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Theme 1: The Indigenous Peoples and the Europeans

1. Describe the migratory and settlement patterns

of the indigenous people in the Caribbean up to

the arrival of the Spaniards in 1492.

Historians believe that the earliest peoples to settle the Western Hemisphere did so between 15,000 to 20,000 years ago.

They were a set of people that were nomadic: always on the go in search of food and warmer climate. This is the reason, it is believed, they came across the Bering Strait during the winter when it formed a land bridge connecting Asia to Alaska.

Among these groups of early settlers were the -

1. Incas of Peru2. Aztecs of Mexico3. Mayans of Yucatan Peninsula (Belize, Guatemala, El Salvador,

Northern Honduras and a part of Southern Mexico)4. Kalinagos and the Tainos who occupied the Venezuela and

the Guianas.

The CXC syllabus requires us to study the last three groups: the Mayans, Kalinagos and the Tainos.

Continuous rivalry between the Tainos and the Kalinagos, for land, women and food forced the docile Tainos to leave the regions of South America and move upwards into the neighboring island of Trinidad. The Kalinagos still followed them so some of the Tainos left Trinidad and continued into the Lesser Antilles. Some remained so Trinidad was occupied by both Tainos and Kalinagos.

In time, the Kalinagos came to control the islands of the Lesser Antilles, for example Dominica and St. Vincent while the Tainos who had fled further upwards came to control the Greater Antilles, Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola( Haiti and the Dominican Republic) and the Bahamas. Both groups shared the island of Puerto Rico.

The Tainos settled near the coasts or streams and rivers, for example Priestman's river in Jamaica. Why?

(a)   Fishing was an important source of food: protein (b)   They could easily get water for domestic purposes such as

washing their utensils or bathing (c)   They could get water for their crops(d)   They could go swimming

(e)   It provided an excellent lookout point. From this vantage point they could see the Kalinagos approaching and get ready to fight or run.

The Kalinagos settled near the coasts too. This is mainly because they were what we can call sea rovers. The sea was like a highway to them. They used it to get to and from the various islands of the Greater and Lesser Antilles where they conducted their raids. They were also excellent fishermen.

The indigenous peoples of the Americas

a) Migration of indigenous peoples to the Americas and to the Caribbean territories (through North, Central and South America) and their interactions.

The history of the Caribbean did not begin in 1492 with the arrival of Christopher Columbus. In fact, it began thousands of years earlier with the indigenes (Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans). These indigenous peoples (Amerindians) had developed societies that spread across the Americas - the Caribbean and parts of South and Central America.

The ancestors of the indigenous peoples were originally from Central East Asia and came across the frozen Bering Strait/Beringia to North America during the Ice Age. They were nomadic peoples who followed their food (mammoth) and this is presented as a factor that accounted for them wandering from Asia into North America. The nomads wandered southward through North, Central and South America, evolving distinct physical and cultural characteristics Three distinct groups developed societies in parts of the Caribbean and in Central and South Americas.

b) Geographical location of Taino (Arawak), Kalinago (Carib) and Maya.

Movement from Asia

1. Migratory pattern of the Arawaks/Tainos The Arawaks were a group of indigenous people who came fromAsia then walked across the Bearing Strait which was frozen dueto the Ice age. They then walked into Alaska then down into North Central andSouth America.

They then crossed the Orinoco River in canoes and settled in theGreater Antilles: (Cuba, Jamaica, Hispaniola , Puerto Rico and Bahamas). 2 Migratory pattern of the Caribs/Kalinogos

Tha Caribs came from Asia then walked across the Bearing Straitwhich was frozen due to the Ice age. They then walked into Alaska then down into North Central andSouth America. They then crossed the Orinoco River in canoes and settled in theLesser Antilles: (St Vincent, Grenada and Virgin Islands). 3. Migratory pattern of the Mayans These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait intoAlaska then into North America areas such as Mexico, Belize,Guatemala, Honduras, and on the Yucatan peninsula. 4. Migratory pattern of the Aztecs

These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait intoAlaska then into North America into Yucatan peninsula and settled 5. Migratory pattern of the Incas

These people migrated from Asia across the Bering Strait into South America in areas such as Peru and Bolivar.

Exercise:1. Draw a map of the world and only include the following:

bearing strait, North America, South America, the Caribbean, Europe and the Orinoco river.

2. From the map you are to put in places where the Mayans, Tainos, Kalinago and Aztec settled use colour to identify places where they settled.

You need to be sharp on your map work.

You could be asked to list territories that they settled in. You could also get a labelled map as you are asked to identify the territories relating to any of Columbus' four voyages as well.

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I would suggest that you make a list of the territories involved in the migration and settlement of the indigenous peoples..

You also need to know the shape and location of the various territories. Remember that the labelled map will NOT necessarily have the names of the territories. Please get yourself an atlas or at least a photocopy of a map of the Caribbean and study it.

Be familiar terms

Please be familiar with the terms: island/island peoples and mainland/mainland peoples. For the purpose of the CSEC Caribbean History syllabus, the islands refer to: the Greater Antilles: Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles, comprising the Windward and Leeward islands.

