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Theories of Development. How each theory describes childhood development. Application of each theory to: Language development Pro and Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Parenting Styles. Theories. COGNITIVE Theory – Piaget LEARNING Theory – Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-Bandura - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

TRANSCRIPT

Page 1: Theories of Development

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Mental Processes andhow they develop

Make a list of what you think aremental processes

Memory

Language Development

Reading

Writing

Perception

Thinking

Reasoning

Mathematical skills

counting

Problemsolving

How we understand the world

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology

He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world

Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 2: Theories of Development

Mental Processes andhow they develop

Make a list of what you think aremental processes

Memory

Language Development

Reading

Writing

Perception

Thinking

Reasoning

Mathematical skills

counting

Problemsolving

How we understand the world

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology

He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world

Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 3: Theories of Development

Make a list of what you think aremental processes

Memory

Language Development

Reading

Writing

Perception

Thinking

Reasoning

Mathematical skills

counting

Problemsolving

How we understand the world

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology

He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world

Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 4: Theories of Development

Memory

Language Development

Reading

Writing

Perception

Thinking

Reasoning

Mathematical skills

counting

Problemsolving

How we understand the world

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology

He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world

Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 5: Theories of Development

Jean Piaget (1896-1980) was one of the 20th centuries most influential researchers in the area of developmental psychology

He recognized there was a difference between infant child and adult understanding of the world

Infants have simple concepts of the world and develop more complex concepts as they get older

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 6: Theories of Development

Infants have simple lsquoSCHEMASrsquo ndash a package of information

stored in memory eg sucking amp grasping basicreflexes

More complex schemas are developed throughASSIMILATION ndash making sense of a new situation

+ACCOMODATION - Adjusting an existing schema

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 7: Theories of Development

Play is very important in providing the opportunity to develop new schemasThe type of play-things that present challenges are very useful

This type of learning iscalled lsquodiscovery learningrsquo

This allows the child to acquire many conceptssuch as numbers shapes size spatial relationships

A childrsquos innate (genetic) ability AND the environment they are born into are important

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 8: Theories of Development

Task research the internetchildrenrsquos toy shops and make a list of lsquodiscovery learningrsquo toys

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 9: Theories of Development

Piaget came up with 4 stages of development these stages are universal

SENSORIMOTOR 0-2yrs Stages

PREOPERATIONAL 2-7yrs Piaget

CONCRETE OPERATIONS 7-11yrs Called

FORMAL OPERATIONS 11+ FOr

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 10: Theories of Development

Mainly reflex responses

Little evidenceof thinking processes

Child deals with the world throughsensations eg crying noise comfort

0-8m 8m+

Object permanencedevelops

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 11: Theories of Development

2-4 YRS ndash Preconceptual thinkingbullStart to use objects to represent anotherbullAttribute motives to objectsbullUnable to see a situation from anotherrsquos point of view ndash Childrenassume others seefeel the same as the child does This is known as EGOCENTRISM

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 12: Theories of Development

2-4yrs children pick what they see not whatthe doll seeslsquoEgocentrismrsquo

7 yrs consistentlypick what the dollSeesChild is able to lsquoDecentrersquo

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 13: Theories of Development

Task P40 ndash Hughes replicated Piagetrsquos study using a different method

Make notes on the method he used What did he find How does this compare to Piagetrsquos

findings Why explanation is given for the

difference in findings

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 14: Theories of Development

Child tends to judge situations on appearance alone without logical reasoning

MAN

WOMAN

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 15: Theories of Development

Child can deal with logic but only if it is real (Concrete) not abstract eg simple arithmetic

There are number of tests aimed to see whether children apply logic or judge on appearance these are called lsquoConservationrsquo tests

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 16: Theories of Development

16 of U7rsquos in Piagetrsquos test correctlyidentified that the rowshad equal numbersof marbles

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 17: Theories of Development

Replications of Piagetrsquos test found that when a Teddy interfered with the marbles60 of U7rsquos conserved This suggests that seeing the researcher interfere implies that there will be a difference in numbers because the researcher intentionallyinterferesShowing the teddy unintentionally makes the children focus on the test ratherthan the intention ndash Therefore children can conserve earlier than Piaget originallyassumed

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 18: Theories of Development

Which beaker contains the most water

Piaget found that U7rsquos cannot conserve because they do not yetuse logical thought

