themes in indian history 1

PART I

THEME ONE 1BRICKS, BEADS AND BONESThe Harappan Civilisation

THEME TWO 28KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNSEarly States and Economies(c.600 BCE-600 CE)

THEME THREE 53KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASSEarly Societies(c. 600 BCE-600 CE)

THEME FOUR 82THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGSCultural Developments(c. 600 BCE-600 CE)

PART II*

THEME FIVE

THROUGH THE EYES OF TRAVELLERS:Perceptions of Society(c. tenth to seventeenth centuries)

THEME SIX

BHAKTI –SUFI TRADITIONS:Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional Texts(c. eighth to eighteenth centuries)

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○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○ ○

/book_publishing/NEW BOOK 2007/class12/histry/1.pdf




THEME SEVEN

AN IMPERIAL CAPITAL: VIJAYANAGARA(c. fourteenth to sixteenth centuries)

THEME EIGHT

PEASANTS, ZAMINDARS AND THE STATE:Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire(c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries)

THEME NINE

KINGS AND CHRONICLES:The Mughal Courts(c. sixteenth-seventeenth centuries)

PART III*

THEME TEN

COLONIALISM AND THE COUNTRYSIDE:Exploring Official Archives

THEME ELEVEN

REBELS AND THE RAJ:1857 Revolt and its Representations

THEME TWELVE

COLONIAL CITIES:Urbanisation, Planning and Architecture

THEME THIRTEEN

MAHATMA GANDHI AND THENATIONALIST MOVEMENT:Civil Disobedience and Beyond

THEME FOURTEEN

UNDERSTANDING PARTITION:Politics, Memories, Experiences

THEME FIFTEEN

FRAMING THE CONSTITUTION:The Beginning of a New Era

*Parts II and III will follow

1

Bricks, Beads and BonesThe Harappan Civilisation

THEME

ONE

The Harappan seal (Fig.1.1) is possibly the mostdistinctive artefact of the Harappan or Indus valleycivilisation. Made of a stone called steatite, sealslike this one often contain animal motifs and signsfrom a script that remains undeciphered. Yet weknow a great deal about the lives of the people wholived in the region from what they left behind –their houses, pots, ornaments, tools and seals – inother words, from archaeological evidence. Let ussee what we know about the Harappan civilisation,and how we know about it. We will explore howarchaeological material is interpreted and howinterpretations sometimes change. Of course, thereare some aspects of the civilisation that are as yetunknown and may even remain so.

Terms, places, timesThe Indus valley civilisation is also called the Harappan culture.Archaeologists use the term “culture” for a group of objects,distinctive in style, that are usually found together within a specificgeographical area and period of time. In the case of the Harappanculture, these distinctive objects include seals, beads, weights, stoneblades (Fig. 2.2) and even baked bricks. These objects were foundfrom areas as far apart as Afghanistan, Jammu, Baluchistan (Pakistan)and Gujarat (Map 1).

Named after Harappa, the first site where this unique culture wasdiscovered (p. 6), the civilisation is dated between c. 2600 and1900 BCE. There were earlier and later cultures, often called EarlyHarappan and Late Harappan, in the same area. The Harappancivilisation is sometimes called the Mature Harappan culture todistinguish it from these cultures.

Fig. 1.1A Harappan seal

Fig. 1.2Beads, weights, blades

THEMES IN INDIAN HISTORY2

Map 1Some importantMature Harappan sitesSketch map not to scale

Manda

Harappa

Banawali

Rakhigarhi

Mitathal

Ganweriwala

Kot Diji

ChanhudaroAmriBalakot

Mohenjodaro

Sutkagendor

Dholavira

Lothal

Nageshwar Rangpur

Kalibangan

Jhelum

Chenab

Rav

i

Indu

s

Yam

unaG

an

ga

Chambal

Sab

arm

ati

Arabian Sea

Mahi

Narmada

Sutlej

1. BeginningsThere were several archaeological cultures in theregion prior to the Mature Harappan. These cultureswere associated with distinctive pottery, evidence ofagriculture and pastoralism, and some crafts.Settlements were generally small, and there werevirtually no large buildings. It appears that therewas a break between the Early Harappan and theHarappan civilisation, evident from large-scaleburning at some sites, as well as the abandonmentof certain settlements.

2. Subsistence StrategiesIf you look at Maps 1 and 2 you will notice that theMature Harappan culture developed in some of theareas occupied by the Early Harappan cultures.These cultures also shared certain common elementsincluding subsistence strategies. The Harappans atea wide range of plant and animal products, includingfish. Archaeologists have been able to reconstructdietary practices from finds of charred grains andseeds. These are studied by archaeo-botanists, whoare specialists in ancient plant remains. Grains

Early and MatureHarappan cultures

Look at these f igures for thenumber of settlements in Sindand Cholistan (the desert areaof Pakistan bordering the TharDesert).

SIND CHOLISTAN

Total number 106 239of sites

Early Harappan 52 37sites

Mature 65 136Harappan sites

Mature Harappan 43 132settlements onnew sites

Early Harappan 29 33sites abandoned

You will find certainabbreviations, related todates, in this book.

BP stands for BeforePresent

BCE stands for BeforeCommon Era

CE stands for the CommonEra. The present year is2007 according to thisdating system.

c. stands for the Latinword circa and means“approximate.”

3

found at Harappan sites includewheat, barley, lentil, chickpeaand sesame. Millets are foundfrom sites in Gujarat. Finds ofrice are relatively rare.

Animal bones found at Harappansites include those of cattle, sheep,goat, buffalo and pig. Studiesdone by archaeo-zoologists or zoo-archaeologists indicate that theseanimals were domesticated.Bones of wild species such asboar, deer and gharial arealso found. We do not knowwhether the Harappans huntedthese animals themselves orobtained meat from other huntingcommunities. Bones of fish andfowl are also found.

2.1 Agricultural technologies

While the prevalence ofagriculture is indicated by findsof grain, it is more difficult toreconstruct actual agricultural practices. Wereseeds broadcast (scattered) on ploughed lands?Representations on seals and terracotta sculptureindicate that the bull was known, andarchaeologists extrapolate from this that oxenwere used for ploughing. Moreover, terracottamodels of the plough have been found at sites inCholistan and at Banawali (Haryana).Archaeologists have also found evidence of aploughed field at Kalibangan (Rajasthan),associated with Early Harappan levels (see p. 20).The field had two sets of furrows at right angles toeach other, suggesting that two different cropswere grown together.

Archaeologists have also tried to identify thetools used for harvesting. Did the Harappans usestone blades set in wooden handles or did they usemetal tools?

Most Harappan sites are located in semi-aridlands, where irrigation was probably required foragriculture. Traces of canals have been found atthe Harappan site of Shortughai in Afghanistan, butnot in Punjab or Sind. It is possible that ancient

Discuss...Are there any similarities ordifferences in the distributionof settlements shown on Maps1 and 2?

Fig. 1.3A terracotta bull

BRICKS, BEADS AND BONES

Map 2Areas of Early Harappanoccupation

Sketch map not to scale

AMRI-NAL

Arabian Sea

DAMBSADAAT

Indu

s

KOTDIJI

SISWAL


Do you think thesetools could have been usedfor harvesting?

Fig. 1.5Reservoir at DholaviraNote the masonry work.

Archaeologists use present-day analogies to tryand understand what ancient artefacts were usedfor. Mackay was comparing present-day quernswith what he found. Is this a useful strategy?

Discuss...What is the evidence used byarchaeologists to reconstructdietary practices?

Fig. 1.4Copper tools

Fig. 1.6Saddle quern

Source 1

canals silted up long ago. It is also likely that waterdrawn from wells was used for irrigation. Besides,water reservoirs found in Dholavira (Gujarat) mayhave been used to store water for agriculture.

How artefacts are identified

Processing of food required grinding equipment as wellas vessels for mixing, blending and cooking. These weremade of stone, metal and terracotta. This is an excerptfrom one of the earliest reports on excavations atMohenjodaro, the best-known Harappan site:

Saddle querns … are found in considerable numbers… and they seem to have been the only means in usefor grinding cereals. As a rule, they were roughly madeof hard, gritty, igneous rock or sandstone and mostlyshow signs of hard usage. As their bases are usuallyconvex, they must have been set in the earth or inmud to prevent their rocking. Two main types havebeen found: those on which another smaller stone waspushed or rolled to and fro, and others with which asecond stone was used as a pounder, eventually makinga large cavity in the nether stone. Querns of the formertype were probably used solely for grain; the secondtype possibly only for pounding herbs and spices formaking curries. In fact, stones of this latter type aredubbed “curry stones” by our workmen and our cookasked for the loan of one from the museum for use inthe kitchen.

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Further Excavations atMohenjodaro, 1937.

5

How is the Lower Towndifferent from the Citadel?

3. MohenjodaroA Planned Urban Centre

Perhaps the most unique feature of the Harappancivilisation was the development of urban centres.Let us look at one such centre, Mohenjodaro,more closely. Although Mohenjodaro is the mostwell-known site, the first site to be discoveredwas Harappa.

The settlement is divided into two sections, onesmaller but higher and the other much larger but

Fig. 1.7Layout of Mohenjodaro


metres


The plight of HarappaAlthough Harappa was thefirst site to be discovered, itwas badly destroyed by brickrobbers. As early as 1875,Alexander Cunningham, thefirst Director-General of theArchaeo log ica l Survey o fIndia (ASI), often called thefather of Indian archaeology,no ted tha t the amounto f b r i ck t aken f rom theanc ien t s i te was enoughto l ay b r i ck s fo r “abou t100 mi les” o f the ra i lwayl ine be tween L ahore andMultan. Thus, many of theancient structures at the sitewere damaged. In contrast,Mohenjodaro was far betterpreserved.

lower. Archaeologists designate these as the Citadeland the Lower Town respectively. The Citadel owesits height to the fact that buildings were constructedon mud brick platforms. It was walled, whichmeant that it was physically separated from theLower Town.

The Lower Town was also walled. Several buildingswere built on platforms, which served as foundations.It has been calculated that if one labourer movedroughly a cubic metre of earth daily, just to put thefoundations in place it would have required fourmillion person-days, in other words, mobilisinglabour on a very large scale.

Consider something else. Once the platforms werein place, all building activity within the city wasrestricted to a fixed area on the platforms. So itseems that the settlement was first planned andthen implemented accordingly. Other signs ofplanning include bricks, which, whether sun-driedor baked, were of a standardised ratio, where thelength and breadth were four times and twice theheight respectively. Such bricks were used at allHarappan settlements.

3.1 Laying out drainsOne of the most distinctive features of Harappancities was the carefully planned drainage system. Ifyou look at the plan of the Lower Town you will noticethat roads and streets were laid out along anapproximate “grid” pattern, intersecting at rightangles. It seems that streets with drains were laidout first and then houses built along them. Ifdomestic waste water had to flow into the streetdrains, every house needed to have at least one wallalong a street.

CitadelsWhile most Harappan settlements have a small highwestern part and a larger lower eastern section, there arevariations. At sites such as Dholavira and Lothal (Gujarat),the entire settlement was fortified, and sections within thetown were also separated by walls. The Citadel withinLothal was not walled off, but was built at a height.

Fig. 1.8A drain in MohenjodaroNotice the huge opening of thedrain.

7

3.2 Domestic architectureThe Lower Town at Mohenjodaro provides examplesof residential buildings. Many were centred on acourtyard, with rooms on all sides. The courtyardwas probably the centre of activities such as cookingand weaving, particularly during hot and dryweather. What is also interesting is an apparentconcern for privacy: there are no windows in thewalls along the ground level. Besides, the mainentrance does not give a direct view of the interioror the courtyard.

Every house had its own bathroom paved withbricks, with drains connected through the wall tothe street drains. Some houses have remains ofstaircases to reach a second storey or the roof. Manyhouses had wells, often in a room that could bereached from the outside and perhaps used bypassers-by. Scholars have estimated that the totalnumber of wells in Mohenjodaro was about 700.

The most ancientsystem yet discovered

About the drains, Mackaynoted: “It is certainly the mostcomplete ancient system as yetdiscovered.” Every house wasconnected to the street drains.The main channels were madeof bricks set in mortar and werecovered with loose bricks thatcould be removed for cleaning.In some cases, limestone wasused for the covers. Housedrains first emptied into a sumpor cesspit into which solidmatter settled while waste waterflowed out into the street drains.Very long drainage channelswere provided at intervals withsumps for cleaning. It is awonder of archaeology that“little heaps of material, mostlysand, have frequently beenfound lying alongside drainagechannels, which shows … thatthe debris was not alwayscarted away when the drainwas cleared”.

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, Early IndusCivilisation, 1948.

Drainage systems were notunique to the larger cities,but were found in smallersettlements as well. At Lothalfor example, while houses werebuilt of mud bricks, drains weremade of burnt bricks.

Fig. 1.9This is an isometric drawing of alarge house in Mohenjodaro.There was a well in room no 6.

Where is the courtyard? Where are the twostaircases? What is the entrance to the house like?


Source 2


3.3 The CitadelIt is on the Citadel that wefind evidence of structuresthat were probably used forspecial public purposes.These include the warehouse– a massive structure ofwhich the lower brickportions remain, while theupper portions, probablyof wood, decayed longago – and the Great Bath.

The Great Bath was alarge rectangular tank in acourtyard surrounded by acorridor on all four sides.There were two flights ofsteps on the north andsouth leading into the tank,which was made watertightby setting bricks on edgeand using a mortar ofgypsum. There were roomson three sides, in one ofwhich was a large well.Water from the tank flowedinto a huge drain. Across alane to the north lay asmaller building witheight bathrooms, four oneach side of a corridor,with drains from eachbathroom connecting to adrain that ran along thecorridor. The uniqueness ofthe structure, as well asthe context in which itwas found (the Citadel,with several distinctivebuildings), has led scholars

to suggest that it was meant for some kind of a specialritual bath.

Fig. 1.10Plan of the Citadel

Discuss...Which of the architecturalfeatures of Mohenjodaroindicate planning?

Are there other structures on the Citadel apart fromthe warehouse and the Great Bath?

9

4. Tracking Social Differences4.1 BurialsArchaeologists generally use certain strategies tofind out whether there were social or economicdifferences amongst people living within a particularculture. These include studying burials. You areprobably familiar with the massive pyramids ofEgypt, some of which were contemporaneous withthe Harappan civilisation. Many of these pyramidswere royal burials, where enormous quantities ofwealth was buried.

At burials in Harappan sites the dead weregenerally laid in pits. Sometimes, there weredifferences in the way the burial pit was made – insome instances, the hollowed-out spaces were linedwith bricks. Could these variations be an indicationof social differences? We are not sure.

Some graves contain pottery and ornaments,perhaps indicating a belief that these could be usedin the afterlife. Jewellery has been found in burialsof both men and women. In fact, in the excavationsat the cemetery in Harappa in the mid-1980s, anornament consisting of three shell rings, a jasper(a kind of semi-precious stone) bead and hundredsof micro beads was found near the skull of a male.In some instances the dead were buried with coppermirrors. But on the whole, it appears that theHarappans did not believe in burying precious thingswith the dead.

4.2 Looking for “luxuries”Another strategy to identify social differences is tostudy artefacts, which archaeologists broadlyclassify as utilitarian and luxuries. The first categoryincludes objects of daily use made fairly easily outof ordinary materials such as stone or clay. Theseinclude querns, pottery, needles, flesh-rubbers (bodyscrubbers), etc., and are usually found distributedthroughout settlements. Archaeologists assumeobjects were luxuries if they are rare or made fromcostly, non-local materials or with complicatedtechnologies. Thus, little pots of faience (a materialmade of ground sand or silica mixed with colourand a gum and then fired) were probably consideredprecious because they were difficult to make.

The situation becomes more complicatedwhen we find what seem to be articles of daily

Fig. 1.11A copper mirror


Fig. 1.12A faience pot


use, such as spindle whorls made of rare materialssuch as faience. Do we classify these as utilitarianor luxuries?

If we study the distribution of such artefacts, wefind that rare objects made of valuable materialsare generally concentrated in large settlements likeMohenjodaro and Harappa and are rarely found inthe smaller settlements. For example, miniature potsof faience, perhaps used as perfume bottles, are foundmostly in Mohenjodaro and Harappa, and there arenone from small settlements like Kalibangan. Goldtoo was rare, and as at present, probably precious –all the gold jewellery found at Harappan sites wasrecovered from hoards.

5. Finding Out About CraftProduction

Locate Chanhudaro on Map 1. This is a tinysettlement (less than 7 hectares) as compared toMohenjodaro (125 hectares), almost exclusivelydevoted to craft production, including bead-making,shell-cutting, metal-working, seal-making andweight-making.

The variety of materials used to make beads isremarkable: stones like carnelian (of a beautiful redcolour), jasper, crystal, quartz and steatite; metalslike copper, bronze and gold; and shell, faience andterracotta or burnt clay. Some beads were made oftwo or more stones, cemented together, some of stonewith gold caps. The shapes were numerous – disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, barrel-shaped,segmented. Some were decorated by incising orpainting, and some had designs etched onto them.

Discuss...What are the modes ofdisposal of the dead prevalentat present? To what extent dothese represent socialdifferences?

Hoards are objects keptcarefully by people, often insidecontainers such as pots. Suchhoards can be of jewellery ormetal objects saved for reuseby metalworkers. If for somereason the original owners donot retrieve them, they remainwhere they are left till somearchaeologist finds them.

Fig. 1.13A tool and beads

11

Techniques for making beads differed accordingto the material. Steatite, a very soft stone, was easilyworked. Some beads were moulded out of a pastemade with steatite powder. This permitted making avariety of shapes, unlike the geometrical forms madeout of harder stones. How the steatite micro beadwas made remains a puzzle for archaeologistsstudying ancient technology.

Archaeologists’ experiments have revealed that thered colour of carnelian was obtained by firing theyellowish raw material and beads at various stagesof production. Nodules were chipped into roughshapes, and then finely flaked into the final form.Grinding, polishing and drilling completed theprocess. Specialised drills have been found atChanhudaro, Lothal and more recently at Dholavira.

If you locate Nageshwar and Balakot on Map 1,you will notice that both settlements are near thecoast. These were specialised centres for makingshell objects – including bangles, ladles andinlay – which were taken to other settlements.Similarly, it is likely that finished products (suchas beads) from Chanhudaro and Lothal were takento the large urban centres such as Mohenjodaroand Harappa.

5.1 Identifying centres of productionIn order to identify centresof craft production,archaeologists usually lookfor the following: rawmaterial such as stonenodules, whole shells, copperore; tools; unfinishedobjects; rejects and wastematerial. In fact, waste isone of the best indicatorsof craft work. For instance,if shell or stone is cut tomake objects, then piecesof these materials will bediscarded as waste at theplace of production.

Fig. 1.14PotterySome of these can be seen in theNational Museum, Delhi or in thesite museum at Lothal.

Discuss...Should the stone artefactsillustrated in the chapter beconsidered as utilitarianobjects or as luxuries? Arethere any that may fall intoboth categories?


Fig. 1.15A terracotta figurine


Sometimes, larger waste pieces were used up tomake smaller objects, but minuscule bits wereusually left in the work area. These traces suggestthat apart from small, specialised centres, craftproduction was also undertaken in large cities suchas Mohenjodaro and Harappa.

6. Strategies for ProcuringMaterials

As is obvious, a variety of materials was used forcraft production. While some such as clay werelocally available, many such as stone, timber andmetal had to be procured from outside the alluvialplain. Terracotta toy models of bullock carts suggestthat this was one important means of transportinggoods and people across land routes. Riverine routesalong the Indus and its tributaries, as well as coastalroutes were also probably used.

6.1 Materials from the subcontinent and beyond

The Harappans procured materials for craftproduction in various ways. For instance, theyestablished settlements such as Nageshwar andBalakot in areas where shell was available. Othersuch sites were Shortughai, in far-off Afghanistan,near the best source of lapis lazuli, a blue stonethat was apparently very highly valued, and Lothalwhich was near sources of carnelian (from Bharuchin Gujarat), steatite (from south Rajasthan and northGujarat) and metal (from Rajasthan).

Another strategy for procuring raw materials mayhave been to send expeditions to areas such as theKhetri region of Rajasthan (for copper) and southIndia (for gold). These expeditions establishedcommunication with local communities. Occasionalfinds of Harappan artefacts such as steatite microbeads in these areas are indications of such contact.There is evidence in the Khetri area for whatarchaeologists call the Ganeshwar-Jodhpura culture,with its distinctive non-Harappan pottery andan unusual wealth of copper objects. It is possiblethat the inhabitants of this region supplied copperto the Harappans.

Fig.1.16Copper and bronze vessels

13

6.2 Contact with distant landsRecent archaeological finds suggest that copper wasalso probably brought from Oman, on the south-eastern tip of the Arabian peninsula. Chemicalanalyses have shown that both the Omani copperand Harappan artefacts have traces of nickel,suggesting a common origin. There are other tracesof contact as well. A distinctive type of vessel, alarge Harappan jar coated with a thick layer of blackclay has been found at Omani sites. Such thickcoatings prevent the percolation of liquids. We donot know what was carried in these vessels, but itis possible that the Harappans exchanged thecontents of these vessels for Omani copper.

Mesopotamian texts datable to the thirdmillennium BCE refer to copper coming froma region called Magan, perhaps a name forOman, and interestingly enough copper found at

Fig. 1.17A Harappan jar found in Oman


Map 3The Harappan Civilisation and West Asia


MediterraneanSea

RedSea

MESOPOTAMIA

Arabian Sea

Uruk

Ur

DILMUN

CaspianSea Altyn Depe

TURAN

Shahr-i-Sokhta

Tepe Yahya

Sutkagendor

MELUHHA

Harappa

LothalMAGAN

Rasal’ Janayz


Mesopotamian sites alsocontains traces of nickel.Other archaeologicalfinds suggestive of long-distance contacts includeHarappan seals, weights,dice and beads. In thiscontext, it is worth notingthat Mesopotamian texts

mention contact with regions named Dilmun(probably the island of Bahrain), Magan andMeluhha, possibly the Harappan region. Theymention the products from Meluhha: carnelian,lapis lazuli, copper, gold, and varieties of wood.A Mesopotamian myth says of Meluhha: “May yourbird be the haja-bird, may its call be heard inthe royal palace.” Some archaeologists think thehaja-bird was the peacock. Did it get this name

from its call? It is likely thatcommunication with Oman,

Bahrain or Mesopotamia wasby sea. Mesopotamian textsrefer to Meluhha as aland of seafarers. Besides,we find depictions of shipsand boats on seals.

Fig. 1.18This is a cylinder seal, typical ofMesopotamia, but the humped bullmotif on it appears to be derivedfrom the Indus region.

Fig. 1.19The round “Persian Gulf” seal foundin Bahrain sometimes carriesHarappan motifs. Interestingly,local “Dilmun” weights followedthe Harappan standard.

Fig. 1.20Seal depicting a boat

Discuss...What were the possible routesfrom the Harappan region toOman, Dilmun andMesopotamia?

15

7. Seals, Script, Weights7.1 Seals and sealingsSeals and sealings were used to facilitate long-distance communication. Imagine a bag of goodsbeing sent from one place to another. Its mouth wastied with rope and on the knot was affixed some wetclay on which one or more seals were pressed,leaving an impression. If the bag reached withits sealing intact, it meant that it had not beentampered with. The sealing also conveyed the identityof the sender.

7.2 An enigmatic scriptHarappan seals usually have a line of writing,probably containing the name and title of the owner.Scholars have also suggested that the motif(generally an animal) conveyed a meaning to thosewho could not read.

