The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Practical Theology, First Edition. Edited by Bonnie J. Miller-McLemore.© 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Published 2012 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

CHAPTER 27

Worship

Don E. Saliers

Worship is a revelatory activity. Broadly conceived, worship is the human response to the mystery of God ’ s being and self - communication. Whether communal

(liturgical) or individual (devotional), worship is not a theory about God and the world, but a set of practices, experiences, and fundamental dispositions toward what is deemed most sacred. Yet every tradition of worship is also culturally embedded and embodied. By engaging in worship over time, communities and individuals are shaped in ways of being human in relation to how God is understood and experienced. At the same time, worship requires more than a set of ritual practices. Faithful worship becomes a way of life, guiding moral and ethical behavior, providing aesthetic and mystical experience, and generating refl ective theories of practice in every historical period and socio-cultural context. Thus, critical refl ection on worship may be regarded as a major form of practical theology.

In one of the earliest descriptions of Christian worship, Justin Martyr reports a Sunday gathering in a mid - second - century house church in Rome:

And on the day called Sunday there is a meeting in one place of those who live in cities or the country, and the memoirs of the apostles or writings of the prophets are read as long as time permits. When the reader has fi nished, the president in a discourse urges and invites [us] to the imitation of these noble things. Then we all stand up together and offer prayers . . . when we have fi nished the prayer, bread is brought, and wine and water . . . we greet each other with a kiss. Then the president of the [assembly] takes them, sends up praise and glory to the Father of the universe through the name of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, and offers thanksgivings at some length . . . When the president has given thanks and the whole congregation has assented [shouting “ amen ” ], those whom we call deacons give to each of those present a portion of the consecrated [ “ eucharistized ” ] bread and wine and water, and they take it to the absent. (Justin Martyr 1970 : 285 – 287)

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This narrative account of early Christian worship features human actions in a pre-pared spatial setting – reading, preaching, praying, and participation in a ritual meal. In and through these actions God is acknowledged and received. Certain ethical com-mitments for the life of the community are inscribed on the bodily actions of the wor-shippers. Justin Martyr describes “ prayed and enacted theology. ” If we were to explore this concrete example of communal worship fully, several disciplines would be neces-sary in order to grasp its theological import over time: the people ’ s social background, the content of readings and prayers and how these are “ performed, ” as well as the life patterns that are effected by belonging and participating. Like any such description of the ordering and dynamics of worship, Justin Martyr ’ s account shows how the study and teaching of worship must involve both anthropological and theological points of view. Since worship has to do with a lived theology, its study and teaching require a convergence of disciplines. Christian and Jewish forms of worship are indispensably linked to refl ective and traditioned practice s that comprise the history of gathered com-munities of faith. This chapter focuses on the interrelation between theological and anthropological features of Christian worship, accenting how human communities are shaped and come to express a form of life coram Deo (before God) in and through a recurring liturgical assembly.

Recent developments in the fi eld of liturgical studies bear directly upon questions of how and why communal worship is a form of practical theology. As Alexander Schmemann observed in his seminal work, “ liturgical theology is the elucidation of the meaning of worship ” ( 1966 : 9). Liturgical theology is a name for the branch of practi-cal theology that studies the particular ways in which Christian worship is formative and expressive of a Christian way of life. After preliminary defi nitions of worship, we turn to recent developments in the reform and renewal among Christian churches and the resulting changes in the language and symbolic forms that constitute a worship-ping assembly ’ s means of participation. A third section focuses on refl ective methodol-ogy and integrated judgments. Neighboring disciplines developed in recent liturgical theology conspire to generate a “ strategic practical theology ” (Browning 1991 ). Concluding observations address future directions for the study and practice of worship in light of emerging patterns. Social, cultural, and intellectual shifts bear directly upon church and seminary education.