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 19: Theories of Development

A child who can lsquoconserversquo shows A period of lsquoDECENTRINGrsquo ndash not being

egocentric eg completing the mountains task successfully

Being able to take more than one feature of a situation into account at one time

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 20: Theories of Development

Children demonstrate an advanced ability to think using language

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 21: Theories of Development

Children demonstrate ABSTRACT thinking ndash using concepts that cannot be demonstrated

EG Concrete thought

Abstract thought This is a puppy it is a mammal Mammals give

birth to live babies and have backboneshelliphellip

Abstract thinking enables us to think up complicated ideas without having to see the concretepractical issues at first hand

This is a puppy

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 22: Theories of Development

Children demonstrate an ability to think about the possible consequences of situations that have not actually occurred

Imagine if you werehelliphellip What would it be like if dogs could talk

rsaquo They would say lsquowoofrsquo (children in earlier stages)rsaquo They would say lsquowhy did you have to have kidsrsquo

TEST Where would you put a third eye amp why

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 23: Theories of Development

p66 penguin

STAGES

Development may be more gradual

Each stage may not be as distinct

as Piaget proposed some succeed in one test but

not another

Too much emphasis onthe role of individualdiscovery ndash ignoresthe role of others

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 24: Theories of Development

p66 penguin

PIAGETrsquoS TESTS

Improvements in the tests showedchildren develop the tested abilitiesearlier than Piaget suggested ndash soPerhaps the timings are incorrect

not the theory itself

Children may not have understood the tests

Piagetrsquos work made a significantcontribution to our understanding

and has had many practicalapplications in education and

parenting

Piagetrsquos researchwas pioneering

he used verydetailed observation

techniques andreporting methods

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 25: Theories of Development

Write a report detailing the practical applications that Piagetrsquos theory has in terms ofrsaquo Parentsrsaquo Teachersrsaquo Play Opportunites

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 26: Theories of Development

Parents teachers amp carers need to understand that young children think differently from older children and need to see practical demonstrations to understand new ideas

Learning is not just about having information pumped into you

We learn by constructing our own understanding of the world

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 27: Theories of Development

Children should have access to play objects that are designed to shape understanding

Conversations with children are very important in shaping their understanding

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 28: Theories of Development

COGNITIVE Theory ndash Piaget LEARNING Theory ndash Skinner SOCIAL LEARNING Theory-

Bandura PSYCHODYNAMIC Theory -

Freud ATTACHMENT Theory - Bowlby

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 29: Theories of Development

Frederick Skinner (1904 ndash 1990) was a highly influential American Psychologist He was the founder of a psychological theory called lsquoBEHAVIOURISMrsquo (also known as lsquoLEARNING THEORYrsquo

All behaviour is learned and our behaviour develops through the consequences that follow

We are shaped by our environment ndash products of what happens to us

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 30: Theories of Development

If behaviour is rewarded we are likely to repeat ithellip

If our behaviour is lsquoREINFORCEDrsquo it makes it more likely that we willrepeat that behaviour

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 31: Theories of Development

Skinner researched his theory by using rats and pigeons He found that they learned to press a lever that offered them food and learned to avoid a lever that punished them He gradually trained them to distinguish between the colours of lever too using a method that is called the lsquoSkinner Boxrsquo

Make notes on his procedurefindings

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 32: Theories of Development

Skinner called this learning by reinforcement (reward) OPERANT CONDITIONING

What happens when a child accidentally dropsher spoon

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 33: Theories of Development

Positive reinforcement = rewarding we are likely to repeat this behaviour

Negative reinforcement = unpleasant we learn to avoid this

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 34: Theories of Development

Punishment is the opposite of reinforcement and has the result of blocking behaviour whilst reinforcement strengthens it

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 35: Theories of Development

Child rearing Prosocial amp Antisocial behaviour Gender roles Language development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 36: Theories of Development

Close contact between child amp career is rewarding food is rewarding as it is associated with close contact the child becomes attached to the carer as they are positively reinforced the carer becomes attached to the child as they in turn are positively reinforced (child stops cryingsmilescoorsquos)

EG a child with a soiled nappy is uncomfortable ndash the carer changes the nappy and the child is relieved this reinforcement is associated with the presence of an adult

= =

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 37: Theories of Development

Helpful behaviour intended to benefit another

These types of behaviours develop because they are encouraged

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 38: Theories of Development