The island peoples refer to the Kalinagos and the Tainos.

The mainland refers to British Honduras (Belize) and the Guianas.

The mainland peoples refer to the Mayans.

If you are asked a question about island peoples, you CANNOT refer to the Mayans of Belize. Your answer would be wrong! The converse applies. If you are asked a question about mainland peoples, we do not expect you to write about the Tainos of Jamaica or the Kalinagos of Dominica. Got it?

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The Taino 

Appearance

They were short to middle height

They were well shaped, but slightly built, except those

in Hispaniola who were plump in shape.

Their skin colour was olive (smooth and brown).

They were naturally good looking but distorted (changed)

their features by artificial means.

(Their heads were flattened at the

forehead by the use of boards or a

bandages when they were babies)

this made the skull slope up to a

peak which the Arawaks thought was

a mark of beauty.

They had broad noses and their

nostrils were widely flared.

Their hair was black and straight

but coarse and was worn long.

They painted their bodies black,

white and other colours usually red, for ceremonial

event, war, and to protect them against insect bites

They painted their faces, eyes, and nose and the bare

parts of their bodies.

They wore gold in their noses and ears as plugs or

hanging ornaments.

STYLE of DRESS of the ARAWAKS

They were completely naked in the islands of Guanahani

(San Salvador)

In Hispaniola and Cuba the married women

wore a piece of cloth around their waist

called a nagua

PoliticalPolitical organization speaks to the way in which a

people is governed or ruled. We ask questions such as:

Who are the leaders?  What are the rules or system by

which they are chosen?

The CACIQUE was the head of Arawak society.

The cacique was a hereditary title (it passed

down from father to son)

The cacique ruled large provinces (villages)

If the cacique died without a son the title would be

passed on to the eldest son of his eldest sister. Or

a female could inherit the position if her father, the

cacique did not have a son.

Duties of the Cacique

He/she was the supreme judge.

He was a ceremonial leader more than a law

maker (but he did make laws.)

He dealt with the distribution of land, the

ordering of labour on the land, the planting and

distributing of the crops.

He made decisions of peace and war.

He could levy a kind of tax on the people of his

province. This might be in the form of agricultural

produce or of weapon.

He was the leader during war time.

He made few laws. he made the laws and

enforced them

He was a religious leader who was highly

respected and given many privileges. As religious

leader he decided how worship would go, he led

ceremonies playing a wooden gong and had his

own zemis. He fixed the day of worship and

celebrations

There were very few laws. Firstly, the Tainos were a peaceful set of people who believed in and practiced clan-cooperation and respect for elders. They worked and played together in harmony. There were very few crimes.

Privileges of the Cacique

He was allowed to have more than one wife. This

would increase his chances of having a male heir. They

had many wives.

His wives skirts were longer than those of the other

women, for length of skirt was a sign of high rank.

His house (bohio) was rectangular while all the others

were round. His house was also the largest.

His canoe was built by his tribe men. It was the

largest in the village and the only one to be painted.

He was given the best food and was carried around in

a litter.

He was buried in a marked grave or cave or in his own

hut and some of his wives were buried with him.

He sat on a special ceremonial stood

called a dujo. It was carved out of

wood or stone in the shape of an

animal. This was his symbol of

authority. On it he sat and

dispensed justice or gave out the

orders for the day.

He was given the best part of the

harvest for himself and family.

When he travelled by land, he was carried in a litter,

while his son was carried on servants’ shoulders.

He and his family wore ornaments of gold and copper

alloy called guanine, for gold was a sign of rank among

them.

Each village was ruled by a mitayno or nobleman while the province was ruled by the cacique. For most Arawak people, it was the mitayno’s power which mattered.

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His functions were as follows:

He organized the work of the village.

He decided when land should be prepared, crops planted

and harvested and any surplus stored for distribution in

the community.

He was the religious leader of his village.

He was the judge whose word was law and who could

sentence people to death for disobedience.

Nobles and mitaynos also inherited their position.

Commoners/ordinary people People who were born commoners remained in that class. Slaves were usually men and women captured in wars,

female captives were given to outstanding warriors as concubines.

All work was done communally, the commoners and slaves doing the work which the nobles supervised.

Religious Beliefs and Practices The Tainos were polytheistic- they believed in many gods.

They had a number of myths to explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man.

Their gods were represented by zemis which they made from wood, bone, stone or cotton, which were felt to contain the forces of nature or the spirits of the ancestors.

Each household kept a zemi or the bones of dead ancestors in a basket for use as a zemi to protect the family.

They believed in:

The forces of good and evil

Life after death

Heaven (coyaba) and hell

There is punishment in the afterlife for those who lived an

evil life

There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good

life.

The priest was the only one who could communicate with

the gods (zemis)

Offering food and meat offerings to the gods

Using tobacco (incense) in the process of communicating

with the gods

Having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods

Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)

Offering prayers to the gods for healing, good harvest,

protection and so on.

1. The cacique’s zemis were felt to be more powerful than anyone else’s. It was believed that only the cacique could speak to the zemis.

2. Even though the ordinary people could not converse with the zemis, each home had its own zemi in a place of honour on a small table.