Preliminary Defi nitions of Worship

A classical defi nition of worship is: “ the glorifi cation of God and the sanctifi cation of humanity. ” Originating in the 1903 motu proprio on church music by Pope Pius X, the defi nition appears frequently in the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy of Vatican II, often speaking fi rst of the “ sanctifi cation of man [ sic ]. ” Through authentic worship com-munities of human beings express qualities associated with the Divine and are in turn shaped by them. The love, power, and justice of God are refl ected in the ways in which God is addressed. To “ glorify God ” is to acknowledge the being and activity of divinity, typically by offering praise and thanksgiving, and by speaking the truth about human creatureliness before God. In this sense all true worship seeks that which is holy. The

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classical biblical text often cited for this is from the prophet Isaiah ’ s vision in the temple (from Isaiah 6). The prophet encounters a theophany with heavenly beings crying out “ Holy, holy, holy ” in endless praise of God. In this experiential vision of heavenly worship the prophet senses his own personal limitation and unworthiness. Here the awe - inspiring divine presence generates the human self - perception of fi nitude and creatureliness. This is one paradigm of how the worship of God may shape the attitude of reverence and the dispositions of humility and sanctity. In the words of the Jewish philosopher and theologian Martin Buber, worship occurs when God becomes a “ Thou ” and is no longer a mere “ It ” (that is, an object of speculation or rational thought alone).

This initial defi nition sets forth the relationality between God and human beings inherent in all acts of worship. Recent theological thinking has contributed a comple-mentary insight to the relation between God ’ s holiness and human self - understanding. A new generation exposed to ecological matters may amend this defi nition to read “ the glorifi cation of God and the sanctifi cation of all that is creaturely. ” This opens the ques-tion of how worship comprehends more than human religious consciousness. The divine intention is for the restoration of all of creation – a wholeness of the created order in which human beings play a central, but not an exclusive, role. Some traditional theologies fi nd this broadening of the concept of sanctifi cation challenging to some of the anthropological assumptions of inherited patterns and rhetoric. Creation - oriented worship patterns have gone hand in hand with new ecological awareness and have actually retrieved aspects of biblical and liturgical traditions that have been neglected. This is especially true of the recovery of creation psalms and of the creation theology embedded in early eucharistic prayers.

A second defi nition of worship starts “ from below. ” In Luther ’ s Large Catechism , the people “ assemble to hear and discuss God ’ s Word and then praise God with song and prayer ” (Tappert 1959 : 376). Expanding this slightly, we can defi ne worship as the “ gathering, singing, listening, speaking, praying, and enacting the ritual forms appro-priate to naming God. ” This phenomenological approach, now dominant in the aca-demic study of worship, nevertheless maintains a theological anchoring point. Here method moves between empirical and ritual analysis to discover the implicit theological claims that arise in praising, lamenting, and enacting the patterns of worship. This defi nition has the advantage of starting with the human means of communication and the particular practices that defi ne specifi c traditions or sub - traditions. Sharing common actions over time – such as singing hymns, praying prayers, preaching sermons, and celebrating a holy meal or ritual washing – constitutes both religious identity and a culturally embodied form of life. A more phenomenological defi nition of worship con-siders the social, cultural, and psychological aspects of both inherited forms and the community ’ s means of participation. This is true of personal, devotional worship as well.

Whether the starting point is with divine revelation, or with the forms of human response, liturgical theology as a form of practical theology attends to the reciprocity between revelation and response, and hence to the permanent tensions that emerge in every tradition of Christian worship. This requires attention to the cultural “ languages ” that are used, and to problems of potential idolatry (worshipping false gods).

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Recent Developments: Reform, Renewal, and the Symbolic Languages of Worship

Over the past 50 years every major Christian denomination has engaged in reform and renewal of worship. Stimulated by the liturgical reforms of the Second Vatican Council (1963 – 1965), Episcopalians, Lutherans, Presbyterians, United Methodists, the United Christ of Christ, and others have produced a fl ood of new worship books, resources, and hymnals. These developments have had a considerable impact on how local con-gregations plan, celebrate, and evaluate worship. Innovations have arisen in non-denominational and independent community churches. But new, culturally attuned changes are also taking place inside “ mainline ” churches. 1 The process of reforming public worship has included such changes as (1) a renewed emphasis on the centrality of baptism and the eucharist; (2) a comprehensive lectionary of biblical readings for the Christian year; (3) recovery of biblical preaching; (4) new models of prayer, often based on ancient Jewish and Christian sources; (5) recovery of the senses and bodily participation; (6) vital connections between liturgy and social ethics; and (7) creativity in hymn writing and musical forms, both ancient and contemporary. All these changes have sounded new theological accents and raised questions about the relationship of worship practices with theological understanding.

