
t~~ i6~t , letter technique N,
w,oU'ld h~lp 'to' cor:roJlorate the
results of the main experiment. " l '
, ,
.There ,is another ' aspect with the
,whic,h ,is not specific to this ' ,e~'periment but
'~an occur ,whenever the commitment of the', ,persons invo.iv~d ' -~ "~'~
varie,s', 'The' stu'dy , wa~ conducted by ,the ~utho ,r and, ,~ st'uden~
frbm another university hired .,for the durat'ion' of " th'~ , '
,experiment (3, w~eks)', ' 'It {-.s evident that the'fnterest,of
the: two 'in the ~;oJectwas ' ve-ry diffei:e~t. ,'While ' theautbo,;-,,'
partner was
o~tained", ". "7 ' •
,pro'bably , jmore neutral towar 'ds ; any ', results
The ,\ res,e~'rc'h on ex~e!im€i'~" t~, r -bias may . b~e ' -relevant." As , Ro,s 'enJ:-hal (1969) ~tates, :
. ' \ , '
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) ,
, . .'" ' '
, , I ,
, ,.,{
.. . t~ ., (1, ... ~ .. ~.'.: ____ ~- .. ~ ... ~, . ... ~"b __ ~ ... t.-:' ___ ~"'~~~_--""" ~~"""" ' 4.q""""_"~""J ~""~ " " . ·" _" ·~' " . I ·~ .. .., ... ~ . " . - .:1..,.. .. '
•• •• • I '. '
: "
' ....
\,' ~.' ,,.
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,, '
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. ' While the other , attri'butes of the experimenter a'ffec't the , silbje'ct's response" they d~ ' not ' ~ecessarily aff~ct ~hese responses di£~erenti~lly
, ~s a , functipri . of the subject's , treatme~t " cond·ition. Expectancy 'effects, ' on the ' other haild,
always de.... ,The eX'perime'nter's expect'ancy ' of , how tlre; ,8ubject will ,. 'resjJo'nd ,does " change ' as a fun:~tio ii- of the s)Jbject's 'treatment " co'ndit'ion. \ ' .... , ,' , '
We, mig:ht have unwittingly di{feret,, 'tfally influ,enced ;;
7,9
! '
'the '
_respon,ses , ' of " s.ubj ·ec t~ .'although . we n'ever ' r'evie,wed th~' .' :.
: ';----., , I ; , '
a 'ccumulat:l:'Dg ,data during ,the experiment so we wer~, not at,Tsre , ' .'
' ~f anydeveioping trend ",
i n , ~h"e resu lt s ,'
~ '"
• 'J"
.. ~,~ . " ," ),' , '
The of ' t~ a,sistant
'hired by Roth (1975). ' A hired ,hind is ~
· per'B~n ~hos' e , task " ~ ,
,si\Ilply ,to carry ', O\1t the iqstructions
given tEl ' ' him. ' .. may not ' be ' "<lsk·ed ,to make a personal
th'e ' e~pe'rimen:t b~t t.,o simply fotlow ot:ders. • · 1',
contribution t . . " , I
negligen t. P reoccuP.ied ~,nly : with get t ~ng I.
Re may , become
results th~t w~ll statisfy, hi~ emptoyei. , '
The resuJ,ts' of research done in part or wholly by hi~~d , ha-n-d-s. shou'ld 'be viewed as ' a dubious sou'rc,e
' ,fot info~}Ilat'i~n .• about spec'ifi2' , " aspects , of o~r , ' sapial l~ or, fo~' the raw material fO.r d'evelopi.ng
:. broade r gEfner al J,za tiona. (p . ' 3-92) •
.. ,
It' .i;' posBib.l~ that_e~e . , dt~fe.rences towa ';d th~ project.
I' • (? ," __ ., 'from the tw.o. e~perimenterBl; may ~ be responsible for ' some of
I ,', ' , ' , , " th~ variance ip ,the resu~ts :
---the ~ost likely ~olution t~ : t~e pr~bl~m of exp~r~menter
,p artic ipao taof each ' cuI t 'ur,'al ' ~ro~p-
I _ ••• • ,
~ . " "
' .• ~ f ~
:,'1 . ' "
as e .arl,ier'.
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.: ..
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f , / I • ;;
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, J J.
I' .-_-..: •• _~ __ M~ " _ ~._ ~ . ;~ . ..... _._
... . ;;: .~ .
. f.' ... ". 80 '
J .
. / ' However. this .is . by no 'mean the p~rfec~ solut~on ' since we
-. .
would be . in~re~s~n~ the numb~t ~f hired handiJ
I . • , .
'f· .. t· - , . Field experim'en t.
, '.
I have rel.ied on a .rguments.; such .\a~_ the
, pass! bili ty of achiev:lng ," ," .' ' . .' t',
greate.r mUnd81;le ' reaIi,sm; greate'r ' . ",, : " ' . .'
,E!xternal . validity . e .tc. as"3. j,,:stificati'on\ for t~.e -use' of I a
' fie~d experiment for~a~. Some ' degree'?fcont~ol over ' a}Y' \ ' . .
subje.cts •. etc ..
impaq t" of '. th.'e
,I ..
procedure. . '~~
is , lost : b~·t . ; lt . is h6ped ~ha,t .'the $reate·r
manipulation compensdtes ( ~ t·' · ·
• " i
· for. . ' }
Retrospee~ively it does notse ·em:~ .~Jo ob'vious that ~ . field
.: e:xperim·~nt should · b~ pr~'ferrfad over a fsbor.a,t~ry, . e~~er·'~ment~ ·
A • c1.,?se · s 'ccouniing" of th~' ;~~r~~.e'~~ff.s " i.nvolve~ . m"~y ~~~OT ·. the · f ,ield setting ' .. ,flS a b'ettet ' . envirol}m~n 't .· to 'tti\st ' 'our ,
• . I ' ~ I '; - • . '
Also the .· day to day ,uncertainge.IL.-.!.n the · f .ield; · " , ' ~"""":.
in'ed.equate settings " ,J
• ~ r e.g., rain, , to meet: , . sub~ect8" .'sparse ·
. . \.