3. A bowl of snuff (cahoba) or powdered tobacco was placed before it and when the person wished to pray, he placed the cahoba on the zemi’s flat topped head and inhaled from it through his nostrils from a y-shaped cane tube. He often rubbed the zemi with cassava to feed it, for the Arawaks felt that if their zemi went hungry, they would fall ill.

4. They placed great importance on religious ceremonies. The cacique announced the day on which a ceremony was

to take place. Their bodies were washed and painted red, white and black. The men wore their feathered cloaks and the women decorated their arms and legs with shells and coral.

5. When all were assembled the entire people formed a procession with the cacique at its head. He led them to the sacred hut on the outskirts of the village and there he and the priests entered to pray. First they tickled their throats with swallow sticks to make themselves vomit and prove to the zemis that no impurity remained in them. After this, they smoked the cahoba until they lost consciousness. It was then that the zemis were supposed to speak to them.

6. The arawaks believed in many gods, whom the zemis represented. The most important among these were the god of the sky and the goddess of the earth from whom all living things had descended. They also believed in a God of the moon which they thought was the sun’s twin brother. They also believed in spirits called opia, which belonged to the dead, and who returned at night to try to enter their bodies. For this reason, they only went out at night in groups and protected themselves by wearing zemis around their necks or foreheads.

Taino religious symbols

Social Organization ARAWAKS COMMUNITIES/VILLAGES

The Tainos were organized along family lines. A number of families make up a clan and the clans made up the village and the villages formed the community.

Cacique

Mitaynos(noblemen)

Ordinary People

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They were small in size

They were built near the sea or on top of hills as a

precaution against a surprise attack.

They had two sort of houses

The bohio-this was the chief’s

house. It was to be rectangular in

shape but because it was hard to

build they built him a round house

instead.

The caneye- this was the family

house. It was constructed by

putting wooden posts in the

ground in a circle. Then canes

were woven between them and

tied with creepers. The roof was

thatched in a conical shape and

a hole left in the top so that

smoke could escape.

Their houses were strong.

Their houses had little furniture such as (polished clay

pots, stools and a few tables.

They had the hammock which was made of cotton and

used for sleeping.

They had the zemi (idol) which was made of (wood, stone

or cotton) or used as a basket of bones.

Outside their house the Arawaks cultivated plots called

conucos where they grew maize (corn), cassava,

groundnuts, sweet potatoes, and yautia.

CUSTOMS

Every society has its own sets of customs and norms.

This is what defines us and sets us apart from other

people and countries. The indigenous peoples were no

different.  

1. They flattened the children's forehead as a mark of beauty.

2. They were a pleasure loving people. They played ball game

called batos, swam and did wrestling.

3. Only men were allowed to smoke and drink

4. They got married early .

5. Married men and women wore loincloth and cotton skirts

respectively. The single people went naked.

6. The most heinous crimes were theft and adultery for which

the punishment was a slow and painful death.

7. There was no private property, possession or wealth.

Everything was owned collectively by the members of the

community. (communally) 

 PLEASURE AND RECREATION

The Arawaks enjoyed themselves by singing and dancing called areytos. During these moments women and men usually danced alone but at times they danced together.

They drank for pleasure during their fun times.

They played a ball game called batos on a marked field called (batey). In this game two teams trying to hit the ball with any part of their body into their opponents goal line. It was a game similar to volleyball and football.

The favorite pass time activity for the Arawaks was smoking tobacco.

They called the tobacco plant (cohiba). The pipe in which the leaves were smoked was called tobacco.

They used tobacco for peace and contentment and for helping them to meditate.

The Arawaks made cigars and chewed tobacco.

GENDER RELATIONS

Women were a very important part of the Tainos society. Gender relation is most clearly seen in the division and organization of labor.

The women were responsible for the planting of the crops. It was believed that the fertility of the woman would transfer to

the crop and vice versa. If she was barren, mother earth would transfer some of its fertility to her.

The women did the weaving so that the men and children could have loincloths and cotton arm bands to wear.

They were to care for the children and the rest of the family while the men were away on hunting or fishing trips or out gathering food such as fruits.

The women were only invited to watch at wrestling matches and ball games. They were not allowed to participate. They formed the cheering committee.

Economic Organization Production

These are the main activities that the Tainos did in their quest to

provide food, ‘clothing' and shelter for their people. They can be

considered a step above the early hunters and gatherers.

Trading

Let us agree that trading would be limited. Why? 

First of all, they produced basically the same things.

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Secondly, the Tainos' villages were constantly raided by the

Kalinagos.

Thirdly, they did not engage in surplus production. They

provided just enough for their own use. It was not safe to

venture too far out at sea where the Kalinagos ruled the

‘highway'.

Whatever trading took place was among the Tainos themselves.

Different villages would contact each other when there was a

need. It is interesting to note that the Tainos of Jamaica did

engage in some amount of trading with the Mayans of Belize. If

you follow on your map you will see that a straight line connects

Jamaica to Belize.