Some antisocial behaviours bring direct rewards eg stealing

Some are reinforced by lsquorespectrsquo from others

Parents may reinforce aggressive behaviour

Disruptive behaviour brings attention

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 39: Theories of Development

Boys are praised for assertive behaviour Girls are praised for more caring behaviour Girls amp Boys receive differential treatment BUT some parents take great care to avoid

differentiating treatment yet gender differences still remain ndash this suggests biological factors must be considered

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 40: Theories of Development

Infant is rewarded by gaining attention for early vocalisations (babbling)

After a while parents give less attention to babbling

This motivates the child to vary the babbling and they may accidentally produce more recognisable sounds

Again the child gains reward (attention) and again this reduces over time

The child modifies the sounds until lsquoSHAPINGrsquo process results in recognisable sounds

Imitation is also rewarded

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 41: Theories of Development

Children develop language despite a lack of attention

Shaping should take a long time but there is rapid development after age 2

The theory assumes imitation without reinforcement would NOT result in learning this does not appear to be the case

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 42: Theories of Development

Well supported by scientific research albeit on non-humans

Ignores the role of cognition (mental processes) assumes we are shaped by our experiences and have no free will in choosing what we experience

A powerful and plausible account of the development of human behaviour

Ignores the role of biological maturation

Behaviour can be learned even if itrsquos not rewarded

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 43: Theories of Development

Differs from Skinners Learning theory in that it recognises the importance of cognition ndash we are not lsquopassiversquo learners we use mental processes(cognitions) to select what we attend to

SLT proposes that we learn throughrsaquo Observationrsaquo Modelling (imitation) our behaviour on othersrsaquo Reinforcement (direct and indirect)

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 44: Theories of Development

Observing behaviour and imitating it even when it is not rewarded ndash learning from other people

ParentsSiblingsPeersTeachersMedia

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 45: Theories of Development

Antisocial behaviour can be learned through observation eg Parent hitting parent

Child may be rewarded for antisocial behaviour eg Becoming the centre of attention

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 46: Theories of Development

Human Development Social Learning Theory

Key study Bandura (1961)

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 47: Theories of Development

Can aggressive behaviour be learned by observation

This was the study that triggered the TV violence debate

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 48: Theories of Development

1 List two behaviours you think might be learned by

watching others

2 List two behaviours you think could not be learned in this way

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 49: Theories of Development

The participants

72 children (Stanford University nursery school)

36 boys amp 36 girls age range 3yrs ndash 5 frac12 yrs

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 50: Theories of Development

Method - an experiment

There were three conditions 24 children in each condition

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 51: Theories of Development

The THREE CONDITIONS 1 Aggressive behaviour was

rewarded 2 Aggressive behaviour was

punished 3 Control condition

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 52: Theories of Development

What happened then1 Children viewed male or female

adult behaving aggressively to a Bobo doll

2 Children were then left to play in a room that contained the Bobo doll

3 Children were observed playing

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 53: Theories of Development

IMITATION - the children in the rewarded

condition (1) AND the control condition (3) imitated many of the physical and verbal aggressive behaviours

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 54: Theories of Development

Condition (2)the lsquopunished conditionrsquo

Children spent more time playing with the toys (dolls etc) also more time doing nothing

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 55: Theories of Development

The conclusion Learning can take place by observationthis is called lsquovicarious learningrsquo Children extracted the COGNITION

(mental representation) that behaviour would be punished in condition 2 and that aggressive behaviour was ok (control condition) or rewarded

However observational learning cannot be the whole answer there are individual differences (culture personalitygenes)

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 56: Theories of Development

Children are rewardedpunished for behaving in gender appropriate ways by parent amp peers

Role of the media reinforces gender differences

Role of models to imitate reinforces gender differences

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 57: Theories of Development

3 year old children were observed by their parentsplaying with girls and boys toys They found thatFathers disapproved of boys playing with girl toys(a minority of fathers though)

Whilst adding evidence to the role of learning fromOthers ndash Social Learning theory cannot be the wholeexplanation as to why gender differences occur

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 58: Theories of Development

Adds further detail to the learning explanation of language it addsrsaquo Modellingrsaquo Extraction of rules about language from

examples (cognition)