~.umb ,e ·r :, of' ~ubj ec ts. 'make one wish f .or· the rela'tive ~ecu:d .. ty
J
and~red~ctab{litY ' of the laboratory • I,~ I.:', '
, . "
. ,
: '( ,i ., "
.' \ .' ,. .. , " t
The p,ract:'ihal' " necess~ty ofa" , ~ cer;:tatn " ., degr~. e of · ,/' . . .. ... . ' ... i"n ' !either "~ s e t~i~'g' .. ···' ·the la.bora toryl or< the'
. . ' ,
r ~ / . . sim~lif ie-at ion
.' I , ' 0 , • • I I •
fi~l~. : maltes . it, difficult to aChi~v~ ':' a~ ~ufficientl; d ine ,,: . , ~ , t ~"" '',J .f,
di~c.rimtna.t'~,on of ' people' , and ·grou'ps . -rela~iv.e· to : th'e 'cultur" ii '~' " ., . .~ ,:)
, v:al:;iabl'e. '. :-,: W~at we have . dic~.~tomized · . ~s .' .. two " dis tinct: ~ , • 10. • • ', ' .I,' , .... t . .
' t " ;;-..
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81
' v~r-, j
homogeneous cu~tural , groups may in .fact''- be, better
' repre'sented on a coritiJluum. 'The' typical inter'action between " I , , : I "
¢xper~menters and :~ubjects was planned to emphasize 'cultural
vafiables, to,· the detriment of' other, ff-ctors ,. I, /'
, was not complete'ly succ'i!sful. '
On,e - of ' th,e unstated ass\lInpt'ions in this: ,experiment is
that , the people of the ' two c~itural " groups' sha~e a ,number of
e qui val e,n't , soc ial, '''-
, cognitive ; orientat~ons' to , . : fhe1r c u It'U;)! a 1 and how t 'hey reiai:e . to ' th,eir own
gr'oup ; . w· - ' • J ,/,,' . \ : " '.
or in their phen m~nolbgical , categori~ation , of ' an .. I ' " 4
event BU,ch 'as street~ This assu~pt:io of equivaience~ :I.:f ' true, would make
our - results; lev:~l, ,of : help'
toward member~ of its ingroup or the outgroup, ~ leasily
'I
"c'omparable in the , sense ' .tl];~~ :,j, ·we could ',as sum,e a similar'
mean-ing for. a similar action~ " .. i:~~J ..-- ) ,"'
I .
. . ' . ' .. ...
equivalen,ce I
.. ' /. , ~ay~or and Blmard (i975~,_Christia~.
\ ' ., ' ,
, Ther.e is eViqen.ce that t~is pr.esumpt'ion o'f
not ' be ' correct~,
Gad£ield. Giles. '(and · Tayl!lr ' (1976), and , Taylor and Gufmond .. '
(1978) ' al1fo~nd, as expecte~. , I that : the identity .of the '
Fr~~~h a~d ' Eng1ish .ar~ ' indeed d~~fererit ariduriique , - ', . ' .
to e~ach t
,'. . ~
·t~e . ~ocia1 " mllie~ ' ~ion::g ethno1ing~i'Btic lines" ,," -, '"' ,, - ;, t i, , .' . " ',":" .' 'were'" "cons'istentiy m'ore ethnocentric 'than th'eir
, , ~\ . . " " l~~ :.:, ,)
, I
group. But also the Fr'en.ch Canadians are more ,prone to U ' " ,' ;' ,
)
_ u~~ t egor1;' ~e
" '
\ , , ." , , :, .! -,\ . ~ .,.,.,- \ .. -, . :l;· :
, '
. '
,~ (:,. - \ '
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. ~~' ~ ';,.
~ \ ,.'. , A, '
:,
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, '. , , " -'" , '.... " 1,,-
, " , , " '. , ~ , " '\' , , ' ,
",
. ,I · :. "I"'~. • . ~ ·.1 ,. I , i ., ••
.. -. ____ ... :-: .......... __ .... __ ~---',-,.--'" ___ • __ --,_....;..__ ~~ r-.: •. ~:~~,:,
, ' ~: : , ., '. . 1 ' \ . , .', , ,' I .' , " , ~. ' \; .' ;. .. "': . ~ • ." ', .: ' '. . .. ~ .
......
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1 •
·82
counterp~rt l l (Taylor and Gu~m~nd'.;. 1978, . p. 18)~ .. .