Hunting

They hunted conies  (utia/hutia) and birds with nets and noose

that they made from fibres and vines. They also hunted iguanas,

agouti and snakes. They also went in search of and gathered

wild plants and the bark of certain trees as directed by their

priests to be used for medicinal purposes. In the hills of Trinidad

and Jamaica for example a lot of wild fruits grew in abundance.

These were gleefully collected and added to the main menu. 

Taino community showing farmers, hunters and community members

Farming

The Tainos practiced subsistence farming. That is they did not

produce and store a  surplus. They produced enough for the

needs of the community. They practiced slash and burn

agriculture. The men did the hard work of clearing the land.

They used wooden axes to chop the branches from the trees

and then set them on fire.

The women's duty was to do the actual planting. They planted

roots, seeds and vegetables on their small plots of land or

conoucos. They used pointed wooden sticks to dig holes and

drop the corn grains in. corn or maize was their favorite starch.

Then they covered them over with dirt. The ashes from the burnt

tree provided fertilizer. Aided by the children they watered the

crops as necessary. It was the children's duty to scare away

birds from the newly planted seeds. 

They grew a wide variety of crops such as:

1. Fruits: pineapples, guava, naseberry, cashew, soursop,

papaya and grapefruit (the only citrus known to them before the

coming of the Europeans)

2. Cassava

Cassava roots

3. Sweet potatoes

Fishing

They would go fishing in the dug out canoes that they made.

They used nets made of vegetable fibres, bone and turtle shell

hooks and bone tipped harpoons. They had an ingenious method

of attaching the remora or sucking fish to the canoe by a thin

line. The fish would then dart after the remora hoping to eat it

but would only succeed in getting itself sucked onto the

powerful remora. The fisherman would then pull up the remora,

take off the fish and deposit the remora once more in the water

to wait for another victim.

Waterfowls were also caught by trickery. The Tainos would allow

a number of calabashes to float on the river. The waterfowls

became used to these harmless objects and paid them no mind.

As soon as he was convinced that the fowls were relaxed, the

Taino would place a calabash over his head and quietly slip into

the water unnoticed. After a few minutes he would grab a

nearby fowl by the legs, pull it under until it drowned and then

put it in the bag that he carried with him.

They caught a wide variety of water animals such as: flying fish,

shell fish, crabs and manatee.

SUBSISTENCE LIVING of the ARAWAKS (FOODS and FOOD

PREPARATION METHODS)

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The Arawaks hunted and grew their food for themselves

and had a well balanced diet and food was plentiful for

them..

They caught and ate various (different) types of fish such

as (shellfish, turtle and manatee (sea-cow)

They fished using nets made using fibres, bone hooks and

harpoons.

The way in which the Arawaks caught the turtle showed

ingenuity (how clever they were).

How they caught the Turtle:

They caught a remora (sucker-

fish) and tied a long line to a

canoe.

The remora (sucker-fish) would

dive for the turtle and attach

itself to the back of the turtle

with its sucker.

The turtle will the be pulled into the canoe by

the fisherman (Arawaks).

The Arawaks hunted small animals

such as the utia, agouti and the

iguana whose meat they liked a lot.

The Arawaks used small dogs called

alcos to help them hunt because they did not bark but

made a growling noise. These dogs were the only animals

the Arawaks domesticated (train to live in their homes

with them)

The Arawaks caught doves in nets and birds like parrot by

slipping a noose over their heads.

Their method of catching ducks showed a lot of cunning.

How they caught the duck:

First they floated gourds

down stream until the ducks

became use to seeing

gourds

As the ducks become familiar with seeing the

gourd, the hunter would put a gourd over his

head breathing through a hole and seeing

through eye slits

When he come close to the duck he would

pull it under water by its legs and drown it.

The Arawaks ate a lot of fruits such as (pineapples,

mammee apples, star apples, naseberries, guavas and

cashews) and vegetables.

The Arawaks showed their agricultural skills in growing

vegetables:

They cultivated maize (corn)

by soaking the seeds in water

and planting them in rows.

They planted cassava, sweet

potatoes, yautia and

groundnuts in large mounds

of earth

They squeezed the poisonous juices

out of the cassava before making cassava flour.

The Arawaks used cooking methods such as baking,

roasting and stewing to prepare their foods.

Foods How food was Prepared

Iguana Meat Stewed

Cassava Cakes Baked

Fish Smoked

The Arawaks favorite dish was Pepperpot soup/stew

(made with meat, vegetables, nuts and pepper), which

was a stew or a soup. Because of how this dish was

prepared would feed a family for several days.

They used salt and pepper to season their foods

especially the cassareep sauce which was made of

cassava juice.

They made intoxicating drinks using cassava and maize

(corn). The only time they got drunk was on some

ceremonial occasions.

Weaving

Hammocks were a favourite item. They were used as beds or

just to ‘hang out' and catch the cool breeze. They also did

baskets from straw. These were used as containers for the

fishermen's catch.

Mining  

The indigenous peoples did not place much value on gold. They

used it mainly as ornaments. The method of collecting gold was

therefore very simple. They would dig a hole at the side of the

river bank and let the water flow through it. They would examine

the silt that was left behind. Any gold found was collected and

given to those in charge of making decorative headdress for the

caciques, masks for religious ceremonies or nose rings and

bracelets.