Most inscriptions are short, the longest containingabout 26 signs. Although the script remainsundeciphered to date, it was evidently notalphabetical (where each sign stands for a vowel ora consonant) as it has just too many signs –somewhere between 375 and 400. It is apparent thatthe script was written from right to left as someseals show a wider spacing on the right and crampingon the left, as if the engraver began working fromthe right and then ran out of space.

Consider the variety of objects on which writinghas been found: seals, copper tools, rims of jars,copper and terracotta tablets, jewellery, bone rods,even an ancient signboard! Remember, there mayhave been writing on perishable materials too. Couldthis mean that literacy was widespread?

7.3 WeightsExchanges were regulated by a precise system ofweights, usually made of a stone called chert andgenerally cubical (Fig. 1.2), with no markings. The

Fig. 1.22A sealing from Ropar

How many seals areimpressed on this piece of clay?

Fig. 1.21Letters on an ancient signboard

Discuss...What are some of the present-day methods used for long-distance exchange of goods?What are their advantagesand problems?



lower denominations of weights were binary (1, 2, 4,8, 16, 32, etc. up to 12,800), while the higherdenominations followed the decimal system. Thesmaller weights were probably used for weighingjewellery and beads. Metal scale-pans have alsobeen found.

8. Ancient AuthorityThere are indications of complex decisions beingtaken and implemented in Harappan society. Takefor instance, the extraordinary uniformity ofHarappan artefacts as evident in pottery (Fig. 1.14),seals, weights and bricks. Notably, bricks, thoughobviously not produced in any single centre, were ofa uniform ratio throughout the region, from Jammuto Gujarat. We have also seen that settlements werestrategically set up in specific locations for variousreasons. Besides, labour was mobilised for makingbricks and for the construction of massive wallsand platforms.

Who organised these activities?

8.1 Palaces and kings

If we look for a centre of power or for depictions ofpeople in power, archaeological records provide noimmediate answers. A large building found atMohenjodaro was labelled as a palace byarchaeologists but no spectacular finds wereassociated with it. A stone statue was labelled andcontinues to be known as the “priest-king”. This isbecause archaeologists were familiar withMesopotamian history and its “priest-kings” and havefound parallels in the Indus region. But as we willsee (p.23), the ritual practices of the Harappancivilisation are not well understood yet nor are thereany means of knowing whether those who performedthem also held political power.

Some archaeologists are of the opinion thatHarappan society had no rulers, and that everybodyenjoyed equal status. Others feel there was no singleruler but several, that Mohenjodaro had a separateruler, Harappa another, and so forth. Yet othersargue that there was a single state, given thesimilarity in artefacts, the evidence for plannedsettlements, the standardised ratio of brick size, andthe establishment of settlements near sources of raw

Discuss...Could everybody in Harappansociety have been equal?

Fig. 1.23A “priest-king”

17

material. As of now, the last theory seems the mostplausible, as it is unlikely that entire communitiescould have collectively made and implemented suchcomplex decisions.

9. The End of the CivilisationThere is evidence that by c. 1800 BCE most of the MatureHarappan sites in regions such as Cholistan had beenabandoned. Simultaneously, there wasan expansion of population into newsettlements in Gujarat, Haryana andwestern Uttar Pradesh.

In the few Harappan sites thatcontinued to be occupied after 1900BCE there appears to have been atransformation of material culture,marked by the disappearance of thedistinctive artefacts of the civilisation– weights, seals, special beads.Writing, long-distance trade, andcraft specialisation also disappeared.In general, far fewer materials wereused to make far fewer things. Houseconstruction techniques deterioratedand large public structures were nolonger produced. Overall, artefactsand settlements indicate a rural wayof life in what are called “LateHarappan” or “successor cultures”.

What brought about thesechanges? Several explanations havebeen put forward. These range fromclimatic change, deforestation,excessive floods, the shifting and/or drying up ofrivers, to overuse of the landscape. Some of these“causes” may hold for certain settlements, but theydo not explain the collapse of the entire civilisation.

It appears that a strong unifying element, perhapsthe Harappan state, came to an end. This isevidenced by the disappearance of seals, the script,distinctive beads and pottery, the shift from astandardised weight system to the use of localweights; and the decline and abandonment of cities.The subcontinent would have to wait for over amillennium for new cities to develop in a completelydifferent region.


SWAT

LATESISWAL

CEMETERY H

RANGPUR II B-C

JHUKAR

Ind

us

Arabian Sea

Map 4Areas of Late Harappan occupation



Evidence of an “invasion”

Deadman Lane is a narrow alley, varying from 3 to 6 feet in width … At the pointwhere the lane turns westward, part of a skull and the bones of the thorax andupper arm of an adult were discovered, all in very friable condition, at a depth of4 ft 2 in. The body lay on its back diagonally across the lane. Fifteen inches to thewest were a few fragments of a tiny skull. It is to these remains that the lane owesits name.

FROM JOHN MARSHALL, Mohenjodaro and the Indus Civilisation, 1931.

Sixteen skeletons of people with the ornaments that they were wearing when theydied were found from the same part of Mohenjodaro in 1925.

Much later, in 1947, R.E.M. Wheeler, then Director-General of the ASI, tried tocorrelate this archaeological evidence with that of the Rigveda, the earliest knowntext in the subcontinent. He wrote:

The Rigveda mentions pur, meaning rampart, fort or stronghold. Indra, the Aryanwar-god is called puramdara, the fort-destroyer.

Where are – or were – these citadels? It has in the past been supposed that theywere mythical … The recent excavation of Harappa may be thought to havechanged the picture. Here we have a highly evolved civilisation of essentially non-Aryan type, now known to have employed massive fortifications … What destroyedthis firmly settled civilisation? Climatic, economic or political deterioration mayhave weakened it, but its ultimate extinction is more likely to have been completedby deliberate and large-scale destruction. It may be no mere chance that at a lateperiod of Mohenjodaro men, women, and children, appear to have beenmassacred there. On circumstantial evidence, Indra stands accused.

FROM R.E.M. WHEELER, “Harappa 1946”, Ancient India, 1947.

In the 1960s, the evidence of a massacre in Mohenjodaro was questioned by anarchaeologist named George Dales. He demonstrated that the skeletons found at thesite did not belong to the same period:

Whereas a couple of them definitely seem to indicate a slaughter, … the bulk ofthe bones were found in contexts suggesting burials of the sloppiest and mostirreverent nature. There is no destruction level covering the latest period of thecity, no sign of extensive burning, no bodies of warriors clad in armour andsurrounded by the weapons of war. The citadel, the only fortified part of the city,yielded no evidence of a final defence.

FROM G.F. DALES, “The Mythical Massacre at Mohenjodaro”, Expediton, 1964.

As you can see, a careful re-examination of the data can sometimes lead to a reversalof earlier interpretations.

Discuss...What are the similarities and differences between Maps 1, 2 and 4?

Source 3

19

10. Discovering the HarappanCivilisation

So far, we have examined facets of the Harappancivilisation in the context of how archaeologistshave used evidence from material remains topiece together parts of a fascinating history. However,there is another story as well – about howarchaeologists “discovered” the civilisation.

When Harappan cities fell into ruin, peoplegradually forgot all about them. When men andwomen began living in the area millennia later, theydid not know what to make of the strange artefactsthat occasionally surfaced, washed by floods orexposed by soil erosion, or turned up while ploughinga field, or digging for treasure.

10.1 Cunningham’s confusionWhen Cunningham, the first Director-General of theASI, began archaeological excavations in the mid-nineteenth century, archaeologists preferred to usethe written word (texts and inscriptions) as a guideto investigations. In fact, Cunningham’s maininterest was in the archaeology of the Early Historic(c. sixth century BCE-fourth century CE) and laterperiods. He used the accounts left by ChineseBuddhist pilgrims who had visited the subcontinentbetween the fourth and seventh centuries CE to locateearly settlements. Cunningham also collected,documented and translated inscriptions found duringhis surveys. When he excavated sites he tended torecover artefacts that he thought had cultural value.

A site like Harappa, which was not part of theitinerary of the Chinese pilgrims and was not knownas an Early Historic city, did not fit very neatly withinhis framework of investigation. So, althoughHarappan artefacts were found fairly often duringthe nineteenth century and some of these reachedCunningham, he did not realise how old these were.

A Harappan seal was given to Cunningham by anEnglishman. He noted the object, but unsuccessfullytried to place it within the time-frame with whichhe was familiar. This was because he, like manyothers, thought that Indian history began with thefirst cities in the Ganga valley (see Chapter 2). Givenhis specific focus, it is not surprising that he missedthe significance of Harappa.

Fig. 1.24Cunningham’s sketch of the first-known seal from Harappa



Sites, mounds, layersArchaeological sites are formedthrough the production, useand discarding of materialsand structures. When peoplecontinue to live in the sameplace, their constant use andreuse of the landscape resultsin the build up of occupationaldebris, called a mound. Briefor permanent abandonmentresults in alteration of thelandscape by wind or wateractivity and erosion. Occupationsare detected by traces ofancient materials found inlayers, which differ from oneanother in colour, texture andthe artefacts that are foundin them. Abandonment ordesertions, what are called“steri le layers”, can beidentified by the absence ofsuch traces.

Generally, the lowest layersare the oldest and the highestare the most recent. The studyof these layers is calledstratigraphy. Artefacts found inlayers can be assigned tospecific cultural periods andcan thus provide the cultural

sequence for a site.

10.2 A new old civilisationSubsequently, seals were discovered at Harappa byarchaeologists such as Daya Ram Sahni in the earlydecades of the twentieth century, in layers that weredefinitely much older than Early Historic levels. Itwas then that their significance began to be realised.Another archaeologist, Rakhal Das Banerji foundsimilar seals at Mohenjodaro, leading to theconjecture that these sites were part of a singlearchaeological culture. Based on these finds, in 1924,John Marshall, Director -General of the ASI,announced the discovery of a new civilisation in theIndus valley to the world. As S.N. Roy noted inThe Story of Indian Archaeology, “Marshall left Indiathree thousand years older than he had found her.”This was because similar, till-then-unidentifiedseals were found at excavations at Mesopotamiansites. It was then that the world knew not only of anew civilisation, but also of one contemporaneouswith Mesopotamia.

In fact, John Marshall’s stint as Director-Generalof the ASI marked a major change in Indianarchaeology. He was the first professionalarchaeologist to work in India, and brought hisexperience of working in Greece and Crete to thefield. More importantly, though like Cunningham hetoo was interested in spectacular finds, he wasequally keen to look for patterns of everyday life.

Marshall tended to excavate along regularhorizontal units, measured uniformly throughout themound, ignoring the stratigraphy of the site. Thismeant that all the artefacts recovered from the sameunit were grouped together, even if they were foundat different stratigraphic layers. As a result, valuable

Fig. 1.25The stratigraphy of a small moundNotice that the layers are not exactly horizontal.

21

information about the context of these finds wasirretrievably lost.

10.3 New techniques and questionsIt was R.E.M. Wheeler, after he took over as Director-General of the ASI in 1944, who rectified thisproblem. Wheeler recognised that it was necessaryto follow the stratigraphy of the mound ratherthan dig mechanically along uniform horizontallines. Moreover, as an ex-army brigadier, he broughtwith him a military precision to the practiceof archaeology.

The frontiers of the Harappan civilisation havelittle or no connection with present-day nationalboundaries. However, with the partition of thesubcontinent and the creation of Pakistan, the majorsites are now in Pakistani territory. This has spurredIndian archaeologists to try and locate sites in India.An extensive survey in Kutch has revealed a numberof Harappan settlements and explorations in Punjaband Haryana have added to the list of Harappansites. While Kalibangan, Lothal, Rakhi Garhi andmost recently Dholavira have been discovered,explored and excavated as part of these efforts, freshexplorations continue.

Over the decades, new issues have assumedimportance. Where some archaeologists are oftenkeen to obtain a cultural sequence, others try tounderstand the logic underlying the location ofspecific sites. They also grapple with the wealth ofartefacts, trying to figure out the functions thesemay have served.

Since the 1980s, there has also been growinginternational interest in Harappan archaeology.Specialists from the subcontinent and abroad havebeen jointly working at both Harappa andMohenjodaro. They are using modern scientifictechniques including surface exploration to recovertraces of clay, stone, metal and plant and animalremains as well as to minutely analyse every scrapof available evidence. These explorations promise toyield interesting results in the future.

Wheeler at HarappaEarly archaeologists were oftendriven by a sense of adventure.This is what Wheeler wroteabout his experience atHarappa:

It was, I recall, on a warmMay night in 1944 that a fourmiles’ tonga-ride brought meas the newly appointedDirector General of theArchaeological Survey withmy local Muslim officer froma little railway-station labelled“Harappa” along a deepsand track to a small rest-house beside the moonlitmounds of the ancient site.Warned by my anxiouscolleague that we must startour inspection at 5.30 nextmorning and finish by 7.30“after which it would be toohot”, we turned in with thedark figure of the punka-wallacrouched patiently in theentrance and the nightair rent by innumerablejackals in the neighbouringwilderness.

Next morning, punctuallyat 5.30, our little processionstarted out towards the sandyheaps. Within ten minutes Istopped and rubbed my eyesas I gazed upon the tallestmound, scarcely trusting myvision. Six hours later myembarrassed staff and I werestill toiling with picks andknives under the blazing sun,the mad sahib (I am afraid)setting a relentless pace.

FROM R.E.M. WHEELER,My Archaeological Missionto India and Pakistan, 1976.

Discuss...Which of the themes in this chapter would haveinterested Cunningham? Which are the issuesthat have been of interest since 1947?



11. Problems of Piecing Togetherthe Past

As we have seen, it is not the Harappan script thathelps in understanding the ancient civilisation. Rather,it is material evidence that allows archaeologists tobetter reconstruct Harappan life. This material couldbe pottery, tools, ornaments, household objects, etc.Organic materials such as cloth, leather, wood andreeds generally decompose, especially in tropicalregions. What survive are stone, burnt clay (orterracotta), metal, etc.

It is also important to remember that only brokenor useless objects would have been thrown away.Other things would probably have been recycled.Consequently, valuable artefacts that are foundintact were either lost in the past or hoarded andnever retrieved. In other words, such finds areaccidental rather than typical.

11.1 Classifying findsRecovering artefacts is just the beginning of thearchaeological enterprise. Archaeologists thenclassify their finds. One simple principle ofclassification is in terms of material, such as stone,clay, metal, bone, ivory, etc. The second, and morecomplicated, is in terms of function: archaeologistshave to decide whether, for instance, an artefact isa tool or an ornament, or both, or something meantfor ritual use.

An understanding of the function of an artefact isoften shaped by its resemblance with present-daythings – beads, querns, stone blades and pots areobvious examples. Archaeologists also try to identifythe function of an artefact by investigating thecontext in which it was found: was it found in ahouse, in a drain, in a grave, in a kiln?

Sometimes, archaeologists have to take recourseto indirect evidence. For instance, though there aretraces of cotton at some Harappan sites, to find outabout clothing we have to depend on indirectevidence including depictions in sculpture.

Archaeologists have to develop frames of reference.We have seen that the first Harappan seal that wasfound could not be understood till archaeologists hada context in which to place it – both in terms of thecultural sequence in which it was found, and interms of a comparison with finds in Mesopotamia.

23

11.2 Problems of interpretationThe problems of archaeological interpretation areperhaps most evident in attempts to reconstructreligious practices. Early archaeologists thought thatcertain objects which seemed unusual or unfamiliarmay have had a religious significance. These includedterracotta figurines of women, heavily jewelled, somewith elaborate head-dresses. These were regardedas mother goddesses. Rare stone statuary of men inan almost standardised posture, seated with onehand on the knee – such as the “priest-king” – wasalso similarly classified. In other instances,structures have been assigned ritual significance.These include the Great Bath and fire altars foundat Kalibangan and Lothal.

Attempts have also been made to reconstructreligious beliefs and practices by examining seals,some of which seem to depict ritual scenes. Others,with plant motifs, are thought to indicate natureworship. Some animals – such as the one-hornedanimal, often called the “unicorn” – depicted on sealsseem to be mythical, composite creatures. In someseals, a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic”posture, sometimes surrounded by animals, hasbeen regarded as a depiction of “proto-Shiva”, thatis, an early form of one of the major deities ofHinduism. Besides, conical stone objects have beenclassified as lingas.

Many reconstructions of Harappan religion aremade on the assumption that later traditions provideparallels with earlier ones. This is becausearchaeologists often move from the known to theunknown, that is, from the present to the past. Whilethis is plausible in the case of stone querns andpots, it becomes more speculative when we extendit to “religious” symbols.

Let us look, for instance, at the “proto-Shiva” seals.The earliest religious text, the Rigveda (compiled c.1500-1000 BCE) mentions a god named Rudra, whichis a name used for Shiva in later Puranic traditions(in the first millennium CE; see also Chapter 4).However, unlike Shiva, Rudra in the Rigveda isneither depicted as Pashupati (lord of animals ingeneral and cattle in particular), nor as a yogi. Inother words, this depiction does not match thedescription of Rudra in the Rigveda. Is this, then,possibly a shaman as some scholars have suggested?

Fig. 1.26Was this a mother goddess?

A linga is a polished stonethat is worshipped as asymbol of Shiva.

Fig. 1.27A “proto-Shiva” seal



What has been achieved after so many decades ofarchaeological work? We have a fairly good idea ofthe Harappan economy. We have been able to teaseout social differences and we have some idea of howthe civilisation functioned. It is really not clear howmuch more we would know if the script were to bedeciphered. If a bilingual inscription is found,questions about the languages spoken by theHarappans could perhaps be put to rest.

Several reconstructions remain speculative atpresent. Was the Great Bath a ritual structure? Howwidespread was literacy? Why do Harappancemeteries show little social differentiation? Alsounanswered are questions on gender – did womenmake pottery or did they only paint pots (as atpresent)? What about other craftspersons? What werethe terracotta female figurines used for? Very fewscholars have investigated issues of gender in thecontext of the Harappan civilisation and this is awhole new area for future work.

Shamans are men andwomen who claim magicaland healing powers, as wellas an ability to communicatewith the other world.

This is what Mackay, one of theearliest excavators, had to sayabout these stones:

Various small cones madeof lapis lazuli , jasper,chalcedony, and otherstones, most beautifully cutand finished, and less thantwo inches in height, are alsothought to be lingas … on theother hand, i t is just aspossible that they were usedin the board-games …

FROM ERNEST MACKAY, EarlyIndus Civilisation, 1948.

Discuss...What are the aspects ofHarappan economy that havebeen reconstructed fromarchaeological evidence?

Fig. 1.28Gamesmen or lingas?

Fig. 1.29A terracotta cart

25

Timeline 1Major Periods in Early Indian Archaeology

2 million BP Lower Palaeolithic(BEFORE PRESENT)

80,000 Middle Palaeolithic

35,000 Upper Palaeolithic

12,000 Mesolithic

10,000 Neolithic (early agriculturists and pastoralists)

6,000 Chalcolithic (first use of copper)

2600 BCE Harappan civilisation

1000 BCE Early iron, megalithic burials

600 BCE-400 CE Early Historic

Timeline 2Major Developments in Harappan Archaeology

Nineteenth century

1875 Report of Alexander Cunningham on Harappan seal

Twentieth century

1921 M.S. Vats begins excavations at Harappa

1925 Excavations begin at Mohenjodaro

1946 R.E.M. Wheeler excavates at Harappa

1955 S.R. Rao begins excavations at Lothal

1960 B.B. Lal and B.K. Thapar begin excavations at Kalibangan

1974 M.R. Mughal begins explorations in Bahawalpur

1980 A team of German and Italian archaeologists begins surfaceexplorations at Mohenjodaro

1986 American team begins excavations at Harappa

1990 R.S. Bisht begins excavations at Dholavira


(Note: All dates are approximate. Besides, there are wide variations in developments indifferent parts of the subcontinent. Dates indicated are for the earliest evidence of each phase.)


Answer in100-150 words

1. List the items of foodavailable to people inHarappan cities. Identifythe groups who wouldhave provided these.

2. How do archaeologiststrace socio-economicdifferences in Harappansociety? What are thedifferences that theynotice?

3. Would you agree thatthe drainage system inHarappan cities indicatestown planning? Givereasons for your answer.

4. List the materials used tomake beads in theHarappan civilisation.Describe the process bywhich any one kind of beadwas made.

5. Look at Fig. 1.30 anddescribe what you see.How is the body placed?What are the objectsplaced near it? Are thereany artefacts on the body?Do these indicate the sex ofthe skeleton?

Fig. 1.30A Harappan burial

27

Write a short essay (about500 words) on the following:

6. Describe some of the distinctive features ofMohenjodaro.

7. List the raw materials required for craftproduction in the Harappan civilisation anddiscuss how these might have been obtained.

8. Discuss how archaeologists reconstruct the past.

9. Discuss the functions that may have beenperformed by rulers in Harappan society.

Map work

10. On Map 1, use a pencil to circle sites whereevidence of agriculture has been recovered. Markan X against sites where there is evidence of craftproduction and R against sites where rawmaterials were found.

Project (any one)

11. Find out if there are any museums in your town.Visit one of them and write a report on any tenitems, describing how old they are, where theywere found, and why you think they are ondisplay.

12. Collect illustrations of ten things made of stone,metal and clay produced and used at present.Match these with the pictures of the Harappancivilisation in this chapter, and discuss thesimilarities and differences that you find.


If you would like to knowmore, read:Raymond and Bridget Allchin.1997. Origins of a Civilization.Viking, New Delhi.

G.L. Possehl. 2003.The Indus Civilization.Vistaar, New Delhi.

Shereen Ratnagar. 2001.Understanding Harappa.Tulika, New Delhi.

For more information,you could visit:http://www.harappa.com/har/harres0.html


THEME TWO

There were several developments in different parts of thesubcontinent during the long span of 1,500 years followingthe end of the Harappan civilisation. This was also theperiod during which the Rigveda was composed by peopleliving along the Indus and its tributaries. Agricultural

settlements emerged in many parts of thesubcontinent, including north India, theDeccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.Besides, there is evidence of pastoralpopulations in the Deccan and furthersouth. New modes of disposal of the dead,including the making of elaborate stonestructures known as megaliths, emerged incentral and south India from the firstmillennium BCE. In many cases, the deadwere buried with a rich range of iron toolsand weapons.

From c. sixth century BCE, there isevidence that there were other trends as well. Perhapsthe most visible was the emergence of early states, empiresand kingdoms. Underlying these political processes wereother changes, evident in the ways in which agriculturalproduction was organised. Simultaneously, new townsappeared almost throughout the subcontinent.

Historians attempt to understand these developmentsby drawing on a range of sources – inscriptions, texts,coins and visual material. As we will see, this is a complexprocess. You will also notice that these sources do nottell the entire story.

Kings, Farmers and TownsEarEarEarEarEarllllly Sy Sy Sy Sy Stttttatatatatates and Economieses and Economieses and Economieses and Economieses and Economies

(((((c.c.c.c.c. 600 600 600 600 600 BCEBCEBCEBCEBCE-600 600 600 600 600 CECECECECE)))))

Epigraphy is the study ofinscriptions.

1. Prinsep and PiyadassiSome of the most momentous developments in Indianepigraphy took place in the 1830s. This was whenJames Prinsep, an officer in the mint of the EastIndia Company, deciphered Brahmi and Kharosthi,two scripts used in the earliest inscriptions andcoins. He found that most of these mentioned a kingreferred to as Piyadassi – meaning “pleasant tobehold”; there were a few inscriptions which also

THEME

TWO

Fig. 2.1An inscription, Sanchi(Madhya Pradesh),c. second century BCE

29

referred to the king as Asoka, one of the most famousrulers known from Buddhist texts.