I This greater ' impor t ance of cultural dif f erenc es · for
Frencl:l Canadians can be further .peFHed : since this
particu.l,ar : ethnic group could be broken . down into two
. distinct . \
subgroups: ' a , t
"national1s.t.i.:c:: .. . group" . and a , ... " I'
"traditional group". The · 's econd one i~t ' more like the
. English : '~anadians in identifying with 'Canada as a', whole I,
r.ather than a s.pecific region or' province. I "
We see -that the two gr.oups . differ
impor tance\ they g1 v,e to ' cultural information when coming
(
into 'c' o~tact with at ang~r8. The English se!,!m to make l¢ss
use of that
also'~ that the
of information, the French more. ' /"
e~ch may differ. among themselves in ;
I prope.nsity a use cultural informa'tion. ,
with. differences in
We see'.
thei r
ethnic
ident~f1cation '>i ,9' the poss·ibi.lity that groups may differ .in.
their, adherence' to"the . norm of ' reciprocit'y.' The ·setti.ng and
. . type of ' request were standardi.zed although they varl,ed- .along
,0 , ,
predeterlDinded 'lines (counterbalan~ed for cultural identity, I.
. 1
size ' of ci t ·ie!'l, etc.). Ho:wever, 'each . group \
may have .
differen't , . non-:equival en·t n ·orms' · which . constr:ain I
respo"ri.d in diffet;ent.:l way,s .1n .ahelpin'g situation. I~ .
I .
'I.." • .1,
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, ' ' " ' ';
',:'
I
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\ . i \ t to,
. "
.,
e,. .
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".
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f"'" , "
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. , . ~ . ' . • • ~ • • . . .. • " I . • I '
; .
.;.
i . )
.~'
.'-:'.~-
~~~~.
.' " " ': ':~. , . . '.. .'., '.' .' ..... , " ' -:-:-~. . . . .,--_-----~~t.: n.-.~~".;".~ ... \j.~~.1..r,.~r...,..rto_~ .. "'-" .. ~~.--~ ... ·.' ...... r-.~ . ....... ,, ~ ... .. ,." ... .,.~ .. ... ..:...\ ... ,,,, ... _,,, ..•• .. ..... u . .. ' o- ... •• .. .. '.,>:' . '. " :. ,.,, "'-:-. " . . '" '., .. , .. ,' , ."" . " ', . ~ . r ,' . · . .
' .. '.
, ! ,
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"
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, I 83 "
In'addi~ion the lang\lages,(French ~nd English) in ' the,
tWo pr!JViifce8P~obab1Y -have a ilumb~r of featU"i-es which may
lead people to , differentiate ·even among who share -' a thol3e
.r'. . I~ comm~nlanguage. There may be three or
instead of two,. Giles (U77). stat es ' i'Language will refer to '
, any lingUisti.c~ture~~ a,r set of f ,eatures (e. ,g., dialects "
accents" wQrds) ,which an" ethnic group valu'es, or uses, in'
making itse)f disi:inct:ive ,from ' a competing gr~up." (p. ·3~.'
,Cultural' ide'ntitiesmay nO,t only be m!>re differentiated
than ' assumed ' but" they may also be more 'complex, less 'well ...
defined.' For example a 'bilingual p,erson because, of his \
" !idoption, more or . less voluritaril~, ' ofanothelj ,cultural
"-'group langu8s.e m~y: then alte,r ' his relations'1!ip to that
group .' As Giies (1.977) s .ta~e8. , referring't6· ~<cha.Pt~r /b'y -" Taylor" Meynard" and Rh~Bult~ "
"acquiring th'e
symbo lic of ~ '\.u outgroupCBt;t de'tract fr~m ones ~wn
language
feelings
of 1:ngro'up iden~ity '." (p. 5). ~ J
There may als'o ~ cognitive differences linked , to, .,
member~hip to one g,roup . or the other. Lie berson , (1970) ,
stat.es: , The i~portance ' of ra~e and ethnic relat ions is also implicit in' ' r the~view of language as a collection of' symbols .~h , influence social, behavior •••• ' , If l!inguagj " influences cognition, .then eth~ic ' " gra\lp~ with is1:inctive 'tongpes , may respond differentlY:in the ' sanie social- si.tuation. (p.
1 7)." , .
" ','
. '!
I I,
I' ' : I I ·
I ,
b o, ,", • • \. ",, ~ .. ... , ... 1 " " 'n ..... l '.', • ','J ... "~ 1:,10.' .... ~ •• ... ,v.,""'''- - ..• .--.-,'"-r ..... ~,.~:-:--.... -.--,.~-:---~,.... ... " .. __ .... w·, ~ .. ~ ...... -..:.-- .!.1-"'~·--:"""'-----~"--....J..~·~----, -, :;."...-:,. ......... ---, ... • , ' .~ i .
'. '. , .-" .' ' .. \ .
- ,
", ,
, ,
.. '
• '';.'J " ~. -.' :o., ,,_ . _ • • , .. .,." • • .•. • r._._. :1 ~. I \ ,
. , ~.
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, 84
.'
It ispo'sBible . that tlie : e~p,erimenta-i ev~-n '; - t'~at 4's designed ' . 'J to t~st · cross ', 'cultural helping was perceived,interpreted
andreac'ted to. diff~ren'tly by the ' two groups.
I. I .~.
'Even the . assumption of Simil arity of cogni t ive
processes woutd not, free lL~ cO,mplet 'ely from ' dHficultY , since
still' use' di.fferent information . ' in, the
I ' ~ ' . ' .
perception of ingroup or outgroup meml;>e·rs. Abo'ud an.d ,Taylor
( 1971 ):-Show th a t when. info r ,mation abo u t ' . \ .
r 0 Ie san d e t h n i c . \. . . identity fs available c~oss cultural perc~ 'pti'on falls "int;
a pattern of ~ut8.roup p~rception involving the use' of .ethn,i ·c
. ~otypes . predominantly
role stereotypes'.' (-p. 22) •
and in group perception ~ely~ng on. .. ... ,
. "
'1/:- - . ' hom the prec'eding arg~m'ell 'ts and .. fro'/h my own res,ul ts I
we see that the ,concep~ of cultural identity and a,~s.ociated
nor!ps of behavi'~r may not only be har.d t .o" define,it may . be . .
difficult to c1aasifypeopi,e in" ;cle'ar cut, mutu~.l1y. ,
ex'ciu'stve categories. In that" case t ,he ·. amQunt. of ~. overlap' " ,.