Technology

The Indigenous people lived in the Stone Age. They did not know

iron. Their tools were therefore very simple. Most people

consider their techniques and methods backwards when judged

by modern methods. 

1. The remora or sucking fish used in to catch fish

2. Bows and arrows used in hunting

3. Slash and burn agriculture

4. Fertilizer: ashes, animal and

vegetable manure

5. Crude irrigation ditches

6. Crop rotation.

7. Fishing hooks made from

bones

8. Fire used as a tool in canoe

building

9. Dyeing

Taino axe

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The Kalinago

Location of SettlementsBrazil, Guiana, Venezuela, Puerto Rico and Lesser Antilles.

AppearanceKalinagos were taller than the Arawaks

* Brown in complexion

Stronger than the Arawaks due to emphasis place on

physical training for fighting

Both women and men painted their bodies with dyes

(roucou). The men wore head dress (colourful) and

jewellery through their lips and nose

The kalinago women wore rassada (bracelets) around

their arms and legs.

They flattened the foreheads of their babies by placing

the babies on their mother's breast.

Political Organisation This was not as rigid or as well defined as the Tainos.

• However , in wartime, the Caribs became more strickly

organized.

The Ouboutu (Ubutu) was the most important man among the Caribs . He was the chief only during war time. His functions were:

a. He decided when the men should be called to the carbet to plan a raid.

b. He decided who should be attacked, how the raid should be conducted and when it should take place.

c. He chose the commanders of the canoes of piragas.

d. He presided over the victory celebrations during which everyone who had killed an arawak chief was allowed to take his name as a mark of honour.

e. The Ubutu also had the responsibility of rewarding the

Kalinago men who were successful in raids and hunting.

f. Piraga (canoe) were used to raid the Tainos villages and

the Ubutu would chose individuals to captain the Piraga

(canoe).

g. He made few laws.

The position of chief or Ouboutou (Ubutu) was not hereditary.

It was NOT passed down from father to son. Instead, the chief

was elected on the basis of his prowess that is his bravery. As a

result there was constant rivalry for leadership. The leaders also

changed frequently.

There were lesser governors who ruled during times of peace. They were called tiubutuli hauthe, and were the heads of families, for each family lived in its own village.

His functions were:

a. He supervised the fishing and hunting.

b. He led the village in ceremonies and entertainment such as wrestling, canoe racing, singing, dancing and story-telling.

c. He was in charge of the Carbets.

d. He supervised the cultivation of the land.

Religious Beliefs and Practices

The Kalinagos were polytheistic.

They believed

In many gods

In evil spirits known as maboya.

 In life after death.

In the existence of Heaven and hell.

That there is punishment and reward in the afterlife.

That those who were brave warriors went to a place

where they were waited on by Tainos slaves.

That the souls of cowards went to a dreary desert where

they became slaves to Tainos masters.

The priest or boyez was the only one who could

communicate with the gods.

In offering sacrifices to the gods especially when they

went to sea.

In using tobacco (incense) in the process of

communicating with the gods.

In having festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods.

In keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods).

In offering prayers to the gods for bravery.

Both the Tainos and the Kalinagos believed in nature and ancestor worship.

 

Social Organization

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Gender relations

Women were also a very important part of the Kalinagos

society. Gender relation is also most clearly seen in the

division and organization of labor. The women were

needed for the planting of the crops. It was believed that

the fertility of the woman would transfer to the crop and

vice versa. If she was barren, mother earth would

transfer some of its fertility to her.

They were to care for the children and the rest of the

family while the men were away on their raids, long

hunting or fishing trips.

The women were only

invited to watch at

wrestling matches. They

were not allowed to

participate. They formed

the cheering committee.

Men and women lived

separate. The men

believed that they would

become weak and be like

‘sissy' if they lived with the

women. So the men lived

together in the carbet

while the women and

children lived by themselves. The boys were then

separated from their mothers. At age ten they joined the

men in the carbet and began to prepare for their

manhood initiation ceremony. 

 Customs

1. Men and women lived separately.

2. Painting of the body to look fierce especially when going on raids.

3. They did not eat turtle. They thought it would make them slow and stupid.

4. They ate a lot of pepper. It was believed that this would make them fierce.

5. They flattened their foreheads from an early age. This was to make the arrow bounce off should they get hit in the forehead during battle.

6. They often hung the skull and or bones of their victims in their houses like trophy.

7. All boys were required to undergo initiation test when they reached puberty.

8. They were scratched with an agouti claw and pepper rubbed in the wound. If they bore it without flinching they were chosen to be a warrior. If they flinched, they would be numbered among the priests.