This gave a new direction to investigations intoearly Indian political history as European andIndian scholars used inscriptions and textscomposed in a variety of languages to reconstructthe lineages of major dynasties that had ruled thesubcontinent. As a result, the broad contours ofpolitical history were in place by the early decadesof the twentieth century.

Subsequently, scholars began to shift their focusto the context of political history, investigatingwhether there were connections between politicalchanges and economic and social developments. Itwas soon realised that while there were links, thesewere not always simple or direct.

2. The Earliest States2.1 The sixteen mahajanapadasThe sixth century BCE is often regarded as a majorturning point in early Indian history. It is an eraassociated with early states, cities, the growinguse of iron, the development of coinage, etc. Italso witnessed the growth of diverse systems ofthought, including Buddhism and Jainism. EarlyBuddhist and Jaina texts (see also Chapter 4)mention, amongst other things, sixteen statesknown as mahajanapadas. Although the lists vary,some names such as Vajji, Magadha, Koshala,Kuru, Panchala, Gandhara and Avanti occurfrequently. Clearly, these were amongst the mostimportant mahajanapadas.

While most mahajanapadas were ruled by kings,some, known as ganas or sanghas, were oligarchies(p. 30), where power was shared by a number ofmen, often collectively called rajas. Both Mahaviraand the Buddha (Chapter 4) belonged to such ganas.In some instances, as in the case of the Vajji sangha,the rajas probably controlled resources such as landcollectively. Although their histories are often difficultto reconstruct due to the lack of sources, some ofthese states lasted for nearly a thousand years.

Each mahajanapada had a capital city, which wasoften fortified. Maintaining these fortified cities aswell as providing for incipient armies andbureaucracies required resources. From c. sixth

InscriptionsInscriptions are writ ingsengraved on hard surfacessuch as stone, metal orpottery. They usually recordthe achievements, activitiesor ideas of those whocommissioned them andinclude the exploits of kings,or donations made bywomen and men to religiousinstitutions. Inscriptions arevirtually permanent records,some of which carry dates.Others are dated on thebasis of palaeography orstyles of writing, with a fairamount of precision. Forinstance, in c. 250 BCE

the letter “a” was written likethis: . By c. 500 CE, it waswritten like this: .

The earliest inscriptionswere in Prakrit, a name forlanguages used by ordinarypeople. Names of rulers suchas Ajatasattu and Asoka,known from Prakrit texts andinscriptions, have been spelt intheir Prakrit forms in thischapter. You will also findterms in languages such as Pali,Tamil and Sanskrit, whichtoo were used to writeinscriptions and texts. It ispossible that people spoke inother languages as well, eventhough these were not usedfor writing.

Janapada, meaning the landwhere a jana (a people, clan ortribe) sets its foot or settles. Itis a word used in both Prakritand Sanskrit.

KINGS, FARMERS AND TOWNS


century BCE onwards, Brahmanas began composingSanskrit texts known as the Dharmasutras. Theselaid down norms for rulers (as well as for othersocial categories), who were ideally expected to beKshatriyas (see also Chapter 3). Rulers were advisedto collect taxes and tribute from cultivators, tradersand artisans. Were resources also procuredfrom pastoralists and forest peoples? We do notreally know. What we do know is that raids onneighbouring states were recognised as a legitimatemeans of acquiring wealth. Gradually, some statesacquired standing armies and maintained regularbureaucracies. Others continued to depend onmilitia, recruited, more often than not, from thepeasantry.

Oligarchy refers to a form ofgovernment where power isexercised by a group of men.The Roman Republic, aboutwhich you read last year, wasan oligarchy in spite of its name.

Map 1Early states and their capitals

Arabian SeaBay of Bengal

KAMBOJA

GANDHARA

Pushkalavati

Taxila

SHURASENA

MathuraMATSYA

IndraprasthaAhichchhatra

KURUPANCHALA

Kaushambi

CHEDIAVANTI

Ujjayini

ASHMAKA

VATSA

Shravasti

VANGA

Champa

ANGA

Rajir

MAGADHA

VaishaliVAJJI (VRIJJI)Kusinagara

MALLA

Varanasi

KASHIKOSHALA


Which were the areaswhere states and cities weremost densely clustered?

31

2.2 First amongst the sixteen: MagadhaBetween the sixth and the fourth centuries BCE,Magadha (in present-day Bihar) became the mostpowerful mahajanapada. Modern historians explainthis development in a variety of ways: Magadha wasa region where agriculture was especially productive.Besides, iron mines (in present-day Jharkhand) wereaccessible and provided resources for tools andweapons. Elephants, an important component of thearmy, were found in forests in the region. Also, theGanga and its tributaries provided a means of cheapand convenient communication. However, earlyBuddhist and Jaina writers who wrote aboutMagadha attributed its power to the policies ofindividuals: ruthlessly ambitious kings of whomBimbisara, Ajatasattu and Mahapadma Nanda arethe best known, and their ministers, who helpedimplement their policies.

Initially, Rajagaha (the Prakrit name for present-day Rajgir in Bihar) was the capital of Magadha.Interestingly, the old name means “house of theking”. Rajagaha was a fortified settlement, locatedamongst hills. Later, in the fourth century BCE, thecapital was shifted to Pataliputra, present-dayPatna, commanding routes of communication alongthe Ganga.

Discuss...What are the differentexplanations offered by earlywriters and present-dayhistorians for the growth ofMagadhan power?


Fig. 2.2Fortification walls at Rajgir

Why were these walls built?


3. An Early EmpireThe growth of Magadha culminated in the emergenceof the Mauryan Empire. Chandragupta Maurya, whofounded the empire (c. 321 BCE), extended control asfar northwest as Afghanistan and Baluchistan, andhis grandson Asoka, arguably the most famous rulerof early India, conquered Kalinga (present-daycoastal Orissa).

3.1 Finding out about the MauryasHistorians have used a variety of sources toreconstruct the history of the Mauryan Empire.These include archaeological finds, especiallysculpture. Also valuable are contemporary works,such as the account of Megasthenes (a Greekambassador to the court of Chandragupta Maurya),which survives in fragments. Another source thatis often used is the Arthashastra, parts of whichwere probably composed by Kautilya or Chanakya,traditionally believed to be the minister ofChandragupta. Besides, the Mauryas are mentionedin later Buddhist, Jaina and Puranic literature, aswell as in Sanskrit literary works. While these areuseful, the inscriptions of Asoka (c. 272/268-231BCE) on rocks and pillars are often regarded asamongst the most valuable sources.

Asoka was the first ruler who inscribed hismessages to his subjects and officials on stonesurfaces – natural rocks as well as polished pillars.He used the inscriptions to proclaim what heunderstood to be dhamma. This included respecttowards elders, generosity towards Brahmanas andthose who renounced worldly life, treating slavesand servants kindly, and respect for religions andtraditions other than one’s own.

3.2 Administering the empireThere were five major political centres in theempire – the capital Pataliputra and the provincialcentres of Taxila, Ujjayini, Tosali and Suvarnagiri,all mentioned in Asokan inscriptions. I f weexamine the content of these inscriptions, we findvirtually the same message engraved everywhere– from the present-day North West FrontierProvinces of Pakistan, to Andhra Pradesh, Orissaand Uttaranchal in India. Could this vast empirehave had a uniform administrative system?Historians have increasingly come to realise that

Languages and scriptsMost Asokan inscriptions were inthe Prakrit language whilethose in the northwest ofthe subcontinet were in Aramaicand Greek. Most Prakritinscriptions were written in theBrahmi script; however, some, inthe northwest, were written inKharosthi. The Aramaic andGreek scripts were used forinscriptions in Afghanistan.

Fig. 2.3The lion capital

Why is the lion capitalconsidered important today?

33

this is unlikely. The regions included within theempire were just too diverse. Imagine the contrastbetween the hilly terrain of Afghanistan and thecoast of Orissa.

It is likely that administrative control wasstrongest in areas around the capital and theprovincial centres. These centres were carefullychosen, both Taxila and Ujjayini being situatedon important long-distance trade routes, whileSuvarnagiri (literally, the golden mountain) waspossibly important for tapping the gold minesof Karnataka.


Arabian Sea

Bay of Bengal

MansehraShahbazgarhi

Kandahar

Taxila

Kalsi

Topra MeerutBahapur

Bairat

Bhabru

Girnar

Sopara

Ujjayini Sanchi

Nigalisagar RummindeiRampurwaLauriya NandangarhLauriya Araraj

Gujarra

KaushambiAhraura

Sarnath

SahasramPataliputra

Shishupalgarh

JaugadaKALINGA

Sannati

MaskiGavimath

PalkigunduJatinga Rameshwar

SiddapurBrahmagiriNittur

Rajula MandagiriUdegolam

CHOLAS

PANDYAS

KERALAPUTRAS


MAJOR ROCK EDICTS

MINOR ROCK EDICTS

PILLAR INSCRIPTIONS

Map 2Distribution of Asokan inscriptions

Could rulers haveengraved inscriptions in areasthat were not included withintheir empire?


Communication along both land and riverineroutes was vital for the existence of the empire.Journeys from the centre to the provinces could havetaken weeks if not months. This meant arrangingfor provisions as well as protection for those whowere on the move. It is obvious that the army wasan important means for ensuring the latter.Megasthenes mentions a committee with sixsubcommittees for coordinating military activity. Ofthese, one looked after the navy, the second managedtransport and provisions, the third was responsiblefor foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth forchariots and the sixth for elephants. The activitiesof the second subcommittee were rather varied:arranging for bullock carts to carry equipment,procuring food for soldiers and fodder for animals,and recruiting servants and artisans to look afterthe soldiers.

Asoka also tried to hold his empire together bypropagating dhamma, the principles of which, as wehave seen, were simple and virtually universallyapplicable. This, according to him, would ensure thewell-being of people in this world and the next.Special officers, known as the dhamma mahamatta,were appointed to spread the message of dhamma.

3.3 How important was the empire?When historians began reconstructing early Indianhistory in the nineteenth century, the emergenceof the Mauryan Empire was regarded as a majorlandmark. India was then under colonial rule, andwas part of the British empire. Nineteenth andearly twentieth century Indian historians foundthe possibility that there was an empire in earlyIndia both challenging and exciting. Also, some ofthe archaeological finds associated with theMauryas, including stone sculpture, wereconsidered to be examples of the spectacular arttypical of empires. Many of these historians foundthe message on Asokan inscriptions very differentfrom that of most other rulers, suggesting thatAsoka was more powerful and industrious, as alsomore humble than later rulers who adoptedgrandiose titles. So it is not surprising thatnationalist leaders in the twentieth centuryregarded him as an inspiring figure.

What the king’sofficials did

Here is an excerpt from theaccount of Megasthenes:

Of the great officers of state,some … superintend therivers, measure the land, asis done in Egypt, and inspectthe sluices by which water islet out from the main canalsinto their branches, so thatevery one may have anequal supply of it. The samepersons have charge alsoof the huntsmen, and areentrusted with the power ofrewarding or punishing themaccording to their deserts.They collect the taxes, andsuperintend the occupationsconnected with land; as thoseof the woodcutters, thecarpenters, the blacksmiths,and the miners.

Why were officialsappointed to supervise theseoccupational groups?

Discuss...Read the excerpts fromMegasthenes and theArthashastra (Sources 1 and2). To what extent do youthink these texts are useful inreconstructing a history ofMauryan administration?

Source 1

35

Yet, how important was the Mauryan Empire? Itlasted for about 150 years, which is not a very longtime in the vast span of the history of thesubcontinent. Besides, if you look at Map 2, you willnotice that the empire did not encompass the entiresubcontinent. And even within the frontiers of theempire, control was not uniform. By the secondcentury BCE, new chiefdoms and kingdoms emergedin several parts of the subcontinent.

4. New Notions of Kingship4.1 Chiefs and kings in the southThe new kingdoms that emerged in the Deccan andfurther south, including the chiefdoms of the Cholas,Cheras and Pandyas in Tamilakam (the name of theancient Tamil country, which included parts ofpresent-day Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, in additionto Tamil Nadu), proved to be stable and prosperous.

Chiefs and chiefdomsA chief is a powerful man whose position may or maynot be hereditary. He derives support from his kinfolk.His functions may include performing special rituals,leadership in warfare, and arbitrating disputes. Hereceives gifts from his subordinates (unlike kings whousually collect taxes) and often distributes these amongsthis supporters. Generally, there are no regular armiesand officials in chiefdoms.

We know about these states from a variety ofsources. For instance, the early Tamil Sangam texts(see also Chapter 3) contain poems describing chiefsand the ways in which they acquired anddistributed resources.

Many chiefs and kings, including theSatavahanas who ruled over parts of western andcentral India (c. second century BCE-second centuryCE) and the Shakas, a people of Central Asian originwho established kingdoms in the north-western andwestern parts of the subcontinent, derived revenuesfrom long-distance trade. Their social origins wereoften obscure, but, as we will see in the case of theSatavahanas (Chapter 3), once they acquired powerthey attempted to claim social status in a varietyof ways.

Capturing elephantsfor the army

The Arthashastra lays downminute details of administrativeand military organisation. This iswhat i t says about how tocapture elephants:

Guards of elephant forests,assisted by those who rearelephants, those whoenchain the legs ofelephants, those who guardthe boundaries, those wholive in forests, as well as bythose who nurse elephants,shall, with the help of five orseven female elephants tohelp in tethering wild ones,trace the whereabouts ofherds of elephants byfollowing the course of urineand dung left by elephants.

According to Greek sources,the Mauryan ruler had astanding army of 600,000foot-soldiers, 30,000 cavalryand 9,000 elephants. Somehistorians consider theseaccounts to be exaggerated.

Source 2

If the Greek accountswere true, what kinds ofresources do you think theMauryan ruler would haverequired to maintain sucha large army?



4.2 Divine kingsOne means of claiming high status was to identifywith a variety of deities. This strategy is bestexemplified by the Kushanas (c. first century BCE-first century CE), who ruled over a vast kingdomextending from Central Asia to northwest India. Theirhistory has been reconstructed from inscriptions andtextual traditions. The notions of kingship theywished to project are perhaps best evidenced in theircoins and sculpture.

Colossal statues of Kushana rulers have beenfound installed in a shrine at Mat near Mathura(Uttar Pradesh). Similar statues have been found ina shrine in Afghanistan as well. Some historiansfeel this indicates that the Kushanas consideredthemselves godlike. Many Kushana rulers alsoadopted the title devaputra, or “son of god”, possiblyinspired by Chinese rulers who called themselvessons of heaven.

By the fourth century there is evidence of largerstates, including the Gupta Empire. Many of thesedepended on samantas, men who maintainedthemselves through local resources including controlover land. They offered homage and provided militarysupport to rulers. Powerful samantas could becomekings: conversely, weak rulers might find themselvesbeing reduced to positions of subordination.

Histories of the Gupta rulers have beenreconstructed from literature, coins and inscriptions,including prashastis, composed in praise of kings inparticular, and patrons in general, by poets. Whilehistorians often attempt to draw factual informationfrom such compositions, those who composed andread them often treasured them as works of poetry

The Pandya chiefSenguttuvan visits

the forest

This is an excerpt from theSilappadikaram, an epic writtenin Tamil:

(When he visited the forest)people came down themountain, s inging anddancing … just as the defeatedshow respect to the victoriousking, so did they bring gifts –ivory, fragrant wood, fans madeof the hair of deer, honey,sandalwood, red ochre,antimony, turmeric, cardamom,pepper, etc. ... they broughtcoconuts, mangoes, medicinalplants, fruits, onions, sugarcane,flowers, areca nut, bananas, babytigers, lions, elephants, monkeys,bear, deer, musk deer, fox,peacocks, musk cat, wild cocks,speaking parrots, etc. …

Fig. 2.4A Kushana coinObverse: King KanishkaReverse: A deity

How has the king beenportrayed?

Source 3

Why did people bringthese gifts? What would thechief have used these for?

37

rather than as accounts that were literally true. ThePrayaga Prashasti (also known as the Allahabad PillarInscription) composed in Sanskrit by Harishena, thecourt poet of Samudragupta, arguably the mostpowerful of the Gupta rulers (c. fourth century CE),is a case in point.

What are the elements inthe sculpture that suggestthat this is an image of a king?

Discuss...Why do you think kingsclaimed divine status?

In praise of Samudragupta

This is an excerpt from the PrayagaPrashasti:

He was without an antagonist on earth;he, by the overflowing of the multitudeof (his) many good qualities adornedby hundreds of good actions, haswiped off the fame of other kings withthe soles of (his) feet; (he is) Purusha(the Supreme Being), being the causeof the prosperity of the good and thedestruction of the bad (he is)incomprehensible; (he is) one whosetender heart can be captured only bydevotion and humility; (he is)possessed of compassion; (he is) thegiver of many hundred-thousands ofcows; (his) mind has receivedceremonial initiation for the uplift ofthe miserable, the poor, the forlorn andthe suffering; (he is) resplendent andembodied kindness to mankind; (he is)equal to (the gods) Kubera (the god ofwealth), Varuna (the god of theocean), Indra (the god of rains) andYama (the god of death)…

Fig. 2.5Sandstone sculpture of aKushana king

Source 4



5. A Changing Countryside5.1 Popular perceptions of kingsWhat did subjects think about their rulers?Obviously, inscriptions do not provide all the answers.In fact, ordinary people rarely left accounts of theirthoughts and experiences. Nevertheless, historianshave tried to solve this problem by examining storiescontained in anthologies such as the Jatakas andthe Panchatantra. Many of these stories probablyoriginated as popular oral tales that were latercommitted to writing. The Jatakas were written inPali around the middle of the first millennium CE.

One story known as the Gandatindu Jatakadescribes the plight of the subjects of a wicked king;these included elderly women and men, cultivators,herders, village boys and even animals. When theking went in disguise to find out what his subjectsthought about him, each one of them cursed him fortheir miseries, complaining that they were attackedby robbers at night and by tax collectors during theday. To escape from this situation, people abandonedtheir village and went to live in the forest.

As this story indicates, the relationship betweena king and his subjects, especially the ruralpopulation, could often be strained – kingsfrequently tried to fill their coffers by demandinghigh taxes, and peasants particularly found suchdemands oppressive. Escaping into the forestremained an option, as reflected in the Jataka story.Meanwhile, other strategies aimed at increasingproduction to meet growing demand for taxes alsocame to be adopted.

5.2 Strategies for increasing productionOne such strategy was the shift to ploughagriculture, which spread in fertile alluvial rivervalleys such as those of the Ganga and the Kaverifrom c. sixth century BCE. The iron-tippedploughshare was used to turn the alluvial soil inareas which had high rainfall. Moreover, in someparts of the Ganga valley, production of paddy wasdramatically increased by the introduction oftransplantation, although this meant back-breakingwork for the producer.

While the iron ploughshare led to a growth inagricultural productivity, its use was restricted tocertain parts of the subcontinent – cultivators in

Transplantation is used forpaddy cultivation in areaswhere water is plentiful. Here,seeds are first broadcast; whenthe saplings have grown theyare transplanted in waterloggedfields. This ensures a higherratio of survival of saplings andhigher yields.

The Sudarshana(beautiful) lake in Gujarat

Find Girnar on Map 2. TheSudarshana lake was an artificialreservoir. We know aboutit from a rock inscription(c. second century CE) inSanskrit, composed to recordthe achievements of the Shakaruler Rudradaman.

The inscription mentions thatthe lake, with embankments andwater channels, was built by alocal governor during therule of the Mauryas. However,a terrible storm brokethe embankments and watergushed out of the lake.Rudradaman, who was thenruling in the area, claimed tohave got the lake repaired usinghis own resources, withoutimposing any tax on his subjects.

Another inscription on thesame rock (c. fifth century)mentions how one of the rulersof the Gupta dynasty got thelake repaired once again.

Source 5

Why did rulers makearrangements forirrigation?

39

areas which were semi-arid, such as parts of Punjaband Rajasthan did not adopt it till the twentiethcentury, and those living in hilly tracts in the north-eastern and central parts of the subcontinentpractised hoe agriculture, which was much bettersuited to the terrain.

Another strategy adopted to increase agriculturalproduction was the use of irrigation, throughwells and tanks, and less commonly, canals.Communities as well as individuals organised theconstruction of irrigation works. The latter, usuallypowerful men including kings, often recorded suchactivities in inscriptions.

5.3 Differences in rural societyWhile these technologies often led to an increase inproduction, the benefits were very uneven. What isevident is that there was a growing differentiationamongst people engaged in agriculture – stories,especially within the Buddhist tradition, refer tolandless agricultural labourers, small peasants, aswell as large landholders. The term gahapati wasoften used in Pali texts to designate the second andthird categories. The large landholders, as well asthe village headman (whose position was oftenhereditary), emerged as powerful figures, and oftenexercised control over other cultivators. Early Tamilliterature (the Sangam texts) also mentions differentcategories of people living in the villages – largelandowners or vellalar, ploughmen or uzhavar andslaves or adimai. It is likely that these differenceswere based on differential access to land, labourand some of the new technologies. In such asituation, questions of control over land must havebecome crucial, as these were often discussed inlegal texts.

GahapatiA gahapati was the owner, master or head of ahousehold, who exercised control over the women,children, slaves and workers who shared a commonresidence. He was also the owner of the resources –land, animals and other things – that belonged to thehousehold. Sometimes the term was used as a markerof status for men belonging to the urban elite, includingwealthy merchants.

The importance ofboundaries

The Manusmrti is one of thebest-known legal texts of earlyIndia, written in Sanskrit andcompiled between c. secondcentury BCE and c. secondcentury CE. This is what the textadvises the king to do:

Seeing that in the worldcontroversies constantly arisedue to the ignorance ofboundaries, he should …have … concealed boundarymarkers buried – stones,bones, cow’s hair, chaff,ashes, potsherds, dried cowdung, bricks, coal, pebblesand sand. He should alsohave other similar substancesthat would not decay inthe soil buried as hiddenmarkers at the intersectionof boundaries.

Would these boundarymarkers have been adequateto resolve disputes?

Source 6



5.4 Land grants and new rural elitesFrom the early centuries of the Common Era, wefind grants of land being made, many of which wererecorded in inscriptions. Some of these inscriptionswere on stone, but most were on copper plates(Fig. 13) which were probably given as a record ofthe transaction to those who received the land. Therecords that have survived are generally about grantsto religious institutions or to Brahmanas. Mostinscriptions were in Sanskrit. In some cases, andespecially from the seventh century onwards, partof the inscription was in Sanskrit, while the restwas in a local language such as Tamil or Telugu.Let us look at one such inscription more closely.

Prabhavati Gupta was the daughter of one of themost important rulers in early Indian history,Chandragupta II (c. 375-415 CE). She was marriedinto another important ruling family, that of theVakatakas, who were powerful in the Deccan (seeMap 3). According to Sanskrit legal texts, womenwere not supposed to have independent access toresources such as land. However, the inscriptionindicates that Prabhavati had access to land, whichshe then granted. This may have been because shewas a queen (one of the few known from early Indianhistory), and her situation was therefore exceptional.It is also possible that the provisions of legal textswere not uniformly implemented.

The inscription also gives us an idea about ruralpopulations – these included Brahmanas andpeasants, as well as others who were expected toprovide a range of produce to the king or hisrepresentatives. And according to the inscription,they would have to obey the new lord of the village,and perhaps pay him all these dues.

Land grants such as this one have been found inseveral parts of the country. There were regionalvariations in the sizes of land donated – rangingfrom small plots to vast stretches of uncultivatedland – and the rights given to donees (the recipientsof the grant). The impact of land grants is a subjectof heated debate among historians. Some feel thatland grants were part of a strategy adopted by rulinglineages to extend agriculture to new areas. Otherssuggest that land grants were indicative ofweakening political power: as kings were losingcontrol over their samantas, they tried to win allies

How would you classifythe people described in thetext in terms of theiroccupations?