. should -be considered aod this . { /
is ' assuming a case , where w~ .
~ould identify __ only . twq pol'es of cultural iei'entity. More.'
'co~plex " 8it~~ t io~~ . .; - of . , ( ,
· r . , '. .
mul tip~e ' iden t ity- ~~.! ght· . ex i .8 t." . ' . '
All ·
these . variations ,allegiance .. '. ' '
.' I, ~ ",:
of i ,n. , pol it ica·l d~g ree .
. bilinguaJ,.ism, diff'e.rences·· in norm's, difference in co'gnitive , .. " ~
" . \
apprehension of events, compI'exity ·of · cultural :i:dent'1ty, .. if
not , recogntze.d , and ideo'fified add ,up to 'nOise', obscuring
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:\ These ' prob lems " call'.'
" . for mor~ specific definitions "" of the groups inves,tigated and
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of the ,.te'chni que , for find iog . re'prese'n tati,je member s •
. ''\. .
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, ~he los t , ~e~ter techniq1Je., ', T~e loat , letter , . technique d.id --,-, .. ,
not supply a'ny Bignifi'c~~,t .' res~lts ~ ' The re'a!'!ons are more I.
'Shotland's
. I an ,acfeq,uate .
" methodological than , expe',rimen~al; '._ . " , l ' .. h
Fol1q~ing
( 1,978)s\lgge.stiort about impor tance of the ~. " . , "
I under ' the distribution strategy. the . lett'ers. ! were' put.
\
·windsh i ,e ,lds of p~rked :car s. , This h 'ad to ' be i ,'"
concurren~ly with the ,li-y:e ' ~xp'er:l.ment how~ver. Obvi~us ly we
could' not VerifY ', the cultur~l ide'ntity of th~ per_~on owning
or, dr1v1-'ngthe cars~ l \ It 1s: 'very, like·ly that a ~ high .. . ' 1", " . ,.t,
f ' percentage ' of , the letters did ' no t ' reach the appropriat'e'
ta,~get'~:, • . As .can be' seen · in Table 13. for the l1;e ' \"',
interviews, the 'numb~rs 'of 'people ' .dis'missed '(because they
" wer,e ' not of the prolper, cultural identity or
~ . , , ] . loca t ion) 'ISS
high. , . ,'1,'
',.
" This was ' due to t~e greater m,h ' of ' peo?l .e,~ of different
cultural ide~tity , . occu~r~ngdudng the ,day tinie as op.posed·
to the more : segraga t ed Bi·tuations'f~r . their resp~c-t he' p.li~ . • . ' I ,
of resid,ence · at ,night. " .'-'~~~s prohlem could be C'irc~mve~ \~~d \\ . ' ' .
for the live interviews but Ii'ot for the los't . letters. ~lsci . ·41s cree t l,y, los,ing
- .. , ... ' .
the letters 4ur,ing ,the d.~y W8S_ difficult
. / on .ithe " ,',streets • .
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~ven , proved ,imposs/Ule, o > I •
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two towns ' in New, Brunswir:J bec,,~~se ,'of t'h~ir small 'size. ' I .. ', ' :."
think' the techniq~e should be u<sed at'nigh~ whent,here ' 'ls' a 1\ . ,
greate;- llikefihood 'tha~ ~ car parked ;" ~n ' a residential- " area
by peop~,e , of one , -,
id~ntified in ' majorfty
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presents mallY' , ',conc,eptual ,and me't ,hodc"logical haz:~:id~w~ic):l, 'j/ . . " !.' ..' , • -"
leave 9pen the pos'sibili,t,Y ofa,1ternate' eXi>lanati;'n,sof, the
As discussed "above,', doing
I " '
" ' r.s~lts · ?b~ained. :Ii '~imilar I experiment ' we, r~ ~ ·,~o .b'~ done " ' ,\\-,
'If ,
again, " th~n-,Jmhre extensi,ve ,mean's, .. ' " ", I ' ~
particip'ant- .experimen't'ers used and , . ,in'ter,ms ' 'of d:L ,S,c_r~,minate '"
ter,ms
sampling, sh'ould be ,~onsidered if i 'nt'erpretabi-e res\11ts ,', 'are-.!- ' ,
,to be.achieved.
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\) ', -
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" i'
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. )
-4_ .. :.:~
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"-----..
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" Psychology, · 1974, ,2,!,- ' 3-13'. , .' - ,
.~ .
ii , , "
" . .. _.f. ,. ~_ ' ., . ,_.' ._ .... .':_ ,_ ' .
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91
I .
, ,
Meyer', ' J. P." &. Mulher'in, A. Frcim" at;~ibution' to .. fhelPi~"g: ' . . , . " . • 6 ' . I .
. an ana~ys~s , of the me'(ri/lting. ,effects ' of aff."ect and ' " '\ e'xpectancy. J'o 'urnlll E..f .Person·ality' and Social "-Ps, yc1ioiogy~, 1980, 11(2), 20.1":216. ' ,
' , ~ "
· · Milgram: " . S~· ~ 'Mann, .L.,I &: ·. Harter, 9 S·• The lo'st letter , technique. " Public Opinio'n Quarterly, 1'965, 12. •. 43,7,-4:38.