Kalinagos cultre

Technology

1. Poisonous bow and arrow

2. Weaving straw baskets 

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Tainos:family — village settlements along river valleys, coastal areas. Social organization: women did farming, (slash and burn) men did hunting and fishing, their society was hierarchical and pacificGovernment: independent Arawak community ruled by cacique; hereditary ruler who was also high priest and judge, : mitaynos,Religion and spiritualism,: cacique was high priest, believed in coyabaCustoms: flattened forehead of babies, singing, dancing tobacco smoking, playing bates,Food: seafood, vegetables, pepper, pepper soup, cassava, agouti,Architecture: rectangular houses. Using indigenous material (thatch, poles) Technology: skilled in constructing dugout canoes, stone tools, spears, bows and arrows, straw baskets, hammocks Farming methods: subsistence farming; slash and bum , primitive tools

Kalingoesfamily-village settlement,Social organization: women did farming, men did hunting and fishing, their society was militaristic.Government: family independent, justice carried out on a personal level, civil leader supervised farming and fishing, answerable to 'ouboutu'Religion: spiritualistic, special boys trained as priest, each person had their own maboya (spirit) Customs: singing, dancing, smoking tobacco, initiation into manhood, flattened babies' forehead

Architecture: rectangular houses made from indigenous material (thatch and pole) Technology, skilled in constructing dugout, effective fishing methods

The Maya     

 A Mayan warrior 

We know that the Mayans lived on the Central American mainland and that they chiefly occupied the Yucatan Peninsula. Unlike the Tainos and Kalinagos they built most of their settlement inland. Why?

1. They could get vast expanse of land to build their large and magnificent temples.

2. They had easy access to limestone for building.

3. There was an extensive trade network in the interior.

4. There was much fertile land for agriculture.

5. Rivers were located inland so they were also near water supply.

Political Organisation Of the three groups the Mayans were the most

advanced. They built vast empires and independent city

states. As such, they had a fairly elaborate and rigid

system of government. Each independent city state was

ruled by a Halach Uinic. This was a hereditary position.

It was passed down from father to son only. His powers

were wide. He was almost an absolute ruler. He had the

final say in all matters. He had various civil, military and

religious duties to perform.  

He designed all domestic policies and foreign affairs.

Remember that we are dealing with a very large area

when compared to the Caribbean region occupied by the

Tainos and Kalinagos. Belize alone is twice the size of

Jamaica.

The states were divided into villages which were ruled

by batabs. There were all chosen from the noble class

so this post was also hereditary. They were to see to it

that the laws and policies were enforced.

Because the Mayans were constantly engaged in

defending themselves from neighboring invaders, the

war chiefs or nacoms were also an important part of the

government.  They were however elected for three

years. During their term of office they were not allowed

to drink any strong drink! They were responsible for

providing and training soldiers.

A Mayan city

Social Organisation

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Not surprisingly therefore the society was also organized

along rigid class lines. These ranged from the royal

family, the nobles: those who held top ranking

government positions as well as the scribes, the priests,

the merchant class, the farmers and craftsmen and the

slaves. The Mayan society was a complex one. They

were very intelligent and therefore the society

accommodated these privileged people in the noble

class. Usually though the astronomers and astrologers

and mathematicians were from the priesthood.

A list of the various occupations that existed will help us to understand the various groups of people that made up the Mayan society.

1. Engineers 2. Architects  3. Priests  4. Teachers  5. Mathematicians 6. Astronomers 7. Scribes  8. Merchants  9. Traders  10. Farmers 11. Miners 12. Those who worked in the Forest industry 13. Craftsmen or artisans  

       A picture showing Mayan hierarchy in society

Religious Beliefs and Practices The Mayans were polytheistic. They believed in as many as 166 gods! They had too had a number of myths to explain the mysteries of life including earth and the creation of man.

They believed in:

The forces of good and evil Life after death

Heaven and hell The underworld There is punishment in the afterlife for those who

lived an evil life

There is reward in the afterlife for those who lived a good life.

Confessing to the priest on one's death bed. Offering human sacrifices to the gods, especially

virgin girls!

Using incense in the process of communicating with the gods

Having birthday festivals and celebrations in honor of the gods

Keeping the gods happy (appeasing the gods)

 

Mayan Gods of Rain, Sun, Maize, Death and the Goddes of death

            

Gender Relations

In Mayan society, the women played a subservient role.

Mayan women were not allowed to drink at functions.

They were supposed to take their drunken husbands

home!

They could not hold public office. Their main functions

were child bearers and home makers. In fact, a Mayan

man could divorce his wife if she did not bear him any

children.

They were also given specific roles. They worked to pay

the tribute tax. Weaving and pottery were done

exclusively by the women. 

There were more recreational activities that the men

were allowed to participate in. for example there was

only one dance in which the men and women were

allowed to dance together. All other dances were done

by the men together. The men also participated in bow

and arrow contests.

  

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What were the MAIN activities that they did to produce their basic needs?

1. Trade

They traded within the mainland. They traded by land

and sea. There was a day set aside for market day and

there established market centers. The highlands had

goods that the lowlands did not have. They used the

rivers and the long coastline as sea routes to get from

one city state to another. This way too, they could carry

a large volume of goods in the large canoes that they

built instead of a limited amount on their heads over

long distances.

They also traded obsidian and flint. The flint was in great

demand for fire purposes but was only plenty in a certain

area. Other precious metals and stones were traded to

be used for ornamental or religious purposes. For that

same reason they traded feathers.

We already know that they traded with the people of the

Greater Antilles.

The merchants and traders were known as ppolms.

They were often used as and suspected of being spies

who carried information from one city to another.