Life in a small village

The Harshacharita is a biographyof Harshavardhana, the ruler ofKanauj (see Map 3), composedin Sanskrit by his court poet,Banabhatta (c. seventh centuryCE). This is an excerpt fromthe text, an extremely rarerepresentation of l i fe in asettlement on the outskirts of aforest in the Vindhyas:

The outskirts being for themost part forest, manyparcels of rice-land, threshingground and arable land werebeing apportioned by smallfarmers … it was mainlyspade culture … owing to thedifficulty of ploughing thesparsely scattered f ieldscovered with grass, with theirfew clear spaces, their blacksoil stiff as black iron …

There were people movingalong with bundles of bark …countless sacks of pluckedflowers, … loads of flax andhemp bundles, quantitiesof honey, peacocks’ tai lfeathers, wreaths of wax,logs, and grass. Village wiveshastened en route forneighbouring villages, allintent on thoughts of sale andbearing on their headsbaskets filled with variousgathered forest fruits.

Source 7

41

An agrahara was land grantedto a Brahmana, who wasusually exempted from payingland revenue and other dues tothe king, and was often given theright to collect these dues fromthe local people.

Discuss...Find out whether ploughagriculture, irrigation andtransplantation are prevalentin your state. If not, are thereany alternative systems inuse?

Source 8

by making grants of land. They also feel that kingstried to project themselves as supermen (as we sawin the previous section) because they were losingcontrol: they wanted to present at least a façade ofpower.

Prabhavati Gupta and thevillage of Danguna

This is what Prabhavati Gupta states in her inscription:

Prabhavati Gupta … commands the gramakutumbinas(householders/peasants l iving in the vi l lage),Brahmanas and others living in the village of Danguna…

“Be it known to you that on the twelfth (lunar day)of the bright (fortnight) of Karttika, we have, in orderto increase our religious merit donated this village withthe pouring out of water, to the Acharya (teacher)Chanalasvamin … You should obey all (his) commands…

We confer on (him) the following exemptions typicalof an agrahara …(this village is) not to be entered bysoldiers and policemen; (it is) exempt from (theobligation to provide) grass, (animal) hides as seats,and charcoal (to touring royal officers); exempt from(the royal prerogative of) purchasing fermenting liquorsand digging (salt); exempt from (the right to) minesand khadira trees; exempt from (the obligation tosupply) flowers and milk; (it is donated) together with(the right to) hidden treasures and deposits (and)together with major and minor taxes …”

This charter has been written in the thirteenth(regnal) year. (It has been) engraved by Chakradasa.

What were the things produced in the village?

Land grants provide some insight into therelationship between cultivators and the state.However, there were people who were often beyondthe reach of officials or samantas: pastoralists,fisherfolk and hunter-gatherers, mobile or semi-sedentary artisans and shifting cultivators.Generally, such groups did not keep detailed recordsof their lives and transactions.



6. Towns and Trade6.1 New citiesLet us retrace our steps back to the urban centresthat emerged in several parts of the subcontinentfrom c. sixth century BCE. As we have seen, many ofthese were capitals of mahajanapadas. Virtually allmajor towns were located along routes ofcommunication. Some such as Pataliputra were onriverine routes. Others, such as Ujjayini, were alongland routes, and yet others, such as Puhar, werenear the coast, from where sea routes began. Manycities like Mathura were bustling centres ofcommercial, cultural and political activity.

6.2 Urban populations:Elites and craftspersons

We have seen that kings and ruling elites lived infortified cities. Although it is difficult to conductextensive excavations at most sites because peoplelive in these areas even today (unlike the Harappancities), a wide range of artefacts have been recoveredfrom them. These include fine pottery bowls anddishes, with a glossy finish, known as Northern BlackPolished Ware, probably used by rich people, andornaments, tools, weapons, vessels, figurines, madeof a wide range of materials – gold, silver, copper,bronze, ivory, glass, shell and terracotta.

The history ofPataliputra

Each city had a history of its own.Pataliputra, for instance,began as a village known asPataligrama. Then, in the fifthcentury BCE, the Magadhanrulers decided to shift theircapital from Rajagaha to thissettlement and renamed it. Bythe fourth century BCE, it wasthe capital of the MauryanEmpire and one of the largestcities in Asia. Subsequently,i ts importance apparent lydeclined. When the Chinesepilgrim Xuan Zang visited thecity in the seventh century CE,he found it in ruins, and with avery small population.

Fig. 2.6The gift of an imageThis is part of an image fromMathura. On the pedestal is aPrakrit inscription, mentioningthat a woman named Nagapiya,the wife of a goldsmith (sovanika)named Dharmaka, installed thisimage in a shrine.

43

By the second century BCE, we find short votiveinscriptions in a number of cities. These mentionthe name of the donor, and sometimes specify his/her occupation as well. They tell us about peoplewho lived in towns: washing folk, weavers, scribes,carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, blacksmiths,officials, religious teachers, merchants and kings.

Sometimes, guilds or shrenis, organisations ofcraft producers and merchants, are mentioned aswell. These guilds probably procured rawmaterials, regulated production, and marketed thefinished product. It is likely that craftspersonsused a range of iron tools to meet the growingdemands of urban elites.


Map 3Some important kingdomsand towns


ARABIAN SEA

BAY OF BENGAL

Taxila

MathuraKanauj

Ujjayini

Bharukachchha

Sopara Paithan

KodumanalPuhar

Dhanyakataka

Shishupalgarh

Chandraketugarh

MahasthanRajgir

Vidisha

Kaushambi

Shravasti

Vaishali

Varanasi Pataliputra

CHOLAS

CHERASPANDYAS

SHAKAS

KUSHANAS

VAKATAKAS

SATAVAHANAS

GUPTAS

Votive inscriptions record giftsmade to religious institutions.

Were there any cities in theregion where the Harappancivilisation flourished in thethird millennium BCE?


6.3 Trade in the subcontinent and beyondFrom the sixth century BCE, land and river routescriss-crossed the subcontinent and extended invarious directions – overland into Central Asia andbeyond, and overseas, from ports that dotted thecoastline – extending across the Arabian Sea to Eastand North Africa and West Asia, and through theBay of Bengal to Southeast Asia and China. Rulersoften attempted to control these routes, possibly byoffering protection for a price.

Those who traversed these routes includedpeddlers who probably travelled on foot andmerchants who travelled with caravans of bullockcarts and pack-animals. Also, there were seafarers,whose ventures were risky but highly profitable.Successful merchants, designated as masattuvanin Tamil and setthis and satthavahas in Prakrit,could become enormously rich. A wide range ofgoods were carried from one place to another – salt,grain, cloth, metal ores and finished products,stone, timber, medicinal plants, to name a few.Spices, especially pepper, were in high demand inthe Roman Empire, as were textiles and medicinalplants, and these were all transported across theArabian Sea to the Mediterranean.

6.4 Coins and kingsTo some extent, exchanges were facilitated by theintroduction of coinage. Punch-marked coins madeof silver and copper (c. sixth century BCE onwards)were amongst the earliest to be minted and used.These have been recovered from excavations at anumber of sites throughout the subcontinent.Numismatists have studied these and other coins toreconstruct possible commercial networks.

Attempts made to identify the symbols on punch-marked coins with specific ruling dynasties,including the Mauryas, suggest that these wereissued by kings. It is also likely that merchants,bankers and townspeople issued some of these coins.The first coins to bear the names and images ofrulers were issued by the Indo-Greeks, whoestablished control over the north-western part ofthe subcontinent c. second century BCE.

The first gold coins were issued c. first century CE

by the Kushanas. These were virtually identical inweight with those issued by contemporary Roman

“Periplus” is a Greek wordmeaning sailing around and“Erythraean” was the Greekname for the Red Sea.

The Malabar coast(present-day Kerala)

Here is an excerpt from Periplusof the Erythraean Sea,composed by an anonymousGreek sailor (c. first century CE):

They (i .e. traders fromabroad) send large ships tothese market-towns onaccount of the great quantityand bulk of pepper andmalabathrum (possiblycinnamon, produced in theseregions). There are importedhere, in the first place, a greatquantity of coin; topaz …antimony (a mineral used asa colouring substance), coral,crude glass, copper, tin, lead… There is exported pepper,which is produced in quantityin only one region near thesemarkets … Besides this thereare exported great quantitiesof f ine pearls, ivory, si lkcloth, … transparent stonesof all kinds, diamonds andsapphires, and tortoise shell.

Archaeological evidence of abead-making industry, usingprecious and semi-preciousstones, has been found inKodumanal (Tamil Nadu). It islikely that local traders broughtthe stones mentioned in thePeriplus from sites such asthese to the coastal ports.

Why did the authorcompile this list?

Source 9

45

emperors and the Parthian rulers of Iran, and havebeen found from several sites in north India andCentral Asia. The widespread use of gold coinsindicates the enormous value of the transactionsthat were taking place. Besides, hoards of Romancoins have been found from archaeological sites insouth India. It is obvious that networks of trade werenot confined within political boundaries: south Indiawas not part of the Roman Empire, but there wereclose connections through trade.

Coins were also issued by tribal republics suchas that of the Yaudheyas of Punjab and Haryana(c. first century CE). Archaeologists have unearthedseveral thousand copper coins issued by theYaudheyas, pointing to the latter’s interest andparticipation in economic exchanges.

Some of the most spectacular gold coins wereissued by the Gupta rulers. The earliest issuesare remarkable for their purity. These coinsfacilitated long-distance transactions from whichkings also benefited.

From c. sixth century CE onwards, finds of goldcoins taper off. Does this indicate that there wassome kind of an economic crisis? Historians aredivided on this issue. Some suggest that with thecollapse of the Western Roman Empire long-distancetrade declined, and this affected the prosperity ofthe states, communities and regions that hadbenefited from it. Others argue that new towns andnetworks of trade started emerging around this time.They also point out that though finds of coins ofthat time are fewer, coins continue to be mentionedin inscriptions and texts. Could it be that there arefewer finds because coins were in circulation ratherthan being hoarded?

Numismatics is the study ofcoins, including visual elementssuch as scripts and images,metallurgical analysis and thecontexts in which they havebeen found.

Fig. 2.7A punch-marked coin, so namedbecause symbols were punched orstamped onto the metal surface

Fig. 2.9A Gupta coin

Discuss...What are the transactionsinvolved in trade? Which ofthese transactions areapparent from the sourcesmentioned? Are there anythat are not evident from thesources?

Fig. 2.8A Yaudheya coin



7. Back to BasicsHow Are Inscriptions Deciphered?

So far, we have been studying excerpts frominscriptions amongst other things. But how dohistorians find out what is written on them?

7.1 Deciphering BrahmiMost scripts used to write modern Indian languagesare derived from Brahmi, the script used in mostAsokan inscriptions. From the late eighteenthcentury, European scholars aided by Indian panditsworked backwards from contemporary Bengaliand Devanagari (the script used to write Hindi)manuscripts, comparing their letters with olderspecimens.

Scholars who studied early inscriptions sometimesassumed these were in Sanskrit, although theearliest inscriptions were, in fact, in Prakrit. It wasonly after decades of painstaking investigations byseveral epigraphists that James Prinsep was able todecipher Asokan Brahmi in 1838.

7.2 How Kharosthi was readThe story of the decipherment of Kharosthi, the scriptused in inscriptions in the northwest, is different.Here, finds of coins of Indo-Greek kings who ruledover the area (c. second-first centuries BCE) have

Fig. 2.10An Asokan inscription

Fig. 2.11Asokan Brahmi with Devanagariequivalents

Do some Devanagari lettersappear similar to Brahmi? Arethere any that seem different?

47

facilitated matters. These coins contain the namesof kings written in Greek and Kharosthi scripts.European scholars who could read the formercompared the letters. For instance, the symbolfor “a” could be found in both scripts for writingnames such as Apollodotus. With Prinsep identifyingthe language of the Kharosthi inscriptions as Prakrit,it became possible to read longer inscriptions as well.

7.3 Historical evidence from inscriptionsTo find out how epigraphists and historians work,let us look at two Asokan inscriptions more closely.

Note that the name of the ruler, Asoka, is notmentioned in the inscription (Source 10). What isused instead are titles adopted by the ruler –devanampiya, often translated as “beloved of thegods” and piyadassi, or “pleasant to behold”. Thename Asoka is mentioned in some other inscriptions,which also contain these titles. After examining allthese inscriptions, and finding that they match interms of content, style, language and palaeography,epigraphists have concluded that they were issuedby the same ruler.

You may also have noticed that Asoka claims thatearlier rulers had no arrangements to receive reports.If you consider the political history of thesubcontinent prior to Asoka, do you think thisstatement is true? Historians have to constantlyassess statements made in inscriptions to judgewhether they are true, plausible or exaggerations.

Did you notice that there are words withinbrackets? Epigraphists sometimes add these to makethe meaning of sentences clear. This has to be donecarefully, to ensure that the intended meaning ofthe author is not changed.

Fig. 2.12A coin of the Indo-Greek kingMenander

The orders of the king

Thus speaks king DevanampiyaPiyadassi:

In the past, there were noarrangements for disposingaffairs, nor for receivingregular reports. But Ihave made the following(arrangement). Pativedakasshould report to me about theaffairs of the people at alltimes, anywhere, whether Iam eating, in the innerapartment, in the bedroom,in the cow pen, being carried(possibly in a palanquin), orin the garden. And I willdispose of the affairs of thepeople everywhere.

Source 10

Epigraphists havetranslated the termpativedaka as reporter.In what ways would thefunctions of thepativedaka have beendifferent from those wegenerally associate withreporters today?



Historians have to make other assessments aswell. If a king’s orders were inscribed on naturalrocks near cities or important routes ofcommunication, would passers-by have stopped toread these? Most people were probably not literate.Did everybody throughout the subcontinentunderstand the Prakrit used in Pataliputra? Wouldthe orders of the king have been followed? Answersto such questions are not always easy to find.

Some of these problems are evident if we look atan Asokan inscription (Source 11), which has oftenbeen interpreted as reflecting the anguish of theruler, as well as marking a change in his attitudetowards warfare. As we shall see, the situationbecomes more complex once we move beyond readingthe inscription at face value.

While Asokan inscriptions have been found inpresent-day Orissa, the one depicting his anguishis missing. In other words, the inscription has notbeen found in the region that was conquered. Whatare we to make of that? Is it that the anguish of therecent conquest was too painful in the region, andtherefore the ruler was unable to address the issue?

8. The Limitations of InscriptionalEvidence

By now it is probably evident that there are limits towhat epigraphy can reveal. Sometimes, there aretechnical limitations: letters are very faintlyengraved, and thus reconstructions are uncertain.Also, inscriptions may be damaged or letters missing.Besides, it is not always easy to be sure about theexact meaning of the words used in inscriptions,some of which may be specific to a particular placeor time. If you go through an epigraphical journal(some are listed in Timeline 2), you will realise thatscholars are constantly debating and discussingalternative ways of reading inscriptions.

Although several thousand inscriptions have beendiscovered, not all have been deciphered, publishedand translated. Besides, many more inscriptionsmust have existed, which have not survived theravages of time. So what is available at present isprobably only a fraction of what was inscribed.

There is another, perhaps more fundamental,problem: not everything that we may consider

The anguish of the king

When the king DevanampiyaPiyadassi had been rulingfor eight years, the (countryof the) Kalingas (present-day coastal Orissa) wasconquered by (him).

One hundred and fiftythousand men were deported,a hundred thousand werekilled, and many more died.

After that, now that (thecountry of) the Kalingas hasbeen taken, Devanampiya (isdevoted) to an intense studyof Dhamma, to the love ofDhamma, and to instructing(the people) in Dhamma.

This is the repentance ofDevanampiya on account ofhis conquest of the (countryof the) Kalingas.

For this is considered verypainful and deplorableby Devanampiya that,while one is conqueringan unconquered (country)slaughter, death anddeportation of people (takeplace) there …

Discuss...Look at Map 2 and discussthe location of Asokaninscriptions. Do you noticeany patterns?

Source 11

49

politically or economically significant was necessarilyrecorded in inscriptions. For instance, routineagricultural practices and the joys and sorrows ofdaily existence find no mention in inscriptions, whichfocus, more often than not, on grand, unique events.Besides, the content of inscriptions almost invariablyprojects the perspective of the person(s) whocommissioned them. As such, they need to bejuxtaposed with other perspectives so as to arrive ata better understanding of the past.

Thus epigraphy alone does not provide a fullunderstanding of political and economic history. Also,historians often question both old and new evidence.Scholars in the late nineteenth and early twentiethcenturies were primarily interested in the historiesof kings. From the mid-twentieth century onwards,issues such as economic change, and the ways inwhich different social groups emerged have assumedfar more importance. Recent decades have seen amuch greater preoccupation with histories ofmarginalised groups. This will probably lead to freshinvestigations of old sources, and the developmentof new strategies of analysis.

Fig. 2.13A copperplate inscription fromKarnataka, c. sixth century CE



Timeline 1Major Political and Economic Developments

c.600-500 BCE Paddy transplantation; urbanisation in theGanga valley; mahajanapadas; punch-marked coins

c. 500-400 BCE Rulers of Magadha consolidate power

c. 327-325 BCE Invasion of Alexander of Macedon

c. 321 BCE Accession of Chandragupta Maurya

c. 272/268-231 BCE Reign of Asoka

c. 185 BCE End of the Mauryan empire

c. 200-100 BCE Indo-Greek rule in the northwest; Cholas, Cherasand Pandyas in south India; Satavahanas in the Deccan

c. 100 BCE-200 CE Shaka (peoples from Central Asia) rulers inthe northwest; Roman trade; gold coinage

c. 78 CE? Accession of Kanishka

c.100-200 CE Earliest inscriptional evidence of landgrants by Satavahana and Shaka rulers

c. 320 CE Beginning of Gupta rule

c. 335-375 CE Samudragupta

c. 375-415 CE Chandragupta II; Vakatakas in the Deccan

c. 500-600 CE Rise of the Chalukyas in Karnataka and of the Pallavasin Tamil Nadu

c. 606-647 CE Harshavardhana king of Kanauj; Chinese pilgrimXuan Zang comes in search of Buddhist texts

c. 712 Arabs conquer Sind

(Note: It is difficult to date economic developments precisely. Also, there are enormoussubcontinental variations which have not been indicated in the timeline.Only the earliest dates for specific developments have been given. The date of Kanishka’saccession is not certain and this has been marked with a‘?’)

51

Timeline 2Major Advances in Epigraphy

Eighteenth century

1784 Founding of the Asiatic Society (Bengal)

Nineteenth century

1810s Colin Mackenzie collects over 8,000 inscriptions inSanskrit and Dravidian languages

1838 Decipherment of Asokan Brahmi by James Prinsep

1877 Alexander Cunningham publishes a set of Asokaninscriptions

1886 First issue of Epigraphia Carnatica, a journal of southIndian inscriptions

1888 First issue of Epigraphia Indica

Twentieth century

1965-66 D.C. Sircar publishes Indian Epigraphy and IndianEpigraphical Glossary

Answer in 100-150 words

1. Discuss the evidence of craft production in EarlyHistoric cities. In what ways is this different fromthe evidence from Harappan cities?

2. Describe the salient features of mahajanapadas.

3. How do historians reconstruct the lives ofordinary people?

4. Compare and contrast the list of things given tothe Pandyan chief (Source 3) with those producedin the village of Danguna (Source 8). Do younotice any similarities or differences?

5. List some of the problems faced by epigraphists.



If you would like to knowmore, read:D.N. Jha. 2004.Early India: A Concise History.Manohar, New Delhi.

R. Salomon. 1998.Indian Epigraphy. MunshiramManoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd,New Delhi.

R.S. Sharma. 1983.Material Culture and SocialFormation in Early India.Macmillan, New Delhi.

D.C. Sircar. 1975.Inscriptions of Asoka.Publications Division, Ministry ofInformation and Broadcasting,Government of India, New Delhi.

Romila Thapar. 1997.Asoka and the Decline of theMauryas. Oxford University Press,New Delhi.

For more information,you could visit:http:/projectsouthasia.sdstate.edu/Docs/index.html


6. Discuss the main features of Mauryanadministration. Which of these elements are evidentin the Asokan inscriptions that you have studied?

7. This is a statement made by one of the best-knownepigraphists of the twentieth century, D.C. Sircar:“There is no aspect of life, culture and activities ofthe Indians that is not reflected in inscriptions.”Discuss.

8. Discuss the notions of kingship that developed in thepost-Mauryan period.

9. To what extent were agricultural practicestransformed in the period under consideration?

Map work

10. Compare Maps 1 and 2, and list the mahajanapadasthat might have been included in the MauryanEmpire. Are any Asokan inscriptions found in theseareas?

Project (any one)

11. Collect newspapers for one month. Cut and paste allthe statements made by government officials aboutpublic works. Note what the reports say about theresources required for such projects, how theresources are mobilised and the objective of theproject. Who issues these statements, and how andwhy are they communicated? Compare and contrastthese with the evidence from inscriptions discussedin this chapter. What are the similarities anddifferences that you notice?

12. Collect five different kinds of currency notes and coinsin circulation today. For each one of these, describewhat you see on the obverse and the reverse (the frontand the back). Prepare a report on the commonfeatures as well as the differences in terms of pictures,scripts and languages, size, shape and any otherelement that you find significant. Compare these withthe coins shown in this chapter, discussing thematerials used, the techniques of minting, the visualsymbols and their significance and the possiblefunctions that coins may have had.

53

In the previous chapter we saw that there were severalchanges in economic and political life between c. 600BCE and 600 CE. Some of these changes influenced societiesas well. For instance, the extension of agriculture intoforested areas transformed the lives of forest dwellers;craft specialists often emerged as distinct social groups;the unequal distribution of wealth sharpened socialdifferences.

Historians often use textualtraditions to understand theseprocesses. Some texts lay downnorms of social behaviour; othersdescribe and occasionally commenton a wide range of social situationsand practices. We can also catch aglimpse of some social actors frominscriptions. As we will see, eachtext (and inscription) was writtenfrom the perspective of specificsocial categories. So we need tokeep in mind who composed whatand for whom. We also need toconsider the language used, andthe ways in which the textcirculated. Used carefully, texts allow us to piece togetherattitudes and practices that shaped social histories.

In focusing on the Mahabharata, a colossal epic runningin its present form into over 100,000 verses with depictionsof a wide range of social categories and situations, we drawon one of the richest texts of the subcontinent. It wascomposed over a period of about 1,000 years (c. 500 BCE

onwards), and some of the stories it contains may havebeen in circulation even earlier. The central story is abouttwo sets of warring cousins. The text also contains sectionslaying down norms of behaviour for various social groups.Occasionally (though not always), the principal charactersseem to follow these norms. What does conformity withnorms and deviations from them signify?

THEME TWOKinship, Caste and Class

EarEarEarEarEarllllly Sociey Sociey Sociey Sociey Societiestiestiestiesties(((((CCCCC. 600 . 600 . 600 . 600 . 600 BCEBCEBCEBCEBCE-600 600 600 600 600 CECECECECE)))))

THEME

THREE

Fig. 3.1A terracotta sculpturedepicting a scene fromthe Mahabharata(West Bengal),c. seventeenth century


1. The Critical Edition of theMahabharata

One of the most ambitious projects of scholarshipbegan in 1919, under the leadership of a noted IndianSanskritist, V.S. Sukthankar. A team comprisingdozens of scholars initiated the task of preparing acritical edition of the Mahabharata. What exactly didthis involve? Initially, it meant collecting Sanskritmanuscripts of the text, written in a variety ofscripts, from different parts of the country.