~.
Milgr~~'tS. the ~xpetience oflivin~ , iri cit~~~. , S ci e 11 c e, 1 9 7 0 , 1 6 7 ;, ' 1 4 6 1-14 6 8.. " . ' •.
\ \
. , . . '--~ ' . - ' ,
Pearce·; , p .' .L. " S~rangers, t~ravelers, te iminal s: A " Sot ui:ly ' 0'£ small- s cal ~ Journal .2f ,Personalit.y and 'Soc1lal ll(6). , , 935~940~
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a~d Greyhound , . heiping ,behaviorB' ~ Psychology~ 19.80, '
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, ., ' Popl'in" , D. ,E. " 'Communities '. !. .. survey of theoi"des and . , ' . methods of research. ' New York: Macmillan, ' 1972 • .
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.... ;~ - Rosenth~,l,·R. Int~rperBonal , expectations: Effects of the exp'erime.n·'ter' ,s hypoth'esis. In R. Rose'nt'hal &: i.~ 'Rosnow ' (Eds. ) ; . 'Artifac t , ' in belfa\iloral res e·arch. : ' ~ New -York: .' Academic 'Pr 'ess, 1969. "
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,"
S:ter~, ~." T .• . A': st:ud'y ' of , th,e r~lat:l,~~~h ·:i.; . 'of 'hel<p!ng ,,: , '" beh'avior wi·th "u~m' " - sex,\ and. 's'o cio 'economi'c stil tus :in " ~ , ', ' two pausdf t .he . 1rilit~d S· tat~, s. , (Doctoral'dissertation,':. '
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,:' in the B 0 c ial ' p s yeha 10 gy : .Q.f ' in t err e 1at ioris'. 'New :( York: Academic Pr'es's, '1978.
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TayliSr,,'\ D. M.., ~assil .i, J :.N.' , :/& : Aboud, "F~ E. Diinens,io,ps', oj ethnic identity: An exampl~ 'fr.oPt u'ebec. , Jo,urnal of
'.: Sbciar Psy 'chology~ 1973, 89(1), 1,85-.1 2. ' . ,/', , . ~.-,- , :\
, TJ.~I~r ,': D. M .~ ", & Guimond',S., : " Th~' belie( ' p~~rr' of,
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! prej udice "in an" intergroup ' context';' Joo..rnal ,of Social
, " \ _ .psyc,hOl~~:( ~ ).1:7~.~ i05 ': : 11;:'25,' " . . ' ~ \\ ' - , -! ' '
' •. '.' :',//,/' ' ,T,~ylo,r,,' ,D.-'M." Meynard; ' R., " &: Rhea'!-}t" ' E. ,, T~reaj: to ' ethnic i~entltY - ,and s¢cond~language learn1n8~ ,.I~"
H. G:i.l,es" (11:d~), Language,: ethriicity, 1!.lli!' intergroup --.' ----'--------'-----;--,.-r'e-l-at'io~New 'T6Yle,: Academic P~,ess. 197.7. ' '\ Cited
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Taylor', 'D. M., &: Simard, . L .~ M. , ,b {Hngual se tt.:!,ng.· Canadian
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... . ". " , " ,Januar.y, :,26, pp. 2,9-,31.
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:Wet n.eq"; B • :.<A.~o gnid v~ , (a,t t r:ib~ t 'ion) '- - , emot i o,na~ t ion mOd 'e.1' o~ m'oefvat~~ - behavior: 'An analysis' of judgments of l"6.elp-g;i,!.in-g~ ~Jlournal , .£.f Personality and ", :Soc!a1 i "
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of run(1 and, 'u,rb an r ea't i ng ,on' h e1 ping, b ehav 10 r. Journa l ' ' . ,aLPer'son ' 11 t ,and SocLal" 'Psycho1ogy ,, 1976. '34 (1), ' . ;
" 112-.124. ---. , " , \ .-..
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' Psychology '~ ' 1981, 'J.'14,. ' ,295:'296. '. ' . .' \. ' . '.
",
, Wirth. , L '. , (UJ1b~,nismas~ wa,Y of ' life. ' American 'Journal ' ,SodoloS:!, 1?38, ' 44 ', 1-24. Cieed ,in -Wirth, 1964-... ,
, , . ....
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Appendix' A.
• 0
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. PHot · 'f or· 'Experimen t , one. \ . j :\
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. 1 94
'-
; , . . . T~~ ,p:(~~t serv,e~ two 'purposes: .1) :, it : wa~/ a _ 'pra',ct,iY
run .' .. to :famil,ia'r·ize.t'he : ~~per~menters with the' pr 'ocedure~, , , . ,,', . , . .
· and 2) 'it established the ' ain'ount of time ' to. reque~t ', fromthe
"
sub~~ctB·· to ach{~ye,~overa!'l! . a , ~O% refusal ' rate_ " . ,
. , ." , I " . ,
, . -'
a~hieyed . by following 'the
-I '.. • . ' • :' • .
procedure · exactly asexpfained in .t·he methodo'logy proposal. " " \ I,' "
But iIi' this ~a,seonly, --,t-he , 8~bJ~ct8(decisioli.80n whether , or , . \ ' • . . • . I \ , , ~ . . . I ' .' . ", ~ . .' • • ~
'not· til stop "and ans,were ·-the ' ques.t50ns 'was ' reeorde~ '., If '· s . , ' . ' I . . I
. s'~bj~ct was' .wiil~ng t~ \answe r the -1q,ue~ tio.n's . th e sess i on wa 's I . ... " ~ >'-: ... ' - 'l·
interrup.ted · .Wi·th : - excus~es/' , .Requkst : 'fo'r . 5, : rO, 15, 20, 2S ~ - , . ' _., . ' , ' \. . ' " . "
. " , ~
minutes were. ,made , ' '
'a. \ random ~ . .order . at' two 'in \ '
'locatfons, a shopp-ing e'e~t~r' and a ,"city street ,on ' the ,south . " , . \ .