 Mayan Jade was believed to bestow greenness and fertility to the land around it.

2. Farming

They practiced slash and burn, terracing and raised field

farming techniques. They grew a wider variety of crops

to include starch and vegetables. Maize (corn) was also

their favourite starch. Among the list of foods, we find

squash, pumpkin and of course cacao. They too had

cotton, cassava, papaya and sweet potatoes.

3. Hunting

The Tainos and Kalinagos only knew two animals. The

wild forests of the Central American mainland were the

natural habitat of many animals such as a number of

birds, deer, and the jaguar. They too hunted the agouti.

4. Animal Husbandry

They reared a wide variety of animals in order to provide

meat for their families and for sale in the market.

Examples of these are rabbits and the tapir. 

5. Mining

This was very important to Mayan society and politics.

There were large deposits of limestone to be found

along the Central American mainland. Using their slave

labor they extracted huge blocks of limestone for the

construction of their cities, temples and pyramids.

How did they manage to earn the title of the most advanced civilization?

Technology

1. We will do engineering and architecture as a separate item since this was a very important part of Mayan religion and society. Using their limestone and

mortar the Mayans constructed the following to create their magnificent empires:

- Corbelled arch- Roads and bridges- Causeways - Massive temples with staircases for worship- Entire cities with huge pyramids were constructed of stones, like Chichen Itza and Tikal.

- Large public buildings made of limestone and mortar

- Stone stelae with their history depicted on them 

 2. They were skilled in Mathematics

3. They practiced a form of writing known as hieroglyphics.

4. They had books made from the bark of trees.

5. They created a Calendar very similar to ours with 365 days in a year and leap as well!

6. They practiced astrology. They observed the stars and planets and used these to determine the ‘right' time to plant, reap and even marry!

7. They had three farming techniques to include the slash and burn method

-They had a form of currency. Cocoa beans was used for money

-They used irrigation methods -They used dams and wells to ensure water supply -They knew and used the art of dyeing

 

 

Mayan tools

Explain the relationship between the main art forms and the beliefs and technology of the indigenous peoples

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InteractionWe know that much of the interaction between the Tainos and

the Kalinagos was hostile and involved violence, bloodshed and

death. Through this constant warfare the Kalinagos obtained

Tainos as prisoners and they were used as slaves.

They also captured some of the women and used them as their

wives or took away their parts of their land occupied it as we see

in Trinidad and Puerto Rico.  In instances such as these the

people in these territories spoke a mixture of Arawak and Carib

language. There was also a mixing of cultures in the diet since

the women were the ones who prepared the food. It is also said

that the Tainos on these two islands were not as docile as the

others and that in fact they were quite hostile.

Children born out of this force union also helped in the

interaction. Some Kalinagos came to have Tainos name and so

on. The cultivation of food crops also increased as more and

more Taino women were captured and brought to live with the

Kalinagos.

 ________________________________________________________________

Be familiar terms

Please be familiar with the terms: island/island peoples and mainland/mainland peoples. For the purpose of the CSEC Caribbean History syllabus, the islands refer to: the Greater Antilles: Jamaica, Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and the Bahamas and the Lesser Antilles, comprising the Windward and Leeward islands. The island peoples refer to the Kalinagos and the Tainos.

The mainland refers to British Honduras (Belize) and the Guianas. The mainland peoples refer to the Mayans.

If you are asked a question about island peoples, you CANNOT refer to the Mayans of Belize. Your answer would be wrong! The converse applies. If you are asked a question about mainland peoples, we do not

expect you to write about the Tainos of Jamaica or the Kalinagos of Dominica. Got it?

Remember that you can get a comparative question. You may be asked to compare any two or maybe even all three indigenous groups. You are expected to know about their:

Social and political organisation Religious practices Customs Gender relations Trade Technology Agricultural practices Art forms: architecture, music, painting, pottery and dance

I would suggest that you make a chart and fill in the historical facts relating to each aspect. This should come in very handy in your revision exercise. (See table at right.)

Here is a question for you to practise:

(a) Name ONE Caribbean territory where the Tainos lived and ONE Caribbean territory where the Mayans lived. (2 marks)

(b) Describe TWO ways in which the social organisation of the Kalinagos was different from that of the Tainos. (6 marks)

(c) Describe ONE way in which the political organisation of the Tainos and the Kalinagos was similar. (4 marks)

(d) Give THREE reasons the Spanish settlers enslaved the indigenous peoples of the Caribbean. (9 marks)

(e) List FOUR methods of resistance used by these indigenous peoples in response to the Spanish systems of enslavement. (4 marks)

TOTAL 25 marks

Areas Kalinagos Mayans Tainos

Social organisation

Political organisation

Religious practices

Customs

Gender relations

Trade

Technology

Agricultural practices

Architecture

Music

Painting

Pottery

c) Social organisation of the Tainos, Kalinagos and Mayans.

Division of labour

In Taino villages the duties were designated based on one's sex and age. In this regard, men and boys undertook tasks such as clearing the fields, hunting, fishing and defence of 

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the village. Additionally, the men and boys played integral roles in house construction and canoe making. The women and girls were in charge of crop cultivation, spinning and weaving of cotton, making handicrafts (baskets, hammocks, aprons and utensils) and child rearing.