At the same time, reforming the rites and the texts of worship – whether in a highly proscribed book of liturgy or in more “ free church ” traditions – does not automatically guarantee renewal of worship life and spirituality. Churches have still experienced dif-fi culty in the renewal of congregational life even with these reforms. In some cases, as with the Roman Catholic Church, confl icts have arisen between traditionalists and those who embrace the reforms of Vatican II and charismatic renewal movements. Tensions between so - called “ traditional ” and “ contemporary ” forms of worship have also contributed to the “ worship wars ” in many denominations. Such tensions have led to new, critically refl ective engagements with hermeneutical and theological issues.

Permanent tensions arise in any attempt at reform and renewal because Christian worship employs culturally embodied and culturally embedded means to express tran-scendent realities. The history of Christian worship is marked by periods of change and upheaval, from the rise of monasticism to Charlemagne to the Reformation to Vatican II. Any community gathered to worship God uses language, music, movement, sym-bolic actions, and available arts such as architecture. All such means occur in particu-lar historical and cultural contexts, refl ecting movements and counter - movements in the arts and social structures. Recent scholarship as well as formative teaching in the fi eld have moved from the exclusively text - centered and historical study of forms and rites to distinctively anthropological and phenomenological points of view. In the past 40 years more research and writing have taken a defi nite ethnographic turn, seeking

1 We will return to these developments in the fi nal section. Many changes have more to do with electronic media and nonchurch sensibilities than with the historical recovery of Jewish and Christian traditions. Other changes result from the infl uence of Pentecostal and African American worship styles in US culture.

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to give a detailed account of the richness of all the features of actual worship life. Case studies in how worshipping communities are shaped by images, rhetorical styles, music, and cultural contexts are now at the forefront of much (though not all) seminary for-mation of leaders in church and synagogue. Consequently the study and teaching of worship in seminaries as well as in the churches depend upon understanding the ways in which common worship borrows from particular cultural modes and styles of com-munication. During the past half - century – especially since the Second Vatican Council in the West – methodologies belonging to cultural anthropology, ritual studies, linguis-tics, aesthetics, and the social sciences have come to play a central role in liturgical studies. New questions are being asked and new patterns of inquiry concerning ritual, symbol, the arts, and performance practice in music, language, and gesture are becom-ing more and more integrated into studies of actual worshipping communities (e.g., Chupungco 1982 ; Kavanagh 1984 ; Power 1984 ; Hoffman 1987 ; Saliers 1996 ; Chauvet 1995 ; Ramshaw 2009 ). Doctoral dissertations on worship are far more likely to involve sociological and ethnographic accounts of specifi c worshipping assemblies than they were 40 years ago. Large surveys of lay participation, such as the Notre Dame Study of Catholic Parish Life, employ extensive interviews and thick descriptions of actual liturgies in their reports on Roman Catholic worship in the United States. More recently still, fi lmed liturgies such as This Is the Night (a visual essay of the Easter Vigil in a church in Pasadena, Texas) have been widely distributed and studied by seminar-ians and local church worship committees.