· shore . Of~~'ntrear~" oSine e. t\os'~ t~~ ',~\ocat 1~nB"a,r efr'e q~e~~ed by ' p e 0 p le <? f . both langua.gE7s . t he , exp e t:, 1me~ ters , a 1 w'ays s h if te~
. . ":> ' . , - \ ' pre:fered, bY " the, \ subjes:ts.
, ', ,, , ,, ,. ' the ' langu'a'ge
. .. ,.These·, two to
la,cations :were not used' in \ ' the J~tual e.xp~t;.ime'nt •. Th'e
number af :" s~\jec ts~::c.ePt lng. 'a~~" , ,tli'e\ nuuib~r '-~'~~us i~g was ... ' , . . . .
\ ;\ \
tabura'te~ "for ' each time ~a~u~:-r ', The
, \ .. , ' · clQsest to, "50% a~cept~nce' was ;.. .~et~ee·n ,15" and
" • _ . \ '\. J . '" ~ ..
value;s were use.d t;qgether for the ac.iuaL '~eque!ilt
value com;ing' time
20 "minutes.' ~ . . '-.
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" '. , . . Appe,ndix B. , "
Q • I
. Data Recording ~ , ¥'age one (Englis}l ver,s"ion). ' , f • • . .'
r'ntrod,uction: /' ,~ , 'Excu~e 'lie Sir/Ms~' :l~m 'doing' a' research ' p,roj"eet on .
people's cu1turalid~ntity. I would like to ,a9k :'you ' a few ' qu~stions. This should take only 15 to 2'0 m1ntites of ' youy:
" , ' I - . time. , Do you agree?','. , ,'. , _ , , [ir subJec tasks"" ques t io,~s , s ta,ce that yo:u are a , univ.ersity. stude"nt and that this ·· interV:,iew is part of a pr 'oject , you ,are do i n g . " ' ~ ] , '
The Cfuestfons: ' a , . •
[t+Y" , to, ~~ 't anB~ers ' to _que'sti'~n on'E! and; two ~t lea~tr
: : l ,~ ' ,What' l'angu~ge ' d'o ,y~u use ~'~!!~: \ often -:tn " Y~llr h~m~ ,? ' !" , 'Fr'ench ·or ' ~~8lish. / , '- , '\ ,," " , " ">\
[terminate ' interv;ie,w if answ~r ,is \"different ,,from location] '" ,2. Do. you live .' in , this city (town)''l , Yes or 110 ,. ' \
'·[tertidna'te interview if answer' is ' 'rio] . \ , '~3. _ H'owlollg have' ,you :. been ,:liv',irig ,'h 1;e.? (~ears) , ; \
.. , "
.. · . ,
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· 4. Of the langl,lages "you . un,derstand which one did ' you learn \. . . ,, ' . , \ . , , ' . 1
fir.,at? ,' Englfsh or .':E;rench. ':-"' \ , .' :: " ' . , .... I,'
5~ .What la.?guage 40 'you most , _ofte~ ',u\se at 'work w1:t, ~1;l talking , . ,to :a) , your ,fellow ' wo-rkets' , ' b) Yo'u!: ' sup~~~iSiOX:?
6: '~n w~at ,langua:gedi~ ' you . re!=e:tve~~our ' instr~cti.on' at ' .. primary a,chool? Fre,nch or Engli~\~ . · . /,'
A; , Answers all the quest,ions ,. ' \· . I '\ ', ' . , " \ '- ' ,\
V \
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\ . -. J
'B. , R.efuses to\~answer. th~ , q' "tions exce t 1 and 2. ' . ",
c . . ReflJae"s" to1~ns'~e'; ' any , qu ti'on( but ,{erbally . i;dent f ied ,as. , to' i,cultural' . iden' t :y ' --~:ut 'n 'ot "ir 'esi:d'ence. " .
.' '
" .D ~ , 'Rei'u8 es · to No : id entif
" , ,' . ,id en t i.:t y 0" . ','
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answer . /lny qu~st:i.~ns. cation· of cul~ural ' rE!s1dence. 1,', .
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, , .. , Ap'pendix . C. . ~ "
, I i "
. D~t~ 'recof'ding " form.P" Page one (Fre·nc~· 'vets'ion) ,',
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.' .;ntrodu·ct.ion: .' . ' . 6'G" :" '. ' .' '. '\ .. . ,.EIX~U8~Z, mOi .,M./Mme/M1Ie; . je f~is . une r .e.cherchesG.r\ ' · 1 ident'~te ·culturelle ,deB: gens. · J aimerctis vous :.poser, quelques q~'e~t±ons, ~a .ne devrait 'pr7ndre Clue 15 a 20, ~_inut,;" s d..~ ~~~{ e tem,ps" ' A~ceptez vous?' . '
~" ~ , ~s:t le"; sujet p'~se ~e~ ?uest ,io~s d.:i..t qu .e ' eu eS', un ~tudiant ·8, ;. l'universiteet q!l'e cer interview'. fait--".ai:ti,e d'un travai.l : que tu aois fair.e" ~ . ] .. ,. . .,, ' . . '.: " .