The team worked out a method of comparingverses from each manuscript. Ultimately, theyselected the verses that appeared common to mostversions and published these in several volumes,running into over 13,000 pages. The project took 47years to complete. Two things became apparent: therewere several common elements in the Sanskritversions of the story, evident in manuscripts foundall over the subcontinent, from Kashmir and Nepalin the north to Kerala and Tamil Nadu in the south.Also evident were enormous regional variations inthe ways in which the text had been transmittedover the centuries. These variations weredocumented in footnotes and appendices to the maintext. Taken together, more than half the 13,000 pagesare devoted to these variations.

In a sense, these variations are reflective of thecomplex processes that shaped early (and later)social histories – through dialogues betweendominant traditions and resilient local ideas andpractices. These dialogues are characterised bymoments of conflict as well as consensus.

Our understanding of these processes is derivedprimarily from texts written in Sanskrit by and forBrahmanas. When issues of social history wereexplored for the first time by historians in thenineteenth and twentieth centuries, they tended totake these texts at face value – believing thateverything that was laid down in these texts wasactually practised. Subsequently, scholars beganstudying other traditions, from works in Pali, Prakritand Tamil. These studies indicated that the ideascontained in normative Sanskrit texts were on thewhole recognised as authoritative: they were alsoquestioned and occasionally even rejected. It isimportant to keep this in mind as we examine howhistorians reconstruct social histories.

Fig. 3.2A section of a page from the CriticalEditionThe section printed in large boldletters is part of the main text.The smaller print lists variationsin different manuscripts, whichwere carefully catalogued.

55

2. Kinship and MarriageMany Rules and Varied Practices

2.1 Finding out about familiesWe often take family life for granted. However, youmay have noticed that not all families are identical:they vary in terms of numbers of members, theirrelationship with one another as well as the kindsof activities they share. Often people belonging tothe same family share food and other resources,and live, work and perform rituals together. Familiesare usually parts of larger networks of peopledefined as relatives, or to use a more technical term,kinfolk. While familial ties are often regarded as“natural” and based on blood, they are defined inmany different ways. For instance, some societiesregard cousins as being blood relations, whereasothers do not.

For early societies, historians can retrieveinformation about elite families fairly easily; it is,however, far more difficult to reconstruct the familialrelationships of ordinary people. Historians alsoinvestigate and analyse attitudes towards family andkinship. These are important, because they providean insight into people’s thinking; it is likely thatsome of these ideas would have shaped their actions,just as actions may have led to changes in attitudes.

2.2 The ideal of patrilinyCan we identify points when kinship relationschanged? At one level, the Mahabharata is a storyabout this. It describes a feud over land and powerbetween two groups of cousins, the Kauravas andthe Pandavas, who belonged to a single ruling family,that of the Kurus, a lineage dominating one of thejanapadas (Chapter 2, Map 1). Ultimately, theconflict ended in a battle, in which the Pandavasemerged victorious. After that, patrilineal successionwas proclaimed. While patriliny had existed prior tothe composition of the epic, the central story of theMahabharata reinforced the idea that it was valuable.Under patriliny, sons could claim the resources(including the throne in the case of kings) of theirfathers when the latter died.

Most ruling dynasties (c. sixth century BCE onwards)claimed to follow this system, although there werevariations in practice: sometimes there were no sons,

Terms for familyand kin

Sanskrit texts use the term kulato designate families and jnatifor the larger network of kinfolk.The term vamsha is used forlineage.

Patriliny means tracing descentfrom father to son, grandsonand so on.Matriliny is the term used whendescent is traced through themother.

KINSHIP, CASTE AND CLASS


in some situations brothers succeeded one another,sometimes other kinsmen claimed the throne, and,in very exceptional circumstances, women such asPrabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2) exercised power.

The concern with patriliny was not unique to rulingfamilies. It is evident in mantras in ritual texts suchas the Rigveda. It is possible that these attitudeswere shared by wealthy men and those who claimedhigh status, including Brahmanas.

Producing “fine sons”

Here is an excerpt of a mantra from the Rigveda, which was probably insertedin the text c. 1000 BCE, to be chanted by the priest while conducting the marriageritual. It is used in many Hindu weddings even today:

I free her from here, but not from there. I have bound her firmly there, sothat through the grace of Indra she will have fine sons and be fortunate inher husband’s love.

Indra was one of the principal deities, a god of valour, warfare and rain.“Here” and “there” refer to the father’s and husband’s house respectively.

In the context of the mantra, discuss the implications of marriagefrom the point of view of the bride and groom. Are the implicationsidentical, or are there differences?

Source 1


KURU

Indraprastha

SHURASENA

MathuraVirata

MATSYA

Ujjayini

AVANTI

Hastinapura

VATSA

Kaushambi

KOSHALA

Shravasti

Ayodhya

SarnathVaranasi

Bodh Gaya

Kushinagara

MALLA

SAKYA

Lumbini

Kapilavastu

Pava

Vaishali

Ganga

Yamuna

Map 1The Kuru Panchala region and neighbouring areas

Pataliputra

57

Why kinfolk quarrelled

This is an excerpt from the Adi Parvan (literally, the firstsection) of the Sanskrit Mahabharata, describing whyconflicts arose amongst the Kauravas and Pandavas:

The Kauravas were the … sons of Dhritarashtra, andthe Pandavas … were their cousins. Since Dhritarashtrawas blind, his younger brother Pandu ascended thethrone of Hastinapura (see Map 1) … However, afterthe premature death of Pandu, Dhritarashtra becameking, as the royal princes were still very young. As theprinces grew up together, the citizens of Hastinapurabegan to express their preference for the Pandavas,for they were more capable and virtuous than theKauravas. This made Duryodhana, the eldest of theKauravas, jealous. He approached his father and said,“You yourself did not receive the throne, although itfell to you, because of your defect. If the Pandavareceives the patrimony from Pandu, his son will surelyinherit it in turn, and so will his son, and his. Weourselves with our sons shall be excluded from the royalsuccession and become of slight regard in the eyes ofthe world, lord of the earth!”

Passages such as these may not have been literally true,but they give us an idea about what those who wrote thetext thought. Sometimes, as in this case, they containconflicting ideas.

2.3 Rules of marriageWhile sons were important for the continuity of thepatrilineage, daughters were viewed ratherdifferently within this framework. They had no claimsto the resources of the household. At the same time,marrying them into families outside the kin wasconsidered desirable. This system, called exogamy(literally, marrying outside), meant that the lives ofyoung girls and women belonging to families thatclaimed high status were often carefully regulatedto ensure that they were married at the “right” timeand to the “right” person. This gave rise to the beliefthat kanyadana or the gift of a daughter in marriagewas an important religious duty of the father.

With the emergence of new towns (Chapter 2),social life became more complex. People from near

Types of marriagesEndogamy refers to marriagewithin a unit – this could be akin group, caste, or a groupliving in the same locality.

Exogamy refers to marriageoutside the unit.

Polygyny is the practice ofa man having several wives.

Polyandry is the practice ofa woman having severalhusbands.

Source 2


Read the passage and listthe different criteria suggestedfor becoming king. Of these,how important was birth in aparticular family? Which ofthese criteria seem justified?Are there any that strike youas unjust?


Eight forms of marriage

Here are the first, fourth, fifthand sixth forms of marriagefrom the Manusmriti:

First: The gift of a daughter,after dressing her in costlyclothes and honouring herwith presents of jewels, toa man learned in theVeda whom the fatherhimself invites.

Fourth: The gift of adaughter by the father afterhe has addressed the couplewith the text, “May both ofyou perform your dutiestogether”, and has shownhonour to the bridegroom.

Fifth: When the bridegroomreceives a maiden, after havinggiven as much wealth as hecan afford to the kinsmen andto the bride herself, accordingto his own will.

Sixth: The voluntary unionof a maiden and her lover… which springs fromdesire …

and far met to buy and sell their products and shareideas in the urban milieu. This may have led to aquestioning of earlier beliefs and practices (see alsoChapter 4). Faced with this challenge, theBrahmanas responded by laying down codes of socialbehaviour in great detail. These were meant to befollowed by Brahmanas in particular and the rest ofsociety in general. From c. 500 BCE, these norms werecompiled in Sanskrit texts known as theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. The mostimportant of such works, the Manusmriti, wascompiled between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE.

While the Brahmana authors of these textsclaimed that their point of view had universal validityand that what they prescribed had to be obeyed byeverybody, it is likely that real social relations weremore complicated. Besides, given the regionaldiversity within the subcontinent and the difficultiesof communication, the influence of Brahmanas wasby no means all-pervasive.

What is interesting is that the Dharmasutras andDharmashastras recognised as many as eight formsof marriage. Of these, the first four were consideredas “good” while the remaining were condemned. It ispossible that these were practised by those who didnot accept Brahmanical norms.

2.4 The gotra of womenOne Brahmanical practice, evident from c. 1000 BCE

onwards, was to classify people (especiallyBrahmanas) in terms of gotras. Each gotra was namedafter a Vedic seer, and all those who belonged to thesame gotra were regarded as his descendants. Tworules about gotra were particularly important:women were expected to give up their father’s gotraand adopt that of their husband on marriage andmembers of the same gotra could not marry.

One way to find out whether this was commonlyfollowed is to consider the names of men and women,which were sometimes derived from gotra names.These names are available for powerful rulinglineages such as the Satavahanas who ruled overparts of western India and the Deccan (c. secondcentury BCE-second century CE). Several of theirinscriptions have been recovered, which allowhistorians to trace family ties, including marriages.

Source 3

For each of the forms,discuss whether thedecision about themarriage was taken by(a) the bride,(b) the bridegroom,(c) the father of the bride,(d) the father of thebridegroom,(e) any other person.

59

Names of Satavahana kingsfrom inscriptions

These are the names of several generations ofSatavahana rulers, recovered from inscriptions. Notethe uniform title raja. Also note the following word,which ends with the term puta, a Prakrit word meaning“son”. The term Gotami-puta means “son of Gotami”.Names like Gotami and Vasithi are feminine forms ofGotama and Vasistha, Vedic seers after whom gotraswere named.

raja Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani

raja Vasithi-puta (sami-) Siri-Pulumayi

raja Gotami-puta sami-Siri-Yana-Satakani

raja Madhari-puta svami-Sakasena

raja Vasathi-puta Chatarapana-Satakani

raja Hariti-puta Vinhukada Chutukulanamda-Satakamni

raja Gotami-puta Siri-Vijaya- Satakani

Fig. 3.3A Satavahana ruler and his wifeThis is one of the rare sculpturaldepictions of a ruler from the wallof a cave donated to Buddhistmonks. This sculpture dates toc. second century BCE.

Metronymics in theUpanishads

The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,one of the earliest Upanishads(see also Chapter 4), contains alist of successive generations ofteachers and students, many ofwhom were designated bymetronymics.

Source 4

How many Gotami-putas andhow many Vasithi (alternativespelling Vasathi)-putas are there?



Some of the Satavahana rulers were polygynous(that is, had more than one wife). An examination ofthe names of women who married Satavahana rulersindicates that many of them had names derived fromgotras such as Gotama and Vasistha, their father’sgotras. They evidently retained these names insteadof adopting names derived from their husband’s gotraname as they were required to do according to theBrahmanical rules. What is also apparent is thatsome of these women belonged to the same gotra. Asis obvious, this ran counter to the ideal of exogamyrecommended in the Brahmanical texts. In fact, itexemplified an alternative practice, that of endogamyor marriage within the kin group, which was (andis) prevalent amongst several communities in southIndia. Such marriages amongst kinfolk (such ascousins) ensured a close-knit community.

It is likely that there were variations in other partsof the subcontinent as well, but as yet it has notbeen possible to reconstruct specific details.

2.5 Were mothers important?We have seen that Satavahana rulers were identifiedthrough metronymics (names derived from that ofthe mother). Although this may suggest that motherswere important, we need to be cautious before wearrive at any conclusion. In the case of theSatavahanas we know that succession to the thronewas generally patrilineal.

Discuss...How are children namedtoday? Are these ways ofnaming similar to or differentfrom those described in thissection?

Does this passage giveyou an idea about theway in which motherswere viewed in earlyIndian societies?

Fig. 3.4A battle sceneThis is amongst the earliest sculptural depictions of ascene from the Mahabharata, a terracotta sculpture fromthe walls of a temple in Ahichchhatra (Uttar Pradesh),c. fifth century CE.

A mother’s advice

The Mahabharata describes how,when war between the Kauravasand the Pandavas becamealmost inevitable, Gandharimade one last appeal to hereldest son Duryodhana:

By making peace you honouryour father and me, as wellas your well-wishers … it isthe wise man in control of hissenses who guards hiskingdom. Greed and angerdrag a man away from hisprofits; by defeating thesetwo enemies a king conquersthe earth … You will happilyenjoy the earth, my son,along with the wise andheroic Pandavas … There isno good in a war, no law(dharma) and profit (artha),let alone happiness; nor isthere (necessarily) victory inthe end – don’t set your mindon war …

Duryodhana did not listen tothis advice and fought and lostthe war.

Source 5

61

Why do you think theBrahmanas quoted thisverse frequently?

3. Social Differences:Within and Beyond the Frameworkof Caste

You are probably familiar with the term caste, whichrefers to a set of hierarchically ordered socialcategories. The ideal order was laid down in theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. Brahmanasclaimed that this order, in which they were rankedfirst, was divinely ordained, while placing groupsclassified as Shudras and “untouchables” at the verybottom of the social order. Positions within the orderwere supposedly determined by birth.

3.1 The “right” occupationThe Dharmasutras and Dharmashastras alsocontained rules about the ideal “occupations” of thefour categories or varnas. Brahmanas were supposedto study and teach the Vedas, perform sacrifices andget sacrifices performed, and give and receive gifts.Kshatriyas were to engage in warfare, protect peopleand administer justice, study the Vedas, getsacrifices performed, and make gifts. The last three“occupations” were also assigned to the Vaishyas,who were in addition expected to engage inagriculture, pastoralism and trade. Shudras wereassigned only one occupation – that of serving thethree “higher” varnas.

The Brahmanas evolved two or three strategiesfor enforcing these norms. One, as we have just seen,was to assert that the varna order was of divineorigin. Second, they advised kings to ensure thatthese norms were followed within their kingdoms.And third, they attempted to persuade people thattheir status was determined by birth. However, thiswas not always easy. So prescriptions were oftenreinforced by stories told in the Mahabharata andother texts.

A divine order?

To justi fy their claims,Brahmanas often cited a versefrom a hymn in the Rigvedaknown as the Purusha sukta,describing the sacrif ice ofPurusha, the primeval man. Allthe elements of the universe,including the four socialcategories, were supposed tohave emanated from his body:

The Brahmana was hismouth, of his arms was madethe Kshatriya.

His thighs became theVaishya, of his feet theShudra was born.

Source 6



What message do you thinkthis story was meant to conveyto the nishadas?What message would it conveyto Kshatriyas?Do you think that Drona, as aBrahmana, was actingaccording to the Dharmasutraswhen he was teaching archery?

Source 7

“Proper” social roles

Here is a story from the Adi Parvan of the Mahabharata:

Once Drona, a Brahmana who taught archery to theKuru princes, was approached by Ekalavya, a forest-dwelling nishada (a hunting community). When Drona,who knew the dharma, refused to have him as his pupil,Ekalavya returned to the forest, prepared an image ofDrona out of clay, and treating it as his teacher, beganto practise on his own. In due course, he acquiredgreat skill in archery. One day, the Kuru princes wenthunting and their dog, wandering in the woods, cameupon Ekalavya. When the dog smelt the dark nishadawrapped in black deer skin, his body caked with dirt,it began to bark. Annoyed, Ekalavya shot seven arrowsinto its mouth. When the dog returned to the Pandavas,they were amazed at this superb display of archery.They tracked down Ekalavya, who introduced himselfas a pupil of Drona.

Drona had once told his favourite student Arjuna,that he would be unrivalled amongst his pupils. Arjunanow reminded Drona about this. Drona approachedEkalavya, who immediately acknowledged andhonoured him as his teacher. When Drona demandedhis right thumb as his fee, Ekalavya unhesitatingly cutit off and offered it. But thereafter, when he shot withhis remaining fingers, he was no longer as fast as hehad been before. Thus, Drona kept his word: no onewas better than Arjuna.

3.2 Non-Kshatriya kingsAccording to the Shastras, only Kshatriyas could bekings. However, several important ruling lineagesprobably had different origins. The social backgroundof the Mauryas, who ruled over a large empire, hasbeen hotly debated. While later Buddhist textssuggested they were Kshatriyas, Brahmanical textsdescribed them as being of “low” origin. The Shungasand Kanvas, the immediate successors of theMauryas, were Brahmanas. In fact, political powerwas effectively open to anyone who could mustersupport and resources, and rarely depended on birthas a Kshatriya.

Other rulers, such as the Shakas who camefrom Central Asia, were regarded as mlechchhas,

63

barbarians or outsiders by the Brahmanas. However,one of the earliest inscriptions in Sanskrit describeshow Rudradaman, the best-known Shaka ruler(c. second century CE), rebuilt Sudarshana lake(Chapter 2). This suggests that powerful mlechchhaswere familiar with Sanskritic traditions.

It is also interesting that the best-known ruler ofthe Satavahana dynasty, Gotami-puta Siri-Satakani,claimed to be both a unique Brahmana (ekabamhana) and a destroyer of the pride of Kshatriyas.He also claimed to have ensured that there was nointermarriage amongst members of the four varnas.At the same time, he entered into a marriage alliancewith the kin of Rudradaman.

As you can see from this example, integrationwithin the framework of caste was often acomplicated process. The Satavahanas claimed tobe Brahmanas, whereas according to theBrahmanas, kings ought to have been Kshatriyas.They claimed to uphold the fourfold varna order, butentered into marriage alliances with people who weresupposed to be excluded from the system. And, aswe have seen, they practised endogamy instead ofthe exogamous system recommended in theBrahmanical texts.

3.3 Jatis and social mobilityThese complexities are reflected in another term usedin texts to refer to social categories – jati. InBrahmanical theory, jati, like varna, was based onbirth. However, while the number of varnas was fixedat four, there was no restriction on the number ofjatis. In fact, whenever Brahmanical authoritiesencountered new groups – for instance, people livingin forests such as the nishadas – or wanted to assigna name to occupational categories such as thegoldsmith or suvarnakara, which did not easily fitinto the fourfold varna system, they classified themas a jati. Jatis which shared a common occupationor profession were sometimes organised into shrenisor guilds.

We seldom come across documents that recordthe histories of these groups. But there areexceptions. One interesting stone inscription (c. fifthcentury CE), found in Mandasor (Madhya Pradesh),records the history of a guild of silk weavers whooriginally lived in Lata (Gujarat), from where they

Fig. 3.5Silver coin depicting a Shaka ruler,c. fourth century CE



migrated to Mandasor, then known as Dashapura.It states that they undertook the difficult journeyalong with their children and kinfolk, as they hadheard about the greatness of the local king, andwanted to settle in his kingdom.

The inscription provides a fascinating glimpse ofcomplex social processes and provides insights intothe nature of guilds or shrenis. Although membershipwas based on a shared craft specialisation, somemembers adopted other occupations. It also indicatesthat the members shared more than a commonprofession – they collectively decided to invest theirwealth, earned through their craft, to construct asplendid temple in honour of the sun god.

What the silk weavers did

Here is an excerpt from the inscription, which isin Sanskrit:

Some are intensely attached to music (so) pleasing tothe ear; others, being proud of (the authorship of) ahundred excellent biographies, are conversant withwonderful tales; (others), filled with humility, areabsorbed in excellent religious discourses; … some excelin their own religious rites; likewise by others, who wereself-possessed, the science of (Vedic) astronomy wasmastered; and others, valorous in battle, even todayforcibly cause harm to the enemies.

3.4 Beyond the four varnas: IntegrationGiven the diversity of the subcontinent, there were,and always have been, populations whose socialpractices were not influenced by Brahmanical ideas.When they figure in Sanskrit texts, they are oftendescribed as odd, uncivilised, or even animal-like.In some instances, these included forest-dwellers –for whom hunting and gathering remained animportant means of subsistence. Categories suchas the nishada, to which Ekalavya is supposed tohave belonged, are examples of this.

Others who were viewed with suspicion includedpopulations such as nomadic pastoralists, who couldnot be easily accommodated within the frameworkof settled agriculturists. Sometimes those who spokenon-Sanskritic languages were labelled as

The case of themerchants

Sanskrit texts and inscriptionsused the term vanik to designatemerchants. While trade wasdefined as an occupation forVaishyas in the Shastras, amore complex situation isevident in plays such as theMrichchhakatika written byShudraka (c. fourth century CE),Here, the hero Charudatta wasdescribed as both a Brahmanaand a sarthavaha or merchantAnd a fifth-century inscriptiondescribes two brothers whomade a donation for theconstruction of a temple askshatriya-vaniks.

Source 8

Do you think the silkweavers were following theoccupation laid down for themin the Shastras?

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mlechchhas and looked down upon. There wasnonetheless also a sharing of ideas and beliefsbetween these people. The nature of relations isevident in some stories in the Mahabharata.

A tiger-like husband

This is a summary of a story from the Adi Parvan of theMahabharata:

The Pandavas had fled into the forest. They were tiredand fell asleep; only Bhima, the second Pandava,renowned for his prowess, was keeping watch. Aman-eating rakshasa caught the scent of the Pandavasand sent his sister Hidimba to capture them. She fell inlove with Bhima, transformed herself into a lovelymaiden and proposed to him. He refused. Meanwhile,the rakshasa arrived and challenged Bhima to awrestling match. Bhima accepted the challenge andkilled him. The others woke up hearing the noise.Hidimba introduced herself, and declared her love forBhima. She told Kunti: “I have forsaken my friends,my dharma and my kin; and good lady, chosen yourtiger-like son for my man … whether you think me afool, or your devoted servant, let me join you, greatlady, with your son as my husband.”

Ultimately, Yudhisthira agreed to the marriage oncondition that they would spend the day together butthat Bhima would return every night. The coupleroamed all over the world during the day. In due courseHidimba gave birth to a rakshasa boy namedGhatotkacha. Then the mother and son left thePandavas. Ghatotkacha promised to return to thePandavas whenever they needed him.

Some historians suggest that the term rakshasa is usedto describe people whose practices differed from thoselaid down in Brahmanical texts.

3.5 Beyond the four varnasSubordination and conflict

While the Brahmanas considered some people asbeing outside the system, they also developed asharper social divide by classifying certain socialcategories as “untouchable”. This rested on a notionthat certain activities, especially those connectedwith the performance of rituals, were sacred and by

Source 9

Identify the practicesdescribed in this passagewhich seem non-Brahmanical.



extension “pure”. Those who considered themselvespure avoided taking food from those they designatedas “untouchable”. In sharp contrast to the purityaspect, some activities were regarded asparticularly “polluting”. These included handlingcorpses and dead animals. Those who performedsuch tasks, designated as chandalas, were placedat the very bottom of the hierarchy. Their touchand, in some cases, even seeing them was regardedas “polluting” by those who claimed to be at the topof the social order.

The Manusmriti laid down the “duties” of thechandalas. They had to live outside the village, usediscarded utensils, and wear clothes of the dead andornaments of iron. They could not walk about in

villages and cities at night.They had to dispose of thebodies of those who had norelatives and serve asexecutioners. Much later, theChinese Buddhist monk FaXian (c. fifth century CE) wrotethat “untouchables” had tosound a clapper in the streetsso that people could avoid seeingthem. Another Chinese pilgrim,Xuan Zang (c. seventh century),observed that executioners andscavengers were forced to liveoutside the city.

By examining non-Brahmanicaltexts which depict the lives ofchandalas, historians have tried tofind out whether chandalasaccepted the life of degradationprescribed in the Shastras.Sometimes, these depictionscorrespond with those inthe Brahmanical texts. Butoccasionally, there are hints ofdifferent social realities.