Children do imitate their parents

Accents are strongly influenced by that which they most

hear

Children can extract grammatical rules

Run ndash runnedMouse - mouses

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 59: Theories of Development

Children responded withlsquoWugsrsquo

This showed that childrenhad extracted the rule formaking words plural

They could not have heard the word lsquowugrsquo before so theywere NOT imitating insteadThey were extracting a Cognitive rule or lsquoschemarsquo

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 60: Theories of Development

Scientific method

of investigating language development

But children acquire language at a speed that suggests a genetic predisposition rather than a gradual learning peocess

Pioneering prompted further

research Provides a good account for some language acquisition eg accents

The stages in which language is developed are UNIVERSAL ndash we would not expect this if SLT was the whole answer

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 61: Theories of Development

A plausible well supported account of developmentThis theory can be applied to a wide range of behavioursTakes into account lsquocognitionrsquo

Focuses too much on SOCIAL learning and the role of othersand ignores individual lsquodiscoveryrsquo learning that Piaget proposedDoes not take into account the role of genetics and maturation

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 62: Theories of Development

Parents should becareful about what behaviours arerewardedpunished

It is easy to reinforce antisocialand undesirable behaviours

Parents need to be careful oftheir own behaviours so the childdoes not copy them

Parent should avoid Contradictory behaviour

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 63: Theories of Development

Freud believed that the human personality is organized through three major systems1 The Id

2 The Ego

3 The Superego

bullFreudrsquos Freudrsquos Theory ndash Theory ndash development development is influenced is influenced by by unconscious unconscious motivationsmotivations

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 64: Theories of Development

Ego

SuperegoId

The Mindrsquos manager

Innate Urges Morals

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 65: Theories of Development

ldquoThe sole function of the id is to provide for the immediate discharge of quantities of excitation that are released in the organism by internal or external stimulationrdquo

The id focuses on the pleasure principle--relief from tension

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 66: Theories of Development

The Superego ldquois the moral or judicial branch of personalityrdquo

The id focuses upon the pleasure principle the ego on the reality principle and the superego on what is ideal ndash the morality principle

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 67: Theories of Development

The ego focuses upon the transactions between the person and the world at large

The ego balances the id with the superego

hellipyour personalityrsquos

manager

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 68: Theories of Development

Stage Age Erogenos Zone

Conflict Effects of

FixationOral 0-18

monthsMouth Weaning from

breast or bottle

Smoking gum chewing nail biting overeating drinking sarcasm

Anal 18 mos ndash

3 yrs

Anus Toilet

Training

Perfectionist (anal retentive) rebellious or destructive (anal expulsive)

Phallic 3 - 6 yrs Genitals Overcome

Oedipal Complex

Castration Anxiety struggle w authority (M) penis envy flirtiness (F) mate attraction preoccupation (M OR F)

Latency 6 yrs ndash

puberty

None Interacting w same sex peers

Being Asexual

Genital Puberty ndash

Adult

Genitals Establishing intmate relationships w opposite sex -------------

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 69: Theories of Development

The first theory of development ground breakingThe first theory to focus on the importance of childhood experiences shaping our developmentThe importance of the unconscious was recognised which may help explaincertain behaviours such as repressed memories

Unfalsifiable ndash we cannot prove or disprove this theory as it cannot betested vie scientific methodssome of his proposals are highly implausible eg Oedipus complexhe based his theory on a narrow sample of patients and did not studyChildrenThe sexual nature of hi theory may be due to the era in which he developed his theory ndash a Victorian age of high sexual repression

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 70: Theories of Development

Freudrsquos theory is supported by Bowlbyrsquos theory of attachment which describes attachment to a parent happening during early feeding (oral stage) where the infant associates the pleasure of feeding with the person that feeds them

BUT ndash there is evidence that infants do not necessarily attach to the feeder rather attachment in a maturational process

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 71: Theories of Development

Freud suggested moral belief are acquired by the superego during the phallic stage when the child begins to identify with the same sex parent

Freud explained individual differences in moral behaviour down to moral beliefs of parents varying

Moral behaviour is also influenced by the strength of the individuals id amp superego

BUT ndash Freud ignored the role of everyone but the father ndash boys who donrsquot have fathers still develop morals

There is no evidence that woman are morally weakerStudies show warm supportive fathers have better

morally developed sons rather than fathers who are feared

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 72: Theories of Development