- . • . .' ,'. . I •
. 1 \ '
, L~B ·qu ~estions. .. .. .". . ~ . /' , . . [essaie (d'.obt·enir une ' re,ponse I aux quest~ons .· l' et ' 2 au ~ui.oins] . ,. : .
. I' . . Quelle · liln"gue ;utiltzez · vous Ie plus~o~vent a. Ia maison? ' Frenc~ or English. . ." \ " .
,[terminer . l"interview si la'rep ' nseest diffe'rente dU.1:1.eu]" . . L .. D.emeurez vous ' d.a risee t 't ' e vii · ? ' :'" . , ..
.
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Ra,tionale for selection of · , locations. • . 1
Brl.l~swick '\
I and Quebe'c' were II
are ~w·~.· bilingu~i' ~ since·' they '
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that the hig:her p.op.~ 'latlon ' an,d number of !Jr.ban centers . ' in
Quehec wou'ld . make .. it' ~asy tOf~d its close ' equivale'nt +n .
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:Po.pulation by Mothe.r · . To,n:gue for' Ca~ada ;a·nd. Provinc.e·g· •. · 1976' Census
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. Moth'er tongue ' " . Canada . . '. New Brunswick , , ,',
. Quebe:c
'T·o.tal ~ 22,992,605 667;250, ~ '; 2 3 4 ~ 4-~-S
. English. 14 , :122,77.0 \' ' 435~ 97'5 B90,-680 . French · " . • 5;887,205 ; '-' .223;780 4,9..iI·9;245 . . Other 2,537~615 "6,.,9.2'5 ' 334,055 . N' o·t :!! t'a ted ( ~ 4 5 , 0.2,.0, 1 0 , 5 r ~ . 11 '0 ; 4 7·0
., ,Note.e, .' Fr~m S'ta't.:i:s t ic~ ',Canad a." ~ 1"976 . "Census 6f . Canada • . . . Minister of :Supply an'd .S·ervices. Ottawa, 1~79.
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' Ne* ' B~u~s,i~kadd ~ue ~lty Qu~bec
Mo t·her tongue.
Tota'l E'ngli.sh
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'Que . city '. . . 6~~. 000 22 ',300 42, 700'"
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apopulatio"n s:ize for: . NBc'ity is: fot the c.it:Y.· not the 'census _ agg~omeration w~icl~ would ' b~ a . 11"f.gher · number. .~u.oiber8 have ',
. been ro·unded . . :. to the nearest· hundred fo' prevent iien~ifica't~on : of Iocation's • .
, In~lud~s ' not stated. . . Note. " Pro'm ·S. tatistics .,.· Can~da. 'Minister of Supply and Services.
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.,197-6 ! Census Ot .tawa, ' 1979' •
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Table 16 ' /.
~. ,
. \ . .' Populcftion b,y,:Mo·t.her Tongue for Towns ' I' , I ' in New Brun9~i:ck "and' ' Q~e, ·bee· . '\
:"-Ne~' .B.run, 'swick " " . I,
Cod,e ~ "
names
/ . NJ!,l
NB2
"",:-Quebec
. ,QI . ' Q2
Q3. Q4'
I '
"
3:000 5. ,4'00
' 1,000 . -. 700
....
2.9.00 '. 2, ioo: ·:
300 400 . . / .
, .
French
700 ~ .. "
.23 . : 400 .06'
5,100 '. 21-,3, sob , .20
"
:,.
. 1,.200 · .~ 41 r', 000 .34
0:. - ,.
'~ ' ,;'
5',300 .06 , 6 ',000
" · .06
, "
~,
~ ." ,
"
. ' . ' '. , ..
.. aThe ::~~tios were:":d lc'ula 'ted us' i~ng '~he actJ'a'l ~e~sus , /n~'?tbers. Note ~. , All· ,nl!l'mes ,of , loc'stions have , been replaced· by c'ode" riames 'and ail ' the , nu~be~s ' ha~e b~en rorinded t~ the ' nearest 'hundr~dto prev~~t ~dent~Eication of t~e 'l~cations.as agreed .with the eth'i ,cs' committee which·, approved t'll'e, d'esign . of .. ,the re·sear~h' . . Ot,her and' not:' st~ted ,columns. ,as' they.' app·e·a.' t:: ·' in',
. the,S~atistfc .· Ciinada tabie . .. .are·~pt repprted here as' they , were not· taken"int;o accoun~ in ' 'the s'election 9£ ' locations; ,
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Appendix J '.
" .-
j, "
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, \
,'- ':,
E.xplana tiona rela i 'ive t'o " : ..
, ,
, . ,
. " the log-linea~ model
ver~atim . from Brown : (1979 ')~ , ~~D~ manqal. .'
" ..
\ . ,
Mul t iwa~,- frequ~ncy ' tab l~s, ~ The ': l 'o,g-Ii,nea r , m~d .. el.
. ', · 1·06
ta'ken '
', . :~ ' ' .'
"P3F analyses', data in .a 'mult;way tS,ble. -' . The purpose" o,f: . , . . . . ' .
. the , andye i e . :1s t o. ob ta it~ ' - a d e 'e c ~ 'i P t io.~ , of the ' r~ la ~'i o· ~sbip'.s
b~tw~eo the fa,~ tor, s of . th~-f~~l~.eit~er ' bYfoimi~g a " lD,ode'l
for the · data : or by testing and , ordeiing the impo:r.-t.ance ~'f
'the ' 'inter'ac t ion's be tween the f ac tor's., , I • The analy~f.'is ba~~~
, 0 , ~. •
- . ', .
that is ., the ', logarHhm of ~ .he . exp~cted , ~ , '
cell
__ . ' . , . " .' I frequency fs writte:n as an . additive funct·:/.on · of: mai'n ef·fect.s -
: . ,... '. " . , " . " - " '"
and a manner
oi'variance model.'- •• (p. 297.)