Fig. 3.6Depiction of a mendicant seekingalms, stone sculpture (Gandhara)c. third century, CE

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Discuss...Which of the sourcesmentioned in this sectionsuggest that people followedthe occupations laid down byBrahmanas? Which sourcessuggest other possibilities?

The Bodhisatta as a chandala

Did chandalas resist the attempts to push them to thebottom of the social order? Read this story, which is partof the Matanga Jataka, a Pali text, where the Bodhisatta(the Buddha in a previous birth) is identified as a chandala.

Once, the Bodhisatta was born outside the city ofBanaras as a chandala’s son and named Matanga. Oneday, when he had gone to the city on some work, heencountered Dittha Mangalika, the daughter of amerchant. When she saw him, she exclaimed “I haveseen something inauspicious” and washed her eyes.The angry hangers-on then beat him up. In protest, hewent and lay down at the door of her father’s house.On the seventh day they brought out the girl and gaveher to him. She carried the starving Matanga back tothe chandala settlement. Once he returned home, hedecided to renounce the world. After attaining spiritualpowers, he returned to Banaras and married her. Ason named Mandavya Kumara was born to them. Helearnt the three Vedas as he grew up and began toprovide food to 16,000 Brahmanas every day.

One day, Matanga, dressed in rags, with a clay almsbowl in his hand, arrived at his son’s doorstep andbegged for food. Mandavya replied that he looked likean outcaste and was unworthy of alms; the food wasmeant for the Brahmanas. Matanga said: “Those whoare proud of their birth and are ignorant do not deservegifts. On the contrary, those who are free from vicesare worthy of offerings.” Mandavya lost his temper andasked his servants to throw the man out. Matanga rosein the air and disappeared. When Dittha Mangalikalearnt about the incident, she followed Matanga andbegged his forgiveness. He asked her to take a bit ofthe leftover from his bowl and give it to Mandavyaand the Brahmanas …

Source 10

Identify elements in the story that suggest thatit was written from the perspective of Matanga.



4. Beyond BirthResources and Status

If you recall the economic relations discussedin Chapter 2, you will realise that slaves,landless agricultural labourers, hunters, fisherfolk,pastoralists, peasants, village headmen, craftspersons,merchants and kings emerged as social actors indifferent parts of the subcontinent. Their socialpositions were often shaped by their access toeconomic resources. Here we will examine thesocial implications of access to resources in certainspecific situations.

4.1 Gendered access to propertyConsider first a critical episode in the Mahabharata.During the course of the long-drawn rivalry betweenthe Kauravas and the Pandavas, Duryodhana invitedYudhisthira to a game of dice. The latter, who wasdeceived by his rival, staked his gold, elephants,chariots, slaves, army, treasury, kingdom, theproperty of his subjects, his brothers and finallyhimself and lost all. Then he staked their commonwife Draupadi and lost her too.

Issues of ownership, foregrounded in stories suchas this one (Source 11), also figure in theDharmasutras and Dharmashastras. According tothe Manusmriti, the paternal estate was to be dividedequally amongst sons after the death of the parents,with a special share for the eldest. Women could notclaim a share of these resources.

However, women were allowed to retain the giftsthey received on the occasion of their marriage asstridhana (literally, a woman’s wealth). This couldbe inherited by their children, without the husbandhaving any claim on it. At the same time, theManusmriti warned women against hoarding familyproperty, or even their own valuables, without thehusband’s permission.

You have read about wealthy women such as theVakataka queen Prabhavati Gupta (Chapter 2).However, cumulative evidence – both epigraphic andtextual – suggests that while upper-class womenmay have had access to resources, land, cattle andmoney were generally controlled by men. In otherwords, social differences between men and womenwere sharpened because of the differences in accessto resources.

Draupadi’s question

Draupadi is supposed to haveasked Yudhisthira whether hehad lost himself before stakingher. Two contrary opinions wereexpressed in response to thisquestion.

One, that even if Yudhisthirahad lost himself earlier, his wiferemained under his control, sohe could stake her.

Two, that an unfree man (asYudhisthira was when he hadlost himself) could not stakeanother person.

The matter remained unresolved;ultimately, Dhritarashtra restored tothe Pandavas and Draupadi theirpersonal freedom.

Source 11

Do you think that thisepisode suggests thatwives could be treated asthe property of theirhusbands?

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How could men and womenacquire wealth?

For men, the Manusmriti declares, there are seven meansof acquiring wealth: inheritance, finding, purchase,conquest, investment, work, and acceptance of gifts fromgood people.

For women, there are six means of acquiring wealth:what was given in front of the fire (marriage) or the bridalprocession, or as a token of affection, and what she gotfrom her brother, mother or father. She could also acquirewealth through any subsequent gift and whatever her“affectionate” husband might give her.

4.2 Varna and access to propertyAccording to the Brahmanical texts, anothercriterion (apart from gender) for regulating accessto wealth was varna. As we saw earlier, the only“occupation” prescribed for Shudras was servitude,while a variety of occupations were listed for men ofthe first three varnas. If these provisions wereactually implemented, the wealthiest men wouldhave been the Brahmanas and the Kshatriyas. Thatthis corresponded to some extent with social realitiesis evident from descriptions of priests and kings inother textual traditions. Kings are almost invariablydepicted as wealthy; priests are also generally shownto be rich, though there are occasional depictions ofthe poor Brahmana.

At another level, even as the Brahmanical view ofsociety was codified in the Dharmasutras andDharmashastras, other traditions developedcritiques of the varna order. Some of the best-knownof these were developed within early Buddhism(c. sixth century BCE onwards; see also Chapter 4).The Buddhists recognised that there were differencesin society, but did not regard these as natural orinflexible. They also rejected the idea of claims tostatus on the basis of birth.

Source 12


Compare and contrast theways in which men andwomen could acquire wealth.


The wealthy Shudra

This story, based on a Buddhist text in Pali known as theMajjhima Nikaya, is part of a dialogue between a kingnamed Avantiputta and a disciple of the Buddha namedKachchana. While it may not be literally true, it revealsBuddhist attitudes towards varna.

Avantiputta asked Kachchana what he thought aboutBrahmanas who held that they were the best casteand that all other castes were low; that Brahmanaswere a fair caste while all other castes were dark; thatonly Brahmanas were pure, not non-Brahmanas; thatBrahmanas were sons of Brahma, born of his mouth,born of Brahma, formed by Brahma, heirs to Brahma.

Kachchana replied: “What if a Shudra were wealthy… would another Shudra …or a Kshatriya or aBrahmana or a Vaishya … speak politely to him?”

Avantiputta replied that if a Shudra had wealth orcorn or gold or silver, he could have as his obedientservant another Shudra to get up earlier than he, togo to rest later, to carry out his orders, to speak politely;or he could even have a Kshatriya or a Brahmana or aVaishya as his obedient servant.

Kachchana asked: “This being so, are not these fourvarnas exactly the same?”

Avantiputta conceded that there was no differenceamongst the varnas on this count.

4.3 An alternative social scenario:Sharing wealth

So far we have been examining situations wherepeople either claimed or were assigned status onthe basis of their wealth. However, there were otherpossibilities as well; situations where men who weregenerous were respected, while those who weremiserly or simply accumulated wealth for themselveswere despised. One area where these values werecherished was ancient Tamilakam, where, as we sawearlier (Chapter 2), there were several chiefdomsaround 2,000 years ago. Amongst other things, thechiefs were patrons of bards and poets who sangtheir praise. Poems included in the Tamil Sangamanthologies often illuminate social and economic

Source 13

Read Avantiputta’s firststatement again. What are theideas in it that are derived fromBrahmanical texts/traditions?Can you identify the source ofany of these?What, according to this text,explains social difference?

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Discuss...How do social relationships operatein present-day societies? Are thereany similarities or differences withpatterns of the past?

relationships, suggesting that while there weredif ferences between rich and poor, those whocontrolled resources were also expected to sharethem.

The poor generous chief

In this composition from the Puranaruru, one of theanthologies of poems of the Tamil Sangam literature(c. first century CE), a bard describes his patron to otherpoets thus :

He (i.e. the patron) doesn’t have the wealth to lavishon others everyday

Nor does he have the pettiness to say that he hasnothing and so refuse!

…

he lives in Irantai (a place) and is generous. He is anenemy to the hunger of bards!

If you wish to cure your poverty, comealong with me, bards whose lips are soskilled!

If we request him, showing him our ribsthin with hunger, he wil l go to theblacksmith of his village

And will say to that man of powerfulhands:

“Shape me a long spear for war, one thathas a straight blade!”

Source 14

What are the strategies which thebard uses to try and persuade thechief to be generous?What is the chief expected to do toacquire wealth in order to give someto the bards?

Fig. 3.7A chief and his follower, stonesculpture, Amaravati (AndhraPradesh), c. second century CE

How has the sculptorshown the difference betweenthe chief and his follower?



5. Explaining Social Differences:A Social Contract

The Buddhists also developed an alternativeunderstanding of social inequalities, and of theinstitutions required to regulate social conflict. In amyth found in a text known as the Sutta Pitaka theysuggested that originally human beings did not havefully evolved bodily forms, nor was the world of plantsfully developed. All beings lived in an idyllic state ofpeace, taking from nature only what they needed foreach meal.

However, there was a gradual deterioration ofthis state as human beings became increasinglygreedy, vindictive and deceitful. This led them towonder: “What if we were to select a certain beingwho should be wrathful when indignation is right,who should censure that which should rightly becensured and should banish him who deserves tobe banished? We will give him in return a proportionof the rice … chosen by the whole people, he will beknown as mahasammata, the great elect.”

This suggests that the institution of kingshipwas based on human choice, with taxes as a formof payment for services rendered by the king. Atthe same time, it reveals recognition of humanagency in creating and institutionalising economicand social relations. There are other implicationsas well. For instance, if human beings wereresponsible for the creation of the system, they couldalso change it in future.

6. Handling TextsHistorians and the Mahabharata

If you look through the sources cited in this chapteronce more you will notice that historians considerseveral elements when they analyse texts. Theyexamine whether texts were written in Prakrit, Palior Tamil, languages that were probably used byordinary people, or in Sanskrit, a language meantalmost exclusively for priests and elites. They alsoconsider the kinds of text. Were these mantras, learntand chanted by ritual specialists, or stories thatpeople could have read, or heard, and then retold ifthey found them interesting? Besides, they try tofind out about the author(s) whose perspectives andideas shaped the text, as well as the intended

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audience, as, very often, authors keep the interestsof their audience in mind while composing theirwork. And they try and ascertain the possible dateof the composition or compilation of the texts as wellas the place where they may have been composed. Itis only after making these assessments that theydraw on the content of texts to arrive at anunderstanding of their historical significance. As youcan imagine, this is a particularly difficult task fora text as complex as the Mahabharata.

6.1 Language and contentLet us look at the language of the text. The versionof the Mahabharata we have been considering is inSanskrit (although there are versions in otherlanguages as well). However, the Sanskrit used inthe Mahabharata is far simpler than that of the Vedas,or of the prashastis discussed in Chapter 2. As such,it was probably widely understood.

Historians usually classify the contents of thepresent text under two broad heads – sections thatcontain stories, designated as the narrative, andsections that contain prescriptions about socialnorms, designated as didactic. This division is by nomeans watertight – the didactic sections includestories, and the narrative often contains a socialmessage. However, generally historians agree thatthe Mahabharata was meant to be a dramatic, movingstory, and that the didactic portions were probablyadded later.

Fig. 3.8Krishna advises Arjuna on thebattlefieldThis painting dates to theeighteenth century. Perhaps themost important didactic section ofthe Mahabharata is the BhagavadGita, which contains the adviceoffered by Lord Krishna to Arjuna.This scene is frequently depictedin painting and sculpture.

Didactic refers to somethingthat is meant for purposes ofinstruction.



Interestingly, the text is described as an itihasawithin early Sanskrit tradition. The literal meaningof the term is “thus it was”, which is why it isgenerally translated as “history”. Was there a realwar that was remembered in the epic? We are notsure. Some historians think that the memory of anactual conflict amongst kinfolk was preserved in thenarrative; others point out that there is no othercorroborative evidence of the battle.

6.2 Author(s) and datesWho wrote the text? This is a question to whichthere are several answers. The original story wasprobably composed by charioteer-bards known assutas who generally accompanied Kshatriya warriorsto the battlefield and composed poems celebratingtheir victories and other achievements. Thesecompositions circulated orally. Then, from the fifthcentury BCE, Brahmanas took over the story andbegan to commit it to writing. This was the timewhen chiefdoms such as those of the Kurus and

Fig. 3.9Lord Ganesha the scribeAccording to tradition, Vyasadictated the text to the deity.This illustration is from a Persiantranslation of the Mahabharata,c. 1740-50.

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Panchalas, around whom the story of the epicrevolves, were gradually becoming kingdoms. Did thenew kings want their itihasa to be recorded andpreserved more systematically? It is also possiblethat the upheavals that often accompanied theestablishment of these states, where old social valueswere often replaced by new norms, are reflected insome parts of the story.

We notice another phase in the composition ofthe text between c. 200 BCE and 200 CE. This was theperiod when the worship of Vishnu was growing inimportance, and Krishna, one of the importantfigures of the epic, was coming to be identified withVishnu. Subsequently, between c. 200 and 400 CE,large didactic sections resembling the Manusmritiwere added. With these additions, a text whichinitially perhaps had less than 10,000 verses grewto comprise about 100,000 verses. This enormouscomposition is traditionally attributed to a sagenamed Vyasa.

6.3 The search for convergenceThe Mahabharata, like any major epic, contains vividdescriptions of battles, forests, palaces andsettlements. In 1951-52, the archaeologist B.B. Lalexcavated at a village named Hastinapura in Meerut(Uttar Pradesh). Was this the Hastinapura of theepic? While the similarity in names could becoincidental, the location of the site in the UpperGanga doab, where the Kuru kingdom was situated,suggests that it may have been the capital of theKurus mentioned in the text.

Lal found evidence of five occupational levels, ofwhich the second and third are of interest to us.This is what Lal noted about the houses in the secondphase (c. twelfth-seventh centuries BCE): “Within thelimited area excavated, no definite plans of houseswere obtained, but walls of mud and mud-brickswere duly encountered. The discovery of mud-plasterwith prominent reed-marks suggested that some ofthe houses had reed walls plastered over with mud.”For the third phase (c. sixth-third centuries BCE), henoted: “Houses of this period were built of mud-brickas well as burnt bricks. Soakage jars and brickdrains were used for draining out refuse water, whileterracotta ring-wells may have been used both aswells and drainage pits.”



Was the description of the city in the epic addedafter the main narrative had been composed, when(after the sixth century BCE) urban centres flourishedin the region? Or was it a flight of poetic fancy, whichcannot always be verified by comparisons with otherkinds of evidence?

Consider another instance. One of the mostchallenging episodes in the Mahabharata isDraupadi’s marriage with the Pandavas, an instanceof polyandry that is central to the narrative. If weexamine the section of the epic that describes thisevent, it is evident that the author(s) attempted toexplain it in a variety of ways.

Draupadi’s marriage

Drupada, the king of Panchala, organised a competitionwhere the challenge was to string a bow and hit a target;the winner would be chosen to marry his daughterDraupadi. Arjuna was victorious and was garlanded byDraupadi. The Pandavas returned with her to their motherKunti, who, even before she saw them, asked them toshare whatever they had got. She realised her mistakewhen she saw Draupadi, but her command could not beviolated. After much deliberation, Yudhisthira decided thatDraupadi would be their common wife.

When Drupada was told about this, he protested.However, the seer Vyasa arrived and told him that thePandavas were in reality incarnations of Indra, whose wifehad been reborn as Draupadi, and they were thus destinedfor each other.

Vyasa added that in another instance a young womanhad prayed to Shiva for a husband, and in her enthusiasm,had prayed five times instead of once. This woman wasnow reborn as Draupadi, and Shiva had fulfilled herprayers. Convinced by these stories, Drupada consentedto the marriage.

Fig. 3.10A wall excavated at Hastinapura

Hastinapura

This is how the city is describedin the Adi Parvan of theMahabharata:

The city, bursting like theocean, packed with hundredsof mansions, displayed withits gateways, arches andturrets like massing cloudsthe splendour of GreatIndra’s city.

Source 15

Source 16 Do you think Lal’s finds

match the description ofHastinapura in the epic?

Why do you think the author(s) offered threeexplanations for a single episode?

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Present-day historians suggest that the fact thatthe author(s) describe a polyandrous union indicatesthat polyandry may have been prevalent amongstruling elites at some point of time. At the same time,the fact that so many different explanations areoffered for the episode (Source 16) suggests thatpolyandry gradually fell into disfavour amongst theBrahmanas, who reworked and developed the textthrough the centuries.

Some historians note that while the practice ofpolyandry may have seemed unusual or evenundesirable from the Brahmanical point of view, itwas (and is) prevalent in the Himalayan region.Others suggest that there may have been a shortageof women during times of warfare, and this led topolyandry. In other words, it was attributed to asituation of crisis.

Some early sources suggest that polyandry wasnot the only or even the most prevalent form ofmarriage. Why then did the author(s) choose toassociate this practice with the central charactersof the Mahabharata? We need to remember thatcreative literature often has its own narrativerequirements and does not always literally reflectsocial realities.

7. A Dynamic TextThe growth of the Mahabharata did not stop withthe Sanskrit version. Over the centuries, versionsof the epic were written in a variety of languagesthrough an ongoing process of dialogue betweenpeoples, communities, and those who wrote thetexts. Several stories that originated in specificregions or circulated amongst certain people foundtheir way into the epic. At the same time, the centralstory of the epic was often retold in different ways.And episodes were depicted in sculpture andpainting. They also provided themes for a wide rangeof performing arts – plays, dance and other kindsof narrations.

Discuss...Read the excerpts from theMahabharata included in thischapter once more. For eachof these, discuss whether theycould have been literally true.What do these excerpts tell usabout those who composedthe text? What do they tell usabout those who must haveread or heard the epic?



Most retellings or re-enactments of the epic draw onthe main narrative in creative ways. Let us look at oneexample, an episode from the Mahabharata that hasbeen transformed by Mahashweta Devi, a contemporaryBengali writer known for raising her voice against allforms of exploitation and oppression. In this particularinstance, she works out alternative possibilities fromthe main story of the Mahabharata and draws attentionto questions on which the Sanskrit text is silent.

The Sanskrit text describes how Duryodhana plottedto kill the Pandavas by inviting them to stay in aspecially prepared house of lac, which he planned toset on fire. Forewarned, the Pandavas dug a tunnel toensure their escape. Then Kunti arranged for a feast.While most of the invitees were Brahmanas, a nishadawoman came with her five sons. When they weresatiated with drink and fell off to sleep, the Pandavasescaped, setting fire to the house. When the bodies ofthe woman and her sons were discovered, peoplethought that the Pandavas were dead.

In her short story titled “Kunti O Nishadi”,Mahashweta Devi takes up the narrative from wherethe Mahabharata ends it. She sets the story in a forest,where Kunti retires after the war. Kunti now has timeto reflect on her past, and often confesses to what sheregards as her failings, talking with the earth, thesymbol of nature. Every day she sees the nishadas whocome to collect wood, honey, tubers and roots. Onenishadi (a nishada woman) often listens to Kunti whenshe talks with the earth.

One day, there was something in the air; the animalswere fleeing the forest. Kunti noticed that the nishadiwas watching her, and was startled when she spoke toher and asked if she remembered the house of lac. Yes,Kunti said, she did. Did she remember a certain elderlynishadi and her five young sons? And that she hadserved them wine till they were senseless, while sheescaped with her own sons? That nishadi … “Not you!”Kunti exclaimed. The nishadi replied that the womanwho was killed had been her mother-in-law. She addedthat while Kunti had been reflecting on her past, notonce did she remember the six innocent lives that werelost because she had wanted to save herself and hersons. As they spoke, the flames drew nearer. The nishadiescaped to safety, but Kunti remained where she was.

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Timeline 1Major Textual Traditions

c. 500 BCE Ashtadhyayi of Panini, a work on Sanskrit grammar

c. 500-200 BCE Major Dharmasutras (in Sanskrit)

c. 500-100 BCE Early Buddhist texts including the Tripitaka (in Pali)

c. 500 BCE-400 CE Ramayana and Mahabharata (in Sanskrit)

c. 200 BCE-200 CE Manusmriti (in Sanskrit); composition and compilationof Tamil Sangam literature

c. 100 CE Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas, works on medicine(in Sanskrit)

c. 200 CE onwards Compilation of the Puranas (in Sanskrit)

c. 300 CE Natyashastra of Bharata, a work on dramaturgy(in Sanskrit)

c. 300-600 CE Other Dharmashastras (in Sanskrit)

c. 400-500 CE Sanskrit plays including the works of Kalidasa;works on astronomy and mathematics by Aryabhata andVarahamihira (in Sanskrit); compilation of Jaina works(in Prakrit)

Timeline 2Major Landmarks in the Study of the Mahabharata

Twentieth century

1919-66 Preparation and publication of the Critical Edition of theMahabharata

1973 J.A.B. van Buitenen begins English translation of the CriticalEdition; remains incomplete after his death in 1978




1. Explain why patriliny may have been particularlyimportant among elite families.

2. Discuss whether kings in early states wereinvariably Kshatriyas.

3. Compare and contrast the dharma or normsmentioned in the stories of Drona, Hidimba andMatanga.

4. In what ways was the Buddhist theory of a socialcontract different from the Brahmanical view ofsociety derived from the Purusha sukta?

5. The following is an excerpt from theMahabharata, in which Yudhisthira, the eldestPandava, speaks to Sanjaya, a messenger:

Sanjaya, convey my respectful greetings to allthe Brahmanas and the chief priest of thehouse of Dhritarashtra. I bow respectfully toteacher Drona … I hold the feet of ourpreceptor Kripa … (and) the chief of the Kurus,the great Bhishma. I bow respectfully to theold king (Dhritarashtra). I greet and ask afterthe health of his son Duryodhana and hisyounger brother ... Also greet all the youngKuru warriors who are our brothers, sons andgrandsons … Greet above all him, who is tous like father and mother, the wise Vidura(born of a slave woman) ... I bow to the elderlyladies who are known as our mothers. Tothose who are our wives you say this, “I hopethey are well-protected”… Our daughters-in-law born of good families and mothers ofchildren greet on my behalf. Embrace for methose who are our daughters … The beautiful,fragrant, well-dressed courtesans of ours youshould also greet. Greet the slave women andtheir children, greet the aged, the maimed(and) the helpless …

Try and identify the criteria used to make thislist – in terms of age, gender, kinship ties. Are thereany other criteria? For each category, explain whythey are placed in a particular position in the list.

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6. This is what a famous historian of Indianliterature, Maurice Winternitz, wrote about theMahabharata: “just because the Mahabharatarepresents more of an entire literature … andcontains so much and so many kinds of things, …(it) gives(s) us an insight into the most profounddepths of the soul of the Indian folk.” Discuss.

7. Discuss whether the Mahabharata could havebeen the work of a single author.

8. How important were gender differences in earlysocieties? Give reasons for your answer.

9. Discuss the evidence that suggests thatBrahmanical prescriptions about kinship andmarriage were not universally followed.

Map work

10. Compare the map in this chapter with Map 1 inChapter 2. List the mahajanapadas and citieslocated near the Kuru-Panchala lands.

Project (any one)

11. Find out about retellings of the Mahabharata inother languages. Discuss how they handle anytwo of the episodes of the text described in thischapter, explaining any similarities or differencesthat you notice.