Marriage

Taino women had little choice in marriage as parents often arranged marriages when the girls were close to puberty. Polygamy was a common practice among the noble classes and it was usually the norm for the chief or cacique to have many wives. The 'ordinary' Taino men usually had only one wife for economic reasons. This is so as men desirous of marrying had to make payment of a 'bride price' and many commoners had to pay for their wives through service to her parents. Elite men and chiefs, however, could afford to pay for their bride in trading goods.

Village Life

In Kalinago villages there was the segregation of the sexes and a communal house was established, to which boys went at puberty and where adult and adolescent males lived, slept and ate.

This was not the case in Taino communities. Taino villages were normally established on sites with easy access to reliable fresh water and with the availability of flat fertile ground for cassava (manioc) cultivation. Additionally, because of the military struggles taking place in the region, military defence was part of the consideration in setting up these villages. They were generally laid out around a central village square and consisted of individual houses with thatched roofs and timber walls. These villages housed between 300 and 500 people.

RELIGIOUS ORGANISATION

Religion and religious practices were important to the indigenous peoples of the Americas. These groups were polytheistic in nature; they believed in many gods.

Tainos

Tainos worshipped idols known as zemis. Each family in the village would have a zemi but the cacique's was thought to be the most powerful in the village. Zemis were considered to possess potent skills - they controlled the weather, crops, sickness, war and peace. As such, communication was quite critical with them and this was carried out by the cacique. The zemis were often fed cassava because it was believed that if they went hungry, they themselves would fall ill.

Kalinagos

The maboya was essential in the religious life of the Kalinagos. Many Kalinago boys were trained as priests or boyez. During this time, they frequently had to fast and abstain from eating meat. The boys had to undergo a rigid initiation process as well. One of the boyez's duties had to do with overcoming evil spirits; the maboya was used in this process. They felt that since each person had his own maboya, all evils, whether sickness, defeat in battle or even death, came because of a spell put on them by an enemy maboya.

Mayans

Instead of idols, the Mayans had several gods; these included Yum Kax (god of Corn) and Chac (god of Rain). They believed in immortality of the soul and practised burying the dead with several of their favourite items that they would use in the afterlife.

POLITICAL ORGANISATION

Tainos

The cacique/chief of the Taino society enjoyed a hereditary position. This was passed from father to son. However, if there were no male heir, the eldest son of his eldest sister would assume the title. I should point out, however, that this was quite rare. Nobles or nitayanos assisted the cacique in the village; these were usually older men who were considered wise and mature.

The cacique was entrusted with several responsibilities such as:

a) making the laws

b) distributing land and allocating labour

c) officiating religious and social festivals

d) heading religious ceremonies

e) being the final judge in all disputes.

Kalinagos

The ouboutou was the chief of the Kalinago society - one had to defeat or kill several enemies in battle to be elected to this position. In essence, he was chosen because of his prowess in combat. Lesser governors for their villages, who ruled in times of peace, assisted the ouboutou. These men were called tiubutuli hauthe and carried out duties such as supervising the fishing and cultivating as well as leading in social ceremonies. Other leaders included the nobles and priests (boyez), the latter's primary role being that of a religious nature.

The duties of the ouboutou included:

a) presiding over victory celebrations

b) deciding when raids were to be held.

Mayans

The position of Mayan chief (the halach uinich) was inherited through family lineage. This position passed from father to son; however, if the son of the deceased ruler was not competent, one of his brothers became head of state. If this were not successful either, a council of nobles would elect a suitable person from the ruler's family. Nobles and ppolms (merchants) were other important persons in Mayan society. The ppolms were important merchants who had their own laws, worshipped their own gods and did not have to pay taxes.

ECONOMIC/AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES

Tainos/kalingos

The indigenes were also very good mariners, trading beyond the limits of the Caribbean Sea and further afield to South and North America. To facilitate this trade they made huge canoes from tree trunks, which could be as long as 25 metres, with the capacity for 50 people. In these they transported their wares like cotton textile goods and ceramics, which they traded with neighbouring peoples and further afield. They also possessed well-crafted stone tools - knives, scrapers and axes that further facilitated the constructing of their important boats and allowed them to make impressive woodcarvings.

In terms of agricultural practice, it was primarily subsistence farming that was practised by both the Tainos and Kalinagos. Crops cultivated included maize, peanut, sweet potato, hot pepper and cassava. They ate animals such as snails, shellfish, turtle eggs, iguanas, agoutis, birds, yellow snake and their favourite dish pepper pot. The Kalinago cultivated crops such as cassava, sweet potato and yam and ate animals such as manatee, birds, agouti and fish. They did not eat pig or turtle because they believed these foods would make them stupid. They also refused to consume crabs before a voyage, as this would have caused rough seas.

Mayans

The Mayans had a rich seafood diet that included fish and oyster. Their economic system was more complex and they had land and seaborne trade between city-states carried out by the ppolms. A barter system was in place that facilitated the exchange of foods, textile and minerals. Cocoa beans were the official currency.

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