" , "
, '
"
/ I
~
.. ,u s U'8 1 ' ,- a n a '1 y s is
."
f ' Te~ts of part ial. and marginal '. associ~ation · . fO ,r
subset ' of . ficio~s (B~6wn, 1976).: . , ~
,.,
. ' . . , ' i, _ . , The --tes t .of . any 'ef f e-c t in a log-live.ar ",mod~l .depends 'on
. . Which ' other ·· effe·eta ' are iocl~ded io . themod~i,., Therefor~ n .o .
, '-. II
's.irig'le , :test ;determio'es ,the · re.la,tive importance' of 'an ·ef·fect. "' .. " , . ' '.' . . " .' '. ' . , ' . . -
B,rown (l976) " suggested : the ' use Qf . two .teats ")
marginal and
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pa r.t ia i ' as ~:Oc:I, a tion to s .ereen ~ffe~ts. , ...... ....... :,
.. · ' Th~h:ypot Jhes{.s , tbat the ' partia~", : assoc i a~ion of .·k
l
•
f . . ---f ' h \ ' actors is zetA. 1.s· .a te iH 0: wether . a 'signi~icant· .. . ', . · '~- \':-dif 'ference exists ·betwee·n . the "r ·t-t /~f tw~ ·"lhier· a.rchical lnodet"s ' : .
, . ..:.~ .~, ' . ',.., t' , . _ .... ,' ." ~J<~' - •
--I ~>ne' .1 ·S' the : full ·mOdel.' of ' order k" andihe ' ·ot~. e ·r th,e "model ,
I. , .
. '.
I "
the k-factor spec if i 'ed ' ,thfit differs . · £l· om. l ,t 'l in " tha .t • ., "\ , ' ,'l
'. . ',: '.' . I' i~teraction . · is ; excluded. , , ' i For ' e x·ample. t ,o te.st t 'he' partial . , . ..,
.o j!, . ',' aB!3ociGl 'ti~n of ' A' and 'B ,U , .. e., ·two }act'ors) ', ·the · full second
" . . , ord~r U!'6del' is fit ted' and ' th~n the 'sam'e ' mode'l ",i'th iambda\AB
' . .' . . . ', ~ .... ,
, . , .. . \ .. .' '. .. :'. .
s.et : ,~o .ze.ro ,~ : ~:he d1ffere~e\~ " , t.h~!.:~~es, t~of-f~t is , a test ' of
. · partiaL association. - ' . . ' ..
... The hy·pot'he's{s'·, that; 'the , .marginal. s 'ssQc'iation " -of ' k
factprs ' is " zero.: is :, a testth~t · the "k fa ~ tor In'teraction is' . " ;
z~~o . in the\ ~~tgi~al ' subt~bl~ fo~med'bi the'~ factors ; ({.e.,
sum~ed , over allother~ factors). ' , , For ' exa~~ .. 'to t .est 'the
. in'argi.na~~s.sQc;iation ~f ' A ilDd B · '!two \ '
factors )' t the
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two-way' . Ita'ble ··. _~indexed . · by ' A:' ,a.n.d . R ' 1\S. _c_:.,o:rmed
·----,-----,----:---o-~-~wo-;;;' f.a ctcfr ~riterac.don · is t·es ,ted. I , '.
and the
. '
'-... . . '
The ", tests of . inargina ~ .and partial ·ass·o.eiation c 'an be , "
s imul taneo.us.ly us i~ ' ~o screen the v~ri~os intera~~io~. to
for ' t1i~ , , ' .. .. ~
data , b~'ing used, ~he~h~~\theya~e ~ot necessarYi .or - whether
th.e·,y .are 'ciuestionab .l '~:' " In a · s 'e 'cond' pass of ' P3-i the mpde:!-'s
~I ", .
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• I • ' .
• J
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contafn' all .the nec~ssary,~ ~ . 1
.. , :r ,e levan i: terms, and that '
, ' . , ' ,J , ; " ;' combinations o,f the ' ques'tion'nable , terms , can be, 'defined" and ,
, \' ' " ,,',., " , ' ' . ' " ; ' ; , \ ,
! ;' an' approp~ia~e model (oI: ' m~del:"s) fo~\fiedat~ 'can' be ' ra'p~dly I ,t .,. ,' ",,' ' " ; '" '
, "
'\ 'cho,~~n. ' This ' is 'further ' ~~:iaiJin~d" in
pp. 303-305). ',I" , ,' j I ' ~
Brown (1976.
,', J , j
eac,h
thi~
t,: i I,
i' , ' ;
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, Condit ionning / '~~~ec t'~~n ,l o~ a ' higher-way 'tabie. " " d ' ~, i'; :" " ,
, r ' I
" .
va r a b les ::::: y ,tA~Z't.r: ::~::~>;:::::~ ::~a.:a: ::: p • ::~ . • , , " 1- " , -
i accomplished bl SPSCUY1~g/ a cat~g-o'r1c,~1 'N'aiiable
,':18 used ' to ./ q;atify, I'tie cas~s: .. w~ call 'this I ' ~,
TIONING the ' tab: es, on ,an , ap~itio~af ~ar111bl" e ~I\" 30 ,~') . , 11
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