Freud proposed that during the Phallic stagethe child identifies with the same sex parent ndashThere is evidence that chilren often grow upwith their parentrsquos interests

BUT children brought up without a same sexparent still display gender differences

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 73: Theories of Development

Implies that the role of the parents is vital to healthy development

Also implies that parents should try and avoid conflict during breastfeedingweaning amp toilet training

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 74: Theories of Development

A reciprocal emotionalrelationship

Depends on interaction rather thanjust two people being together

ldquoA close emotional relationship betweentwo persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximityrdquoShaffer (1993)

bullProximitybullSeparation anxietybullPleasure when reunitedbullGeneral orientation towards primary caregiverMaccoby (1980)

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 75: Theories of Development

Babies are born with lsquoSOCIAL RELEASERSrsquo actions thatrelease a social response in adults such as smiling or crying

Attachment behaviour is RECIPROCAL (2 way) ndash mothers ampCaregivers are pre-programmed to respond to infantrsquos needs

Attachment occurs at 7months synchronised with crawling Before that the baby cannot move far from the carer A physical lsquostay closersquo mechanism is replaced by a psychological one

1

2

3

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 76: Theories of Development

4The bond made with the main carer is very special amp differentFrom all other attachments Infants are most attached to the Primary caregiver - MONOTROPY

5 The first attachment serves as an INTERNAL WORKINGMODEL that is the basis of all expectations and rules regardingRelationships in later life

6Babies use the attachment figure as a SECURE BASE fromWhich they can explore If attachment is poor exploration will not occur amp the child will not move far from its base

7

The consequences of poor attachment are DIRE and possiblyIrreversible

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 77: Theories of Development

Formed the basis of much research intothe care of children

The Theory has important practical applicationsparticularly regarding deprivationprivation and Day Care

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 78: Theories of Development

bullAttachment may not be the lsquotemplatersquo for futurerelationships correlations are quite low (Main amp Weston 1981)

bull Some infants may just be better at forming relationsthan others ndash where there s a correlation

Attachment may not be MONOTROPIC (Schaffer amp Emersonrsquos 1964

Glasgow study) Most babies attach to more than one person Some psychologists believe that no one attachment is more important than another

The evolutionary approach involves us making a judgement about attachment AFTER the fact (post-hoc) any behaviour can be explained in this way it is difficult to prove

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 79: Theories of Development

bull From these studies Ainsworth observed 3 different types of attachment behaviour(later Main amp Soloman added a fourth type ndash lsquoDisorganisedrsquo where infants did notfit into any category amp showed a confusing mixture

KeyStudy

APFCC it

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 80: Theories of Development

Not all babies have optimal attachment relationships Individual differences in both infancy and adulthood

Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation Ainsworthrsquos Strange Situation10487151 Mother and baby in room alone10487152 Stranger enters10487153 Mother leaves but stranger stays10487154 Mother returns stranger leaves10487155 Mother leaves again10487156 Stranger enters10487157 Mother returns stranger leaves

1048715

These arethe criticalepisodes

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 81: Theories of Development

Three Attachment Patterns1048715The Secure Pattern (~60)

1048715

Secure1048715AnxiousResistant1048715AnxiousAvoidant

Distressed when mother leaves1048715Seeks proximity when mother returns

1048715Soothed by contact with mum resumes exploration

Extremely distressed when motherleaves alternates between clinging to

mother and resisting contact Not soothed by contact shows anger and stiffness but keeps

seeking contact

The AResistant Pattern (~15) 1048715

The AAvoidant Pattern (~25) 1048715

Little overt distress when motherleaves (but may show physiological signs of distress)Avoids or ignores her when she returns1048715shows indifference to or dislike of contact

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 82: Theories of Development

Children have an innate need for

warm continuousrelationship

If the main bond is broken in early yearsthis will have adverse

effects on emotional social and cognitive development

If many separations are experienced detachmentamp dispair may persist infuture life amp develop into

psychopathy or depression

Research showed that maternal deprivationof this kind can have the following effectsbull bed wetting (enuresis)bull physical underdevelopment (deprivation dwarfism)bull depressionbull intellectual retardationbullinability to make relationships affectionless psychpathy

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 83: Theories of Development

What circumstances affect a childrsquos recovery

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 84: Theories of Development

Relationships with others ability to form attachments ability to learn

language acquisition

Page 85: Theories of Development