12. Imagine that you are an author and rewrite thestory of Ekalavya from a perspective of yourchoice.

If you would like to knowmore, read:Uma Chakravarti. 2006.Everyday Lives, EverydayHistories. Tulika, New Delhi.

Irawati Karve. 1968.Kinship Organisation in India.Asia Publishing House, Bombay.

R.S. Sharma. 1983.Perspectives in Social andEconomic History of Early India.Munshiram Manoharlal,New Delhi.

V.S. Sukthankar. 1957.On the Meaning of theMahabharata. Asiatic Society ofBombay, Bombay.

Romila Thapar. 2000.Cultural Pasts: Essays in EarlyIndian History. Oxford UniversityPress, New Delhi.


For more information,you could visit:http://bombay.indology.info/mahabharata/statement.html


In this chapter we shall go on a long journey across athousand years to read about philosophers and theirattempts to understand the world they inhabited. We willalso see how their ideas were compiled as oral and writtentexts as well as expressed in architecture and sculpture.These are indicative of the enduring influence thesethinkers had on people. While we will be focusing onBuddhism, it is important to remember that this traditiondid not develop in isolation – there were several othertraditions, each engaged in debates and dialogues withthe others.

The sources that historians use to reconstruct thisexciting world of ideas and beliefs include Buddhist, Jainaand Brahmanical texts, as well as a large and impressivebody of material remains including monuments andinscriptions. Among the best preserved monuments ofthe time is the stupa at Sanchi which is a major focus inthis chapter.

1. A Glimpse of Sanchi

Sanchi in the nineteenth centuryThe most wonderful ancient buildings in the state of Bhopalare at Sanchi Kanakhera, a small village under the browof a hill some 20 miles north-east of Bhopal which wevisited yesterday. We inspected the stone sculptures andstatues of the Buddha and an ancient gateway … The ruinsappear to be the object of great interest to Europeangentlemen. Major Alexander Cunningham … stayed severalweeks in this neighbourhood and examined these ruinsmost carefully. He took drawings of the place, decipheredthe inscription, and bored shafts down these domes. Theresults of his investigations were described by him in anEnglish work …

FROM SHAHJEHAN BEGUM, NAWAB OF BHOPAL (ruled 1868-1901),Taj- ul Iqbal Tarikh Bhopal (A History of Bhopal), translated byH.D. Barstow, 1876.

THEME TWOThinkers, Beliefs and Buildings

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THEME

FOUR

Fig. 4.1A sculpture from Sanchi

Fig. 4.2Shahjehan Begum

83

Nineteenth-century Europeans were very interestedin the stupa at Sanchi. In fact, the French soughtShahjehan Begum’s permission to take away theeastern gateway, which was the best preserved, tobe displayed in a museum in France. For a whilesome Englishmen also wanted to do the same, butfortunately both the French and the English weresatisfied with carefully prepared plaster-cast copiesand the original remained at the site, part of theBhopal state.

The rulers of Bhopal, Shahjehan Begum and hersuccessor Sultan Jehan Begum, provided money forthe preservation of the ancient site. No wonder thenthat John Marshall dedicated his important volumeson Sanchi to Sultan Jehan. She funded the museumthat was built there as well as the guesthouse wherehe lived and wrote the volumes. She also fundedthe publication of the volumes. So if the stupacomplex has survived, it is in no small measuredue to wise decisions, and to good luck in escapingthe eyes of railway contractors, builders, and thoselooking for finds to carry away to the museums ofEurope. One of the most important Buddhistcentres, the discovery of Sanchi has vastlytransformed our understanding of early Buddhism.Today it stands testimony to the successfulrestoration and preservation of a key archaeologicalsite by the Archaeological Survey of India.

Fig. 4.3The Great Stupa at SanchiIf you travel from Delhi to Bhopalby train, you will see the majesticstupa complex on top of a hill,crowning it as it were. If yourequest the guard he will stop thetrain at the little station of Sanchifor two minutes – enough time foryou to get down. As you climb upthe hill you can see the complex ofstructures: a large mound andother monuments including atemple built in the fifth century.

THINKERS, BELIEFS AND BUILDINGS


But what is the significance of this monument?Why was the mound built and what did it contain?Why is there a stone railing around it? Who builtthe complex or paid for its construction? When wasit “discovered”? There is a fascinating story that wecan uncover at Sanchi for which we must combineinformation from texts, sculpture, architecture andinscriptions. Let us begin by exploring thebackground of the early Buddhist tradition.

2. The Background:Sacrifices and Debates

The mid-first millennium BCE is often regarded as aturning point in world history: it saw the emergenceof thinkers such as Zarathustra in Iran, Kong Zi inChina, Socrates, Plato and Aristotle in Greece, andMahavira and Gautama Buddha, among manyothers, in India. They tried to understand themysteries of existence and the relationship betweenhuman beings and the cosmic order. This was alsothe time when new kingdoms and cities weredeveloping and social and economic life was changingin a variety of ways in the Ganga valley (Chapters 2and 3). These thinkers attempted to understandthese developments as well.

2.1 The sacrificial traditionThere were several pre-existing traditions of thought,religious belief and practice, including the early Vedictradition, known from the Rigveda, compiled betweenc.1500 and 1000 BCE. The Rigveda consists of hymnsin praise of a variety of deities, especially Agni, Indraand Soma. Many of these hymns were chanted whensacrifices were performed, where people prayed forcattle, sons, good health, long life, etc.

At first, sacrifices were performed collectively.Later (c. 1000 BCE-500 BCE onwards) some wereperformed by the heads of households for the well-being of the domestic unit. More elaborate sacrifices,such as the rajasuya and ashvamedha, wereperformed by chiefs and kings who depended onBrahmana priests to conduct the ritual.

2.2 New questionsMany ideas found in the Upanishads (c. sixth centuryBCE onwards) show that people were curious aboutthe meaning of life, the possibility of life after death,

A prayer to Agni

Here are two verses from theRigveda invoking Agni, the godof fire, often identified with thesacrif icial f ire, into whichofferings were made so as toreach the other deities:

Bring, O strong one, thissacrifice of ours to the gods,O wise one, as a liberal giver.Bestow on us, O priest,abundant food. Agni, obtain,by sacrificing, mighty wealthfor us.

Procure, O Agni, for everto him who prays to you (thegift of) nourishment, thewonderful cow. May a son beours, offspring that continuesour line …

Verses such as these werecomposed in a special kind ofSanskrit , known as VedicSanskrit. They were taughtorally to men belonging topriestly families.

Discuss...Compare what ShahjehanBegum described with whatyou see in Fig. 3. Whatsimilarities and differences doyou notice?

List the objectives ofthe sacrifice.

Source 1

85

and rebirth. Was rebirth due to past actions? Suchissues were hotly debated. Thinkers were concernedwith understanding and expressing the nature ofthe ultimate reality. And others, outside the Vedictradition, asked whether or not there even was asingle ultimate reality. People also began speculatingon the significance of the sacrificial tradition.

2.3 Debates and discussionsWe get a glimpse of lively discussions and debatesfrom Buddhist texts, which mention as many as 64sects or schools of thought. Teachers travelled fromplace to place, trying to convince one another aswell as laypersons, about the validity of theirphilosophy or the way they understood the world.Debates took place in the kutagarashala – literally,a hut with a pointed roof – or in groves wheretravelling mendicants halted. If a philosophersucceeded in convincing one of his rivals, thefollowers of the latter also became his disciples. Sosupport for any particular sect could grow and shrinkover time.

Many of these teachers, including Mahavira andthe Buddha, questioned the authority of the Vedas.They also emphasised individual agency – suggestingthat men and women could strive to attain liberationfrom the trials and tribulations of worldly existence.This was in marked contrast to the Brahmanicalposition, wherein, as we have seen, an individual’sexistence was thought to be determined by his orher birth in a specific caste or gender.

Verses from the Upanishads

Here are two verses from the Chhandogya Upanishad, a text composedin Sanskrit c. sixth century BCE:

The nature of the selfThis self of mine within the heart, is smaller than paddy or barley ormustard or millet or the kernel of a seed of millet. This self of minewithin the heart is greater than the earth, greater than the intermediatespace, greater than heaven, greater than these worlds.

The true sacrificeThis one (the wind) that blows, this is surely a sacrif ice …While moving, it sanctifies all this; therefore it is indeed a sacrifice.

Source 2



How Buddhist texts wereprepared and preserved

The Buddha (and other teachers) taught orally – through discussion anddebate. Men and women (perhaps children as well) attended these discoursesand discussed what they heard. None of the Buddha’s speeches were writtendown during his lifetime. After his death (c. fifth-fourth century BCE) histeachings were compiled by his disciples at a council of “elders” or seniormonks at Vesali (Pali for Vaishali in present-day Bihar). These compilationswere known as Tipitaka – literally, three baskets to hold different types oftexts. They were first transmitted orally and then written and classifiedaccording to length as well as subject matter.

The Vinaya Pitaka included rules and regulations for those who joined thesangha or monastic order; the Buddha’s teachings were included in the SuttaPitaka; and the Abhidhamma Pitaka dealt with philosophical matters. Eachpitaka comprised a number of individual texts. Later, commentaries werewritten on these texts by Buddhist scholars.

As Buddhism travelled to new regions such as Sri Lanka, other texts suchas the Dipavamsa (literally, the chronicle of the island) and Mahavamsa (thegreat chronicle) were written, containing regional histories of Buddhism.Many of these works contained biographies of the Buddha. Some of theoldest texts are in Pali, while later compositions are in Sanskrit.

When Buddhism spread to East Asia, pilgrims such as Fa Xian and XuanZang travelled all the way from China to India in search of texts. These theytook back to their own country, where they were translated by scholars.Indian Buddhist teachers also travelled to faraway places, carrying texts todisseminate the teachings of the Buddha.

Buddhist texts were preserved in manuscripts for several centuries inmonasteries in different parts of Asia. Modern translations have been preparedfrom Pali, Sanskrit, Chinese and Tibetan texts.

Fig. 4.4A Buddhist manuscript in Sanskrit, c. twelfth century

87

Fatalists and materialists?

Here is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, describing aconversation between king Ajatasattu, the ruler ofMagadha, and the Buddha:

On one occasion King Ajatasattu visited the Buddhaand described what another teacher, named MakkhaliGosala, had told him:

“Though the wise should hope, by this virtue … bythis penance I will gain karma … and the fool shouldby the same means hope to gradually rid himself of hiskarma, neither of them can do it. Pleasure and pain,measured out as it were, cannot be altered in thecourse of samsara (transmigration). It can neither belessened or increased … just as a ball of string will whenthrown unwind to its full length, so fool and wise alikewill take their course and make an end of sorrow.”

And this is what a philosopher named AjitaKesakambalin taught:

“There is no such thing, O king, as alms or sacrifice,or offerings … there is no such thing as this world orthe next …

A human being is made up of the four elements.When he dies the earthy in him returns to the earth,the fluid to water, the heat to fire, the windy to air,and his senses pass into space …

The talk of gifts is a doctrine of fools, an empty lie …fools and wise alike are cut off and perish. They donot survive after death.”

The first teacher belonged to the tradition of the Ajivikas.They have often been described as fatalists: those whobelieve that everything is predetermined. The secondteacher belonged to the tradition of the Lokayatas, usuallydescribed as materialists. Texts from these traditions havenot survived, so we know about them only from the worksof other traditions.

Discuss...What are the problems inreconstructing histories ofideas and beliefs when textsare not available or have notsurvived?

Do you think it is appropriate to describethese men as fatalists or materialists?

Source 3



3.Beyond Worldly PleasuresThe Message of Mahavira

The basic philosophy of the Jainas was already inexistence in north India before the birth ofVardhamana, who came to be known as Mahavira,in the sixth century BCE. According to Jaina tradition,Mahavira was preceded by 23 other teachers ortirthankaras – literally, those who guide men andwomen across the river of existence.

The most important idea in Jainism is that theentire world is animated: even stones, rocks andwater have life. Non-injury to living beings, especiallyto humans, animals, plants and insects, is centralto Jaina philosophy. In fact the principle of ahimsa,emphasised within Jainism, has left its mark onIndian thinking as a whole. According to Jainateachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shapedthrough karma. Asceticism and penance are requiredto free oneself from the cycle of karma. This can beachieved only by renouncing the world; therefore,monastic existence is a necessary condition ofsalvation. Jaina monks and nuns took five vows: toabstain from killing, stealing and lying; to observecelibacy; and to abstain from possessing property.

The world beyond the palace

Just as the Buddha’s teachings were compiled by his followers, the teachings ofMahavira were also recorded by his disciples. These were often in the form of stories,which could appeal to ordinary people. Here is one example, from a Prakrit textknown as the Uttaradhyayana Sutta, describing how a queen named Kamalavatitried to persuade her husband to renounce the world:

If the whole world and all its treasures were yours, you would not be satisfied,nor would all this be able to save you. When you die, O king and leave all thingsbehind, dhamma alone, and nothing else, will save you. As a bird dislikes thecage, so do I dislike (the world). I shall live as a nun without offspring, withoutdesire, without the love of gain, and without hatred …

Those who have enjoyed pleasures and renounced them, move about like thewind, and go wherever they please, unchecked like birds in their flight …

Leave your large kingdom … abandon what pleases the senses, be withoutattachment and property, then practise severe penance, being firm of energy …

Fig. 4.5An image of a tirthankara fromMathura, c. third century CE

Which of the arguments advanced by the queendo you find most convincing?

Source 4

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3.1 The spread of JainismGradually, Jainism spread to many parts of India. Likethe Buddhists, Jaina scholars produced a wealth ofliterature in a variety of languages – Prakrit, Sanskritand Tamil. For centuries, manuscripts of these textswere carefully preserved in libraries attached totemples.

Some of the earliest stone sculptures associatedwith religious traditions were produced by devoteesof the Jaina tirthankaras, and have been recoveredfrom several sites throughout the subcontinent.

4.The Buddha and the Questfor Enlightenment

One of the most influential teachers of the time wasthe Buddha. Over the centuries, his message spreadacross the subcontinent and beyond – throughCentral Asia to China, Korea and Japan, and throughSri Lanka, across the seas to Myanmar, Thailandand Indonesia.

How do we know about the Buddha’s teachings?These have been reconstructed by carefully editing,translating and analysing the Buddhist textsmentioned earlier. Historians have also tried toreconstruct details of his life from hagiographies.Many of these were written down at least a centuryafter the time of the Buddha, in an attempt topreserve memories of the great teacher.

According to these traditions, Siddhartha, as theBuddha was named at birth, was the son of a chief

Discuss...Is ahimsa relevant in thetwenty-first century?

Hagiography is a biography ofa saint or religious leader.Hagiographies often praise thesaint’s achievements, and maynot always be literally accurate.They are important becausethey tell us about the beliefs ofthe followers of that particulartradition.

Can you identify the script?

Fig. 4.6A page from a fourteenth-centuryJaina manuscript



of the Sakya clan. He had a sheltered upbringingwithin the palace, insulated from the harsh realitiesof life. One day he persuaded his charioteer to takehim into the city. His first journey into the worldoutside was traumatic. He was deeply anguishedwhen he saw an old man, a sick man and a corpse.He realised in that moment that the decay anddestruction of the human body was inevitable. Healso saw a homeless mendicant, who, it seemed tohim, had come to terms with old age, disease anddeath, and found peace. Siddhartha decided that hetoo would adopt the same path. Soon after, he leftthe palace and set out in search of his own truth.

Siddhartha explored several paths including bodilymortification which led him to a situation of neardeath. Abandoning these extreme methods, hemeditated for several days and finally attainedenlightenment. After this he came to be known asthe Buddha or the Enlightened One. For the rest of

his life, he taughtdhamma or the pathof righteous living.

Fig. 4.7A sculpture (c. 200 CE) fromAmaravati (Andhra Pradesh),depicting the departure of theBuddha from his palace

Discuss...If you did not knowabout the life of theBuddha, would yoube able to tell whatthe sculpturedepicts?

91

5. The Teachings of the BuddhaThe Buddha’s teachings have been reconstructedfrom stories, found mainly in the Sutta Pitaka.Although some stories describe his miraculouspowers, others suggest that the Buddha tried toconvince people through reason and persuasionrather than through displays of supernatural power.For instance, when a grief-stricken woman whosechild had died came to the Buddha, he gentlyconvinced her about the inevitability of death ratherthan bring her son back to life. These stories werenarrated in the language spoken by ordinary peopleso that these could be easily understood.

According to Buddhist philosophy, the world istransient (anicca) and constantly changing; it isalso soulless (anatta ) as there is nothingpermanent or eternal in it. Within this transientworld, sorrow (dukkha) is intrinsic to humanexistence. It is by following the path of moderationbetween severe penance and self-indulgencethat human beings can rise above these worldlytroubles. In the earliest forms of Buddhism,whether or not god existed was irrelevant.

Buddhism in practice

This is an excerpt from the Sutta Pitaka, and contains theadvice given by the Buddha to a wealthy householdernamed Sigala:

In five ways should a master look after his servantsand employees … by assigning them work accordingto their strength, by supplying them with food andwages, by tending them in sickness; by sharingdelicacies with them and by granting leave at times …

In five ways should the clansmen look after the needsof samanas (those who have renounced the world)and Brahmanas: by affection in act and speech andmind, by keeping open house to them and supplyingtheir worldly needs.

There are similar instructions to Sigala about how tobehave with his parents, teacher and wife.

Suggest what the instructions regardingparents, teacher and wife may have been.

Source 5



The Buddha regarded the social world as thecreation of humans rather than of divine origin.Therefore, he advised kings and gahapatis (see alsoChapter 2) to be humane and ethical. Individual effortwas expected to transform social relations.

The Buddha emphasised individual agency andrighteous action as the means to escape from thecycle of rebirth and attain self-realisation andnibbana, literally the extinguishing of the ego anddesire – and thus end the cycle of suffering for thosewho renounced the world. According to Buddhisttradition, his last words to his followers were: “Belamps unto yourselves as all of you must work outyour own liberation.”

6. Followers of the BuddhaSoon there grew a body of disciples of the Buddhaand he founded a sangha, an organisation of monkswho too became teachers of dhamma. These monkslived simply, possessing only the essential requisitesfor survival, such as a bowl to receive food once aday from the laity. As they lived on alms, they wereknown as bhikkhus.

Initially, only men were allowed into the sangha,but later women also came to be admitted. Accordingto Buddhist texts, this was made possible throughthe mediation of Ananda, one of the Buddha’s dearestdisciples, who persuaded him to allow womeninto the sangha. The Buddha’s foster mother,Mahapajapati Gotami was the first woman to beordained as a bhikkhuni. Many women who enteredthe sangha became teachers of dhamma and wenton to become theris, or respected women who hadattained liberation.

The Buddha’s followers came from many socialgroups. They included kings, wealthy men andgahapatis, and also humbler folk: workers, slavesand craftspeople. Once within the sangha, all wereregarded as equal, having shed their earlier socialidentities on becoming bhikkhus and bhikkhunis. Theinternal functioning of the sangha was based on thetraditions of ganas and sanghas, where consensuswas arrived at through discussions. If that failed,decisions were taken by a vote on the subject.

Discuss...Compare the Buddha’s adviceto Sigala with Asoka’s adviceto his subjects (Chapter 2).Do you notice any similaritiesand differences?

93

The Therigatha

This unique Buddhist text, part of the Sutta Pitaka, is acollection of verses composed by bhikkhunis. It providesan insight into women’s social and spiritual experiences.Punna, a dasi or slave woman, went to the river eachmorning to fetch water for her master’s household. Thereshe would daily see a Brahmana performing bathing rituals.One morning she spoke to him. The following are versescomposed by Punna, recording her conversation with theBrahmana:

I am a water carrier:Even in the coldI have always gone down to the waterfrightened of punishmentOr the angry words of high class women.So what are you afraid of Brahmana,That makes you go down to the water(Though) your limbs shake with the bitter cold?

The Brahmana replied:I am doing good to prevent evil;anyone young or oldwho has done something badis freed by washing in water.

Punna said:Whoever told youYou are freed from evil by washing in the water?…In that case all the frogs and turtlesWould go to heaven, and so would the water snakes

and crocodiles!(Instead) Don’t do that thing,the fear of whichleads you to the water.Stop now Brahmana!Save your skin from the cold …

Which of the teachings of the Buddha areevident in this composition?

Source 6

Fig. 4.8A woman water-carrier, Mathura,c. third century CE



Rules for monks and nuns

These are some of the rules laid down in the VinayaPitaka:

When a new felt (blanket/rug) has been made by abhikkhu, it is to be kept for (at least) six years. If afterless than six years he should have another new felt(blanket/rug) made, regardless of whether or not hehas disposed of the first, then – unless he has beenauthorised by the bhikkhus – it is to be forfeited andconfessed.

In case a bhikkhu arriving at a family residence ispresented with cakes or cooked grain-meal, he mayaccept two or three bowlfuls if he so desires. If heshould accept more than that, it is to be confessed.Having accepted the two or three bowlfuls and havingtaken them from there, he is to share them among thebhikkhus. This is the proper course here.

Should any bhikkhu, having set out bedding in alodging belonging to the sangha – or having had it setout – and then on departing neither put it away norhave it put away, or should he go without taking leave,it is to be confessed.

Buddhism grew rapidly both during the lifetimeof the Buddha and after his death, as it appealed tomany people dissatisfied with existing religiouspractices and confused by the rapid social changestaking place around them. The importance attachedto conduct and values rather than claims ofsuperiority based on birth, the emphasis placed onmetta (fellow feeling) and karuna (compassion),especially for those who were younger and weakerthan oneself, were ideas that drew men and womento Buddhist teachings.

Can you explain why these rules were framed?

Discuss...Why do you think a dasi like Punna wanted to jointhe sangha?

Source 7

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7. StupasWe have seen that Buddhist ideas and practicesemerged out of a process of dialogue with othertraditions – including those of the Brahmanas, Jainasand several others, not all of whose ideas andpractices were preserved in texts. Some of theseinteractions can be seen in the ways in which sacredplaces came to be identified.

From earliest times, people tended to regardcertain places as sacred. These included siteswith special trees or unique rocks, or sites of awe-inspiring natural beauty. These sites, with smallshrines attached to them, were sometimesdescribed as chaityas.

Buddhist literature mentions several chaityas.It also describes places associated with the

Chaitya may also have beenderived from the word chita,meaning a funeral pyre, and byextension a funerary mound.


Map 1Major Buddhist sites


BAY OFBENGAL

ARABIANSEA Amaravati

Nagarjunakonda

NasikJunnar

Karle

Ajanta

Sanchi

BharhutBodhGaya

Barabar

Indus

Yamuna

Ga

ng

a

Narmada

Godavari

Mahanadi

Krishna

Krishna

ShravastiLumbini

Kusinagara

Sarnath


Look at Fig. 4.15 and seewhether you can identifysome of these practices.

Buddha’s life – where he was born (Lumbini), wherehe attained enlightenment (Bodh Gaya), where hegave his first sermon (Sarnath) and where heattained nibbana (Kusinagara). Gradually, each ofthese places came to be regarded as sacred. Weknow that about 200 years after the time of theBuddha, Asoka erected a pillar at Lumbini to markthe fact that he had visited the place.

7.1 Why were stupas builtThere were other places too that were regarded assacred. This was because relics of the Buddha suchas his bodily remains or objects used by him wereburied there. These were mounds known as stupas.

The tradition of erecting stupas may have beenpre-Buddhist, but they came to be associated withBuddhism. Since they contained relics regarded assacred, the entire stupa came to be venerated as anemblem of both the Buddha and Buddhism.According to a Buddhist text known as theAshokavadana, Asoka distributed portions of theBuddha’s relics to every important town and orderedthe construction of stupas over them. By the secondcentury BCE a number of stupas, including those atBharhut, Sanchi and Sarnath (Map 1), had beenbuilt.

