thinking about psychology: the science of mind...
TRANSCRIPT
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Thinking About Psychology:
The Science of Mind and
Behavior 2e
Charles T. Blair-Broeker
Randal M. Ernst
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Cognitive Domain
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Memory Chapter
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Information
Processing
Module 22
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Introduction
Module 22: Information Processing
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Information Processing Model
• Encoding – process of getting
information into the memory system
• Storage – retention encoded information
over time
• Retrieval – process of getting
information out of memory storage
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Information Processing Model
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Encoding:
Automatic and
Effortful Processing
Module 22: Information Processing
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Automatic Processing
• Unconscious process of encoding
certain information without effort
• Usually information on space, time and
frequency
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Effortful Processing
• Encoding that requires attention and
conscious effort
• The best processing is through rehearsal
or practice.
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Automatic/Effortful Processing
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Rehearsal
• Conscious repetition of information
• The more time spent on rehearsal, the
more information one tends to
remember.
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Rehearsal and Retention
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Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
• German philosopher who did early memory studies with nonsense syllables
• Developed the forgetting curve, also called the “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”
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Overlearning
• Continuing to rehearse even after it has
been memorized
• Rehearsing past the point of mastery
• Helps ensure information will be
available even under stress
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Encoding:
Serial Position Effect
Module 22: Information Processing
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Serial Position Effect
• Tendency to recall the first and last
items in a list more easily
• Primacy effect – the ability to recall
information near the beginning of a list
• Recency effect – the ability to recall
information near the end of a list
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Primacy/Recency Effect
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Encoding:
Spacing of Rehearsal
Module 22: Information Processing
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Spacing Effect
• The tendency for distributed practice to
yield better retention than is achieved
through massed practice
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Distributed Practice
• Spreading rehearsal out in several
sessions separated by period of time
• Usually enhances the recalling of the
information
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Massed Practice
• Putting all rehearsal together in one long
session (cramming)
• Not as effective as distributed practice
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Encoding:
Encoding Meaning
Module 22: Information Processing
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Semantic Encoding
• Encoding of meaning
• Encoding information that is meaningful
enhances recall
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Semantic Encoding
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Acoustic Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
sounds of the information
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Acoustic Encoding
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Visual Encoding
• Encoding information based on the
images of the information
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Visual Encoding
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Self-Reference Effect
• Enhanced semantic encoding of
information that is personally relevant
• Making information meaningful to a
person by making it relevant to one’s
life
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Encoding:
Encoding Imagery
Module 22: Information Processing
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Encoding Imagery
• Visual images easily encode
• Especially extremely positive or
negative images
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Encoding:
Mnemonic Devices
Module 22: Information Processing
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Mnemonic Device
• A memory trick or technique
• “Every good boy does fine” to
remember the notes on the lines of the
scale
• “People say you could have odd lots of
good years” as a way to remember how
to spell “psychology”
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Method of Loci
• Mnemonic device in which you
associate items you want to remember
with imaginary places
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Peg-Word System
• Mnemonic device in which you
associate items you want to remember
with a list of words already you have
already memorized
• Goal is to visualize the items to
remember with the items on the pegs
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Peg Word System
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Encoding:
Organizing
Information
Module 22: Information Processing
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Chunking
• Organizing information into meaningful
units
• More information can be encoded if
organized into meaningful chunks.
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Chunking
Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.
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Chunking
Take ten seconds to memorize the above line of letters.
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Chunking
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Storage
Module 22: Information Processing
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Three Storage Systems
• Three distinct storage systems :
– Sensory Memory
– Short-Term Memory (includes
Working Memory)
– Long-Term Memory
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Storage:
Sensory Memory
Module 22: Information Processing
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Sensory Memory
• Brief, initial coding of sensory
information in the memory system
– Iconic store – visual information
– Echoic store – sound information
• Information held just long enough to
make a decision on its importance
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Storage:
Short-Term Memory
Module 22: Information Processing
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Short-Term Memory
• Part of your memory system that contains information you are conscious aware of before it is stored more permanently or forgotten
• Holds approximately seven, plus or minus two, chunks of information
• Can retain the information as long as it is rehearsed
• Also called “working memory”
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Short-Term Memory
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Storage:
Long-Term Memory
Module 22: Information Processing
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Long-Term Memory
• Relatively permanent and limitless
storehouse of the memory system
• Holds memories without conscious
effort
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Flashbulb Memory
• Vivid, clear memory of an emotionally
significant moment or event
• Can be personal memories or centered
around a shared event
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Storage:
Memory and the
Brain
Module 22: Information Processing
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Long-Term Potentiation
• Increase in a synapse’s firing efficiency
that occurs when the sequence of
neurons that represents a particular
memory fires repeatedly
• Believed to be the neural basis of
learning and memory
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Storage:
Explicit and Implicit
Memories
Module 22: Information Processing
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Explicit Memory
• Memory of facts and experiences
• Processed through the hippocampus
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Explicit Memories
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Explicit Memories
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Implicit Memory
• Memory of skills and procedures
• Processed through the cerebellum
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Implicit Memories
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Implicit Memories
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Memory and the Hippocampus
• Damage to the hippocampus would
result in the inability to form new
explicit memories, but the ability to
remember the skills of implicit
memories
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Memory and the Hippocampus
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Retrieval
Module 22: Information Processing
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Retrieval
• The process of getting information out
of memory storage
• Two forms of retrieval
– Recall
– Recognition
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Recall
• Type of retrieval in which you must
search for information that you
previously stored
• Essay, fill-in-the-blank, and short
answer test questions test recall
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Recognition
• Type of retrieval in which must identify
items learned earlier
• Multiple choice and matching test
questions test recognition
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Retrieval
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Retrieval: Context
Module 22: Information Processing
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Context Effect
• Enhanced ability to retrieve information
when you are in an environment similar
to the one in which you encoded the
information
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Context Effect
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Retrieval:
State Dependency
Module 22: Information Processing
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State Dependent Memory
• Enhanced ability to retrieve information
when you are in the same physical and
emotional state you were in when you
encoded the information
• The retrieval state is congruent with the
encoding state
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The End