theories of development
DESCRIPTION
Theories of Development. How each theory describes childhood development. Application of each theory to: Language development Pro and Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Parenting Styles. Theories. COGNITIVE Theory – Piaget LEARNING Theory – Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-Bandura - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Mental Processes andhow they develop
Make a list of what you think aremental processes
Memory
Language Development
Reading
Writing
Perception
Thinking
Reasoning
Mathematical skills
counting
Problemsolving
How we understand the world
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology
He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world
Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Mental Processes andhow they develop
Make a list of what you think aremental processes
Memory
Language Development
Reading
Writing
Perception
Thinking
Reasoning
Mathematical skills
counting
Problemsolving
How we understand the world
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology
He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world
Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Make a list of what you think aremental processes
Memory
Language Development
Reading
Writing
Perception
Thinking
Reasoning
Mathematical skills
counting
Problemsolving
How we understand the world
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology
He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world
Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Memory
Language Development
Reading
Writing
Perception
Thinking
Reasoning
Mathematical skills
counting
Problemsolving
How we understand the world
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology
He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world
Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology
He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world
Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information
stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes
More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation
+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful
This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo
This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships
A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal
SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages
PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget
CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called
FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Mainly reflex responses
Little evidenceof thinking processes
Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort
0-8m 8m+
Object permanencedevelops
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo
7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method
Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos
findings Why explanation is given for the
difference in findings
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning
MAN
WOMAN
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic
There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Which beaker contains the most water
Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being
egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully
Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated
EG Concrete thought
Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give
birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip
Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand
This is a puppy
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred
Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk
rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo
TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
p66 penguin
STAGES
Development may be more gradual
Each stage may not be as distinct
as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but
not another
Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
p66 penguin
PIAGETrsquoS TESTS
Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect
not the theory itself
Children may not have understood the tests
Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding
and has had many practicalapplications in education and
parenting
Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering
he used verydetailed observation
techniques andreporting methods
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas
Learning is not just about having information pumped into you
We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding
Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-
Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -
Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo
All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow
We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip
If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo
Make notes on his procedurefindings
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING
What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour
Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)
EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult
= =
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another
These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing
Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others
Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour
Disruptive behaviour brings attention
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid
differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)
After a while parents give less attention to babbling
This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds
Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time
The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds
Imitation is also rewarded
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children develop language despite a lack of attention
Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2
The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans
Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience
A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour
Ignores the role of biological maturation
Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to
SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people
ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent
Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Human Development Social Learning Theory
Key study Bandura (1961)
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation
This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by
watching others
2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The participants
72 children (Stanford University nursery school)
36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Method - an experiment
There were three conditions 24 children in each condition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was
rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was
punished 3 Control condition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
What happened then1 Children viewed male or female
adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll
2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll
3 Children were observed playing
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
IMITATION - the children in the rewarded
condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo
Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION
(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded
However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers
Role of the media reinforces gender differences
Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)
Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from
examples (cognition)
Children do imitate their parents
Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most
hear
Children can extract grammatical rules
Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo
This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural
They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Scientific method
of investigating language development
But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess
Pioneering prompted further
research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents
The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo
Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished
It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours
Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them
Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id
2 The Ego
3 The Superego
bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Ego
SuperegoId
The Mindrsquos manager
Innate Urges Morals
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo
The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo
The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large
The ego balances the id with the superego
hellipyour personalityrsquos
manager
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Stage Age Erogenos Zone
Conflict Effects of
FixationOral 0-18
monthsMouth Weaning from
breast or bottle
Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm
Anal 18 mos ndash
3 yrs
Anus Toilet
Training
Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)
Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome
Oedipal Complex
Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)
Latency 6 yrs ndash
puberty
None Interacting w same sex peers
Being Asexual
Genital Puberty ndash
Adult
Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories
Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them
BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent
Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying
Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego
BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals
There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better
morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests
BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development
Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
A reciprocal emotionalrelationship
Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together
ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)
bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying
Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs
Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one
1
2
3
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY
5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life
6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base
7
The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children
The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)
bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation
Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964
Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another
The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture
KeyStudy
APFCC it
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood
Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves
1048715
These arethe criticalepisodes
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)
1048715
Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant
Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns
1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration
Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to
mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps
seeking contact
The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715
The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715
Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Children have an innate need for
warm continuousrelationship
If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse
effects on emotional social and cognitive development
If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into
psychopathy or depression
Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition
Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn
language acquisition