7.2 How were stupas builtInscriptions found on the railings and pillars ofstupas record donations made for building anddecorating them. Some donations were made by kingssuch as the Satavahanas; others were made byguilds, such as that of the ivory workers whofinanced part of one of the gateways at Sanchi.Hundreds of donations were made by women andmen who mention their names, sometimes addingthe name of the place from where they came, aswell as their occupations and names of theirrelatives. Bhikkhus and bhikkhunis also contributedtowards building these monuments.

7.3 The structure of the stupaThe stupa (a Sanskrit word meaning a heap)originated as a simple semi-circular mound of earth,later called anda. Gradually, it evolved into a morecomplex structure, balancing round and squareshapes. Above the anda was the harmika, a balcony-like structure that represented the abode of the gods.

Why were stupas built

This is an excerpt from theMahaparinibbana Sutta, part ofthe Sutta Pitaka:

As the Buddha lay dying,Ananda asked him:

“What are we to do Lord,with the remains of theTathagata (another name forthe Buddha)?”

The Buddha replied:“Hinder not yourselvesAnanda by honouring theremains of the Tathagata. Bezealous, be intent on yourown good.”

But when pressed further,the Buddha said:

“At the four crossroadsthey should erect a thupa(Pali for stupa) to theTathagata. And whosoevershall there place garlands orperfume … or make asalutation there, or becomein its presence calm of heart,that shall long be to them fora profit and joy.”

Source 8

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Fig. 4.9A votive inscription from SanchiHundreds of similar inscriptionshave also been found at Bharhutand Amaravati.

Fig. 4.10aPlan of the Great Stupa at SanchiA plan provides a horizontal perspective of a building.

Fig. 10bAn elevation of the Great StupaAn elevation provides a vertical perspective.

What are the features ofthe building that areclearest in the plan? Whatare the features that arebest seen in the elevation?

Discuss...What are the similarities anddifferences between the planof the Great Stupa, Sanchi(Fig. 4.10a) and thephotograph (Fig. 4.3)?

Arising from the harmika was a mast called the yashti,often surmounted by a chhatri or umbrella. Aroundthe mound was a railing, separating the sacred spacefrom the secular world.

The early stupas at Sanchi and Bharhut were plainexcept for the stone railings, which resembled abamboo or wooden fence, and the gateways, whichwere richly carved and installed at the four cardinalpoints. Worshippers entered through the easterngateway and walked around the mound in a clockwisedirection keeping the mound on the right, imitatingthe sun’s course through the sky. Later, the moundof the stupas came to be elaborately carved withniches and sculptures as at Amaravati, and Shah-ji-ki-Dheri in Peshawar (Pakistan).



8. “Discovering” StupasThe Fate of Amaravati and Sanchi

Each stupa has a history of its own – as we havejust seen, some of these are histories of how theywere built. But there are histories of discoveries aswell, and let us now turn to some of these. In 1796,a local raja who wanted to build a temple stumbledupon the ruins of the stupa at Amaravati. Hedecided to use the stone, and thought there mightbe some treasure buried in what seemed to be ahill. Some years later, a British official named ColinMackenzie (see also Chapter 7) visited the site.Although he found several pieces of sculpture andmade detailed drawings of them, these reports werenever published.

In 1854, Walter Elliot, the commissionerof Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), visitedAmaravati and collected severalsculpture panels and took them awayto Madras. (These came to be called theElliot marbles after him.) He alsodiscovered the remains of the westerngateway and came to the conclusion thatthe structure at Amaravati was one ofthe largest and most magnificentBuddhist stupas ever built. By the1850s, some of the slabs from Amaravatihad begun to be taken to differentplaces: to the Asiatic Society of Bengalat Calcutta, to the India Office inMadras and some even to London. It wasnot unusual to find these sculpturesadorning the gardens of Britishadministrators. In fact, any new officialin the area continued to removesculptures from the site on the groundsthat earlier officials had done the same.

One of the few men who had a differentpoint of view was an archaeologistnamed H.H. Cole. He wrote: “It seemsto me a suicidal and indefensible policyto allow the country to be looted oforiginal works of ancient art.” Hebelieved that museums should haveplaster-cast facsimiles of sculpture,whereas the originals should remain

Fig. 4.11The eastern gateway, SanchiNotice the vibrant sculpture.

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where they had been found. Unfortunately, Cole didnot succeed in convincing the authorities aboutAmaravati, although his plea for in situ preservationwas adopted in the case of Sanchi.

Why did Sanchi survive while Amaravati did not?Perhaps Amaravati was discovered before scholarsunderstood the value of the finds and realised howcritical it was to preserve things where they hadbeen found instead of removing them from the site.When Sanchi was “discovered” in 1818, three of itsfour gateways were still standing, the fourth waslying on the spot where it had fallen and the moundwas in good condition. Even so, it was suggestedthat the gateway be taken to either Paris or London;finally a number of factors helped to keep Sanchi asit was, and so it stands, whereas the mahachaityaat Amaravati is now just an insignificant littlemound, totally denuded of its former glory.

9. SculptureWe have just seen how sculptures wereremoved from stupas and transportedall the way to Europe. This happenedpartly because those who saw themconsidered them to be beautiful andvaluable, and wanted to keep them forthemselves. Let us look at some of thesemore closely.

9.1 Stories in stoneYou may have seen wandering storytellerscarrying scrolls (charanachitras) of clothor paper with pictures on them andpointing to the pictures as they tellthe story.

Look at Figure 4.13. At first sightthe sculpture seems to depict a ruralscene, with thatched huts and trees.However, art historians who havecarefully studied the sculpture atSanchi identify it as a scene fromthe Vessantara Jataka. This is astory about a generous prince whogave away everything to aBrahmana, and went to live inthe forest with his wife andchildren. As you can see in this

In situ means on the spot.

Discuss...Read Section 1 again.Give your reasons whySanchi survived.

Fig. 4.12A section of the gatewayDo you think the sculptors atSanchi wanted to depict a scrollbeing unfurled?



case, historians often try to understand the meaningof sculpture by comparing it with textual evidence.

9.2 Symbols of worshipArt historians had to acquire familiarity withhagiographies of the Buddha in order to understandBuddhist sculpture. According to hagiographies, theBuddha attained enlightenment while meditatingunder a tree. Many early sculptors did not show theBuddha in human form – instead, they showed hispresence through symbols. The empty seat (Fig. 4.14)was meant to indicate the meditation of the Buddha,and the stupa (Fig. 4.15) was meant to representthe mahaparinibbana. Another frequently usedsymbol was the wheel (Fig. 4.16). This stood for thefirst sermon of the Buddha, delivered at Sarnath.As is obvious, such sculptures cannot be understoodliterally – for instance, the tree does not stand

Fig. 4.13A part of the northern gateway

Fig. 4.14 (far right)Worshipping the Bodhi treeNotice the tree, the seat, and thepeople around it.Fig. 4.15 (middle right)Worshipping the stupaFig. 4.16 (below)Setting in motion the wheel ofdharma

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simply for a tree, butsymbolises an eventin the life of theBuddha. In order tounderstand suchsymbols, historianshave to familiarisethemselves with thetraditions of those

who produced these worksof art.

9.3 Popular traditionsOther sculptures at Sanchi were

perhaps not directly inspired byBuddhist ideas. These include

beautiful women swinging from theedge of the gateway, holding onto a

tree (Fig.4.17). Initially, scholars werea bit intrigued about this image,

which seemed to have little to do withrenunciation. However, after examining otherliterary traditions, they realised that it could be arepresentation of what is described in Sanskrit asa shalabhanjika. According to popular belief, thiswas a woman whose touch caused trees to flowerand bear fruit. It is likely that this was regardedas an auspicious symbol and integrated into thedecoration of the stupa. The shalabhanjika motifsuggests that many people who turned to Buddhismenriched it with their own pre-Buddhist and evennon-Buddhist beliefs, practices and ideas.Some of the recurrent motifs in thesculpture at Sanchi were evidentlyderived from these traditions.

There are other images as well. Forinstance, some of the finest depictionsof animals are found there. Theseanimals include elephants, horses,monkeys and cattle. While the Jatakascontain several animal stories that aredepicted at Sanchi, it is likely that manyof these animals were carved to createlively scenes to draw viewers. Also,animals were often used as symbols ofhuman attributes. Elephants, for example,were depicted to signify strength and wisdom.

Fig. 4.18An elephant at Sanchi

Fig. 4.17The woman at the gate



Paintings from the pastWhile stone sculpture survives the ravages of time and istherefore most easily available to the historian, other visualmeans of communication, including paintings, were alsoused in the past. Those that have survived best are onwalls of caves, of which those from Ajanta (Maharashtra)are the most famous.

The paintings at Ajanta depict stories from the Jatakas.These include depictions of courtly life, processions, menand women at work, and festivals. The artists used thetechnique of shading to give a three-dimensional quality.Some of the paintings are extremely naturalistic.

Another motif is that of a woman surrounded bylotuses and elephants (Fig. 4.19), which seem to besprinkling water on her as if performing an abhishekaor consecration. While some historians identify thefigure as Maya, the mother of the Buddha, othersidentify her with a popular goddess, Gajalakshmi –literally, the goddess of good fortune – who isassociated with elephants. It is also possible that

Fig. 4.21A serpent at Sanchi

Fig. 4.19Gajalakshmi

Fig. 4.20A painting from Ajanta

Note the seated figure and thoseserving him.

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devotees who saw these sculptures identified thefigure with both Maya and Gajalakshmi.

Consider, too, the serpent, which is found onseveral pillars (Fig. 4.21). This motif seems to bederived from popular traditions, which were notalways recorded in texts. Interestingly, one of theearliest modern art historians, James Fergusson,considered Sanchi to be a centre of tree andserpent worship. He was not familiar with Buddhistliterature – most of which had not yet beentranslated – and arrived at this conclusion bystudying only the images on their own.

10. New Religious Traditions10.1 The development of Mahayana

BuddhismBy the first century CE, there is evidence ofchanges in Buddhist ideas and practices. EarlyBuddhist teachings had given great importanceto self-effort in achieving nibbana. Besides, theBuddha was regarded as a human being whoattained enlightenment and nibbana throughhis own efforts. However, gradually the idea ofa saviour emerged. It was believed that hewas the one who could ensure salvation.Simultaneously, the concept of the Bodhisattaalso developed. Bodhisattas were perceived asdeeply compassionate beings who accumulatedmerit through their efforts but used this not toattain nibbana and thereby abandon the world,but to help others. The worship of images of theBuddha and Bodhisattas became an importantpart of this tradition.

This new way of thinking was called Mahayana– literally, the “great vehicle”. Those who adoptedthese beliefs described the older tradition asHinayana or the “lesser vehicle”.

Discuss...Bone, terracotta and metalcan also be used forsculpture. Find out moreabout these.

Fig. 4.22An image of the Buddha fromMathura, c. first century CE

Hinayana or Theravada?Supporters of Mahayana regarded other Buddhistsas followers of Hinayana. However, followers of theolder tradition described themselves as theravadins,that is, those who followed the path of old, respectedteachers, the theras.



10.2 The growth of Puranic HinduismThe notion of a saviour was not unique to Buddhism.We find similar ideas being developed in differentways within traditions that we now consider part ofHinduism. These included Vaishnavism (a form ofHinduism within which Vishnu was worshipped asthe principal deity) and Shaivism (a tradition withinwhich Shiva was regarded as the chief god), in whichthere was growing emphasis on the worship of achosen deity. In such worship the bond between thedevotee and the god was visualised as one of loveand devotion, or bhakti.

In the case of Vaishnavism,cults developed around thevarious avatars or incarnationsof the deity. Ten avatars wererecognised within the tradition.These were forms that the deitywas believed to have assumed inorder to save the world wheneverit was threatened by disorder anddestruction because of thedominance of evil forces. It islikely that different avatars werepopular in different parts of thecountry. Recognising each ofthese local deities as a form ofVishnu was one way of creatinga more unified religious tradition.

Some of these forms wererepresented in sculptures, as wereother deities. Shiva, for instance,was symbolised by the linga,although he was occasionallyrepresented in human form too.All such representations depicteda complex set of ideas about thedeities and their attributesthrough symbols such as head-dresses, ornaments and ayudhas– weapons or auspicious objectsthe deities hold in their hands –how they are seated, etc.

To understand the meaningsof these sculptures historians

Fig. 4.23The Varaha or boar avatar ofVishnu rescuing the earth goddess,Aihole (Karnataka) c. sixthcentury CE

What does the proportionof the figures suggest?

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have to be familiar with the stories behind them –many of which are contained in the Puranas,compiled by Brahmanas (by about the middle of thefirst millennium CE). They contained much that hadbeen composed and been in circulation for centuries,including stories about gods and goddesses.Generally, they were written in simple Sanskrit verse,and were meant to be read aloud to everybody,including women and Shudras, who did not haveaccess to Vedic learning.

Much of what is contained in the Puranas evolvedthrough interaction amongst people – priests,merchants, and ordinary men and women whotravelled from place to place sharing ideas andbeliefs. We know for instance that Vasudeva-Krishnawas an important deity in the Mathura region. Overcenturies, his worship spread to other parts of thecountry as well.

10.3 Building templesAround the time that the stupas at sites such asSanchi were acquiring their present form, the firsttemples to house images of gods and goddesses werealso being built. The early temple was a small squareroom, called the garbhagriha, with a single doorwayfor the worshipper to enter and offer worship to theimage. Gradually, a tall structure, known as the

Fig. 4.24An image of Durga, Mahabalipuram(Tamil Nadu), c. sixth century CE

Identify the ways in whichthe artists have depictedmovement. Find out moreabout the story depicted inthis sculpture.



shikhara, was built over the central shrine. Templewalls were often decorated with sculpture. Latertemples became far more elaborate – with assemblyhalls, huge walls and gateways, and arrangementsfor supplying water (see also Chapter 7).

One of the unique features of early temples wasthat some of these were hollowed out of huge rocks,as artificial caves. The tradition of building artificialcaves was an old one. Some of the earliest (Fig. 4.27)

Fig. 4.25A temple in Deogarh(Uttar Pradesh), c. fifth century CE

Identify the remains of theshikhara and the entrance tothe garbhagriha.

Fig. 4.26Vishnu reclining on the serpentSheshnag, sculpture from Deogarh(Uttar Pradesh), c. fifth century CE

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of these were constructed in the third century BCE

on the orders of Asoka for renouncers who belongedto the Ajivika sect.

This tradition evolved through various stages andculminated much later – in the eighth century – inthe carving out of an entire temple, that ofKailashnatha (a name of Shiva).

A copperplate inscription records the amazementof the chief sculptor after he completed the templeat Ellora: “Oh how did I make it!”

11. Can We “See” Everything?By now you have had a glimpse of the rich visualtraditions that existed in the past – expressed inbrick and stone architecture, sculpture andpainting. We have seen that much has beendestroyed and lost over the centuries. Nevertheless,what remains and has been preserved conveys asense of the vision of the artists, sculptors, masonsand architects who created these spectacular works.Yet, do we always automatically understand whatthey wanted to convey? Can we ever know what theseimages meant to people who saw them and veneratedthem about 2,000 years ago?

11.1 Grappling with the unfamiliarIt will be useful to recall that when nineteenth-century European scholars first saw some of thesculptures of gods and goddesses, they could notunderstand what these were about. Sometimes, theywere horrified by what seemed to them grotesque

Fig. 4.28Kailashnatha Temple, Ellora(Maharashtra). This entire structureis carved out of a single piece ofrock.

Fig. 4.27Entrance to a cave at Barabar(Bihar), c. third century BCE



figures, with multiple arms and heads or withcombinations of human and animal forms.

These early scholars tried to make sense of whatappeared to be strange images by comparing

them with sculpture with which they werefamiliar, that from ancient Greece. While theyoften found early Indian sculpture inferiorto the works of Greek artists, they were veryexcited when they discovered images of theBuddha and Bodhisattas that were evidentlybased on Greek models. These were, moreoften than not, found in the northwest, incities such as Taxila and Peshawar, whereIndo-Greek rulers had establishedkingdoms in the second century BCE. Asthese images were closest to the Greekstatues these scholars were familiarwith, they were considered to be thebest examples of early Indian art. Ineffect, these scholars adopted a strategywe all frequently use – devisingyardsticks derived from the familiar tomake sense of the unfamiliar.

11.2 If text and image do not match …Consider another problem. We have seenthat art historians often draw upon textualtraditions to understand the meaning ofsculptures. While this is certainly a farmore efficacious strategy than comparingIndian images with Greek statues, it is notalways easy to use. One of the mostintriguing examples of this is a famoussculpture along a huge rock surface inMahabalipuram (Tamil Nadu).

Clearly, Fig. 4.30 is a vivid depiction ofa story. But which story is it? Art historianshave searched through the Puranas to

identify it and are sharply divided in theiropinions. Some feel that this depicts the

descent of the river Ganga from heaven – the

Fig. 4.29A Bodhisatta from GandharaNote the clothes and the hairstyle.

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natural cleft through the centre of the rock surfacemight represent the river. The story itself is narratedin the Puranas and the epics. Others feel that itrepresents a story from the Mahabharata – Arjunadoing penance on the river bank in order to acquirearms – pointing to the central figure of an ascetic.

Finally, remember that many rituals, religious beliefsand practices were not recorded in a permanent,visible form – as monuments, or sculpture, or evenpaintings. These included daily practices, as well asthose associated with special occasions. Manycommunities and peoples may not have felt the needfor keeping lasting records, even as they may havehad vibrant traditions of religious activities andphilosophical ideas. In fact, the spectacularinstances we have focused on in this chapter arejust the tip of the iceberg.

Fig. 4.30A sculpture in Mahabalipuram

Discuss...Describe any religious activityyou have seen.Is it permanently recorded inany form?



Timeline 1Major Religious Developments

c. 1500-1000 BCE Early Vedic traditions

c. 1000-500 BCE Later Vedic traditions

c. sixth century BCE Early Upanishads; Jainism, Buddhism

c. third century BCE First stupas

c. second century Development of Mahayana Buddhism, Vaishnavism,BCE onwards Shaivism and goddess cults

c. third century CE Earliest temples

Timeline 2Landmarks in the Discovery and Preservation of Early

Monuments and SculptureNineteenth century

1814 Founding of the Indian Museum, Calcutta

1834 Publication of Essay on the Architecture of the Hindus,by Ram Raja; Cunningham explores the stupa at Sarnath

1835 -1842 James Fergusson surveys major archaeological sites

1851 Establishment of the Government Museum, Madras

1854 Alexander Cunningham publishes Bhilsa Topes, one of theearliest works on Sanchi

1878 Rajendra Lala Mitra publishes Buddha Gaya: The Heritageof Sakya Muni

1880 H.H. Cole appointed Curator of Ancient Monuments

1888 Passing of the Treasure Trove Act, giving the governmentthe right to acquire all objects of archaeological interest

Twentieth century

1914 John Marshall and Alfred Foucher publish The Monumentsof Sanchi

1923 John Marshall publishes the Conservation Manual

1955 Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru lays the foundation stoneof the National Museum, New Delhi

1989 Sanchi declared a World Heritage Site

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Fig. 4.31A sculpture in Sanchi



1. Were the ideas of the Upanishadic thinkersdifferent from those of the fatalists andmaterialists? Give reasons for your answer.

2. Summarise the central teachings of Jainism.

3. Discuss the role of the begums of Bhopal inpreserving the stupa at Sanchi.

4. Read this short inscription and answer:

In the year 33 of the maharaja Huvishka (aKushana ruler), in the first month of the hotseason on the eighth day, a Bodhisatta was setup at Madhuvanaka by the bhikkhuni Dhanavati,the sister’s daughter of the bhikkhuniBuddhamita, who knows the Tipitaka, the femalepupil of the bhikkhu Bala, who knows theTipitaka, together with her father and mother.

(a) How did Dhanavati date her inscription?

(b) Why do you think she installed an image of theBodhisatta?

(c) Who were the relatives she mentioned?

(d) What Buddhist text did she know?

(e) From whom did she learn this text?

5. Why do you think women and men joined thesangha?



6. To what extent does knowledge of Buddhistliterature help in understanding the sculptureat Sanchi?

7. Figs. 4.32 and 4.33 are two scenes from Sanchi.Describe what you see in each of them, focusingon the architecture, plants and animals, and theactivities. Identify which one shows a ruralscene and which an urban scene, giving reasonsfor your answer.

8. Discuss the development in sculpture andarchitecture associated with the rise ofVaishnavism and Shaivism.

9. Discuss how and why stupas were built.

Fig. 4.32

Fig. 4.33

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If you would like to knowmore, read:A.L. Basham. 1985.The Wonder that was India.Rupa, Calcutta.

N.N. Bhattacharyya. 1996.Indian Religious Historiography.Munshiram Manoharlal,New Delhi.

M.K. Dhavalikar. 2003.Monumental Legacy of Sanchi.Oxford University Press,New Delhi.

Paul Dundas. 1992.The Jains.Routledge, London.

Gavin Flood. 2004.Introduction to Hinduism.Cambridge University Press,Cambridge.

Richard F. Gombrich. 1988.Theravada Buddhism: A SocialHistory from Ancient Benares toModern Colombo. Routledgeand Kegan Paul, London.

Benjamin Rowland. 1967.The Art and Architecture ofIndia: Buddhist/Hindu/Jain.Penguin Books,Harmondsworth.

Map work

10. On an outline world map, mark the areas to whichBuddhism spread. Trace the land and sea routesfrom the subcontinent to these areas.

Project (any one)

11. Of the religious traditions discussed in thischapter, is there any that is practised in yourneighbourhood? What are the religious textsused today, and how are they preserved andtransmitted? Are images used in worship? If so,are these similar to or different from thosedescribed in this chapter? Describe the buildingsused for religious activities today, comparingthem with early stupas and temples.

12. Collect at least five pictures of sculpture orpainting, belonging to different periods andregions, on the religious traditions described inthis chapter. Remove their captions, and showeach one to two people, and ask them to describewhat they see. Compare their descriptions andprepare a report on your findings.


For more information,you could visit:http://dsal.uchicago.edu/images/aiis/


Credits for Illustrations

Theme 1Fig.1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 1.11, 1.12, 1.13, 1.14, 1.15,

1.16, 1.20, 1.22, 1.23, 1.26, 1.28, 1.29, Fig 1.30 of exercises:

Archaeological Survey of India and National Museum,

New Delhi

Fig. 1.7, 1.9, 1.10, 1.17, 1.18, 1.19, 1.21, 1.24:

Prof. Gregory L. Possehl

Fig. 1.27:

Centre for Cultural Resources and Training, New Delhi

Theme 2Fig. 2.1: American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

Fig. 2.2, 2.6: Archaeological Survey of India

Fig. 2.3, 2.5, 2.10:


Fig. 2.4, 2.7, 2.9, 2.12, 2.13: National Museum, New Delhi

Fig. 2.8: Wikipedia

Theme 3Fig. 3.1, 3.10: Archaeological Survey of India

Fig. 3.3, 3.4, 3.5, 3.6, 3.7, 3.8, 3.9: National Museum,

New Delhi

Theme 4Fig. 4.1, 4.5, 4.8, 4.9, 4.12, 4.13, 4.14, 4.15, 4.16, 4.17,

4.18, 4.19, 4.21, 4.22, 4.23, 4.24, 4.25, 4.26, 4.27, 4.29,

4.31, fig 4.32 and 33 in exercise:

American Institute of Indian Studies, Gurgaon

Fig. 4.2: Wikipedia

Fig. 4.3, 4.11, 4.28, 4.30:


Fig. 4.4, 4.6, 4.7, 4.20: National Museum, New Delhi

themes in indian history 1

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