In Protestant church traditions, verbal forms of expression have traditionally been the predominant feature of worship. Preaching is central, alongside reading and verbal prayer. Hymnody has often carried the people ’ s theology in and through the texts. Recently, however, more attention is being given to the nonverbal dimensions of worship normally associated with Roman Catholic and other high church liturgical traditions. Pentecostal and charismatic movements in the twentieth century have also entered into the fi eld of study. Scholars as well as practitioners are much more attuned to how the language used in worship depends radically on the nonverbal dimensions of worship for meaning and signifi cance. Two signifi cant examples are found in Martha Moore - Keish ’ s Do This in Remembrance of Me ( 2008 ), a focused study of a particular reformed congregation, and Kendra Hotz and Matthew Mathews ’ s Shaping the Christian Life ( 2006 ). At the same time, Roman Catholics have been alerted to questions about the Word in preaching and singing. This results from reforms found in the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy of the Second Vatican Council and its focus on “ full, active, and con-scious participation ” of the laity in worship. 2

Several primary nonverbal modes of communication form the matrix for participa-tion: the visual, the acoustical (sound and silence), the gestural, the spatial - architectural, the temporal (how time is conceived and experienced), ritual actions (bowing, washing, embracing, anointing, eating, and drinking), and symbolic objects and signs. All these aspects enter into the embodied substance of worship, and bear directly upon how God,

2 See the “ Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy ” , para. 14 ( Sacrosanctum Concilium , in O ’ Brien 1982 : 8).

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the self, and the world are experienced. Recent thinking about worship is therefore also the study of sensorial receptivity and the hermeneutical implications of embodiment. Feminist and womanist approaches to worship have advanced practical theological proposals about these features (e.g., Procter - Smith 1990 ; Berger 2006 ; Bieler and Schottroff 2007 ). The verbal texts and utterances in worship depend radically on these nonverbal “ languages ” for meaning and point, much the way the human language of love or hope requires more than words. Contemporary approaches to understanding worship open up new ways to analyze both highly text - based liturgical traditions and “ Spirit - led ” spontaneous traditions.

Worship as an Integrated Interdisciplinary Field

As a result of changes in worship during the past half - century, local communities of faith are much more self - consciously involved in negotiating the meaning of worship. Consequently the teaching of worship in seminaries and graduate schools of theology has generated the need for interdisciplinary approaches. Liturgical theology has taken a decidedly phenomenological and hermeneutical turn. A number of methodologies converged in the study of worship to illuminate the particularity of Christian identity and how theological understandings are mediated through worship. This integration is implicit in Don S. Browning ’ s (1991) phrase “ strategic practical theology, ” which seeks to bring larger theoretical frameworks to bear directly on the interpretation of concrete sets of practices in the life of religious communities.

A widely used introductory textbook on worship by James F. White (2001) shows an explicitly phenomenological turn. Previous textbooks would not have had opening chapters on the language of time, space, and sound as a way of studying the history of public prayer, preaching, and the sacraments. Yet this book, like many others pub-lished within the last 20 years, written by a Protestant scholar of worship, has enjoyed wide ecumenical use in seminaries and in some local churches. The same thing may be seen in the infl uential work of Roman Catholic and Lutheran theologians of worship. Gordon Lathrop ’ s triology – Holy Things , Holy People , and Holy Ground – brings biblical hermeneutics to bear on a pervasive sense of symbol and on how worship is ordered. Lathrop contends that the Christian “ liturgical pattern is drawn from the Bible ” ( 1993 : 19). The way in which ancient stories and images are juxtaposed with new situations and texts to generate meaning illuminates the way liturgical interactions generate fresh meanings for the worshipping assembly. The Roman Catholic works of Aidan Kavanagh and especially of David Power concentrate a great deal on social and cultural factors in liturgical formation and expression. The study of liturgy in their work borrows from symbolic anthropology and sociocultural analysis to shed light on how worship gener-ates theological understanding of human existence.

Among the neighboring disciplines that have come to play a signifi cant role in understanding the nature and dynamics of worship are ethnography, ritual studies, cultural anthropology, moral theology, ethnomusicology, rhetoric, linguistics, perform-ance studies, as well as feminist and womanist theologies. Each of these harbors a methodology – or, more accurately, overlapping ways of approaching the subject matter

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of worship. There has been a remarkable convergence of worship patterns and shared texts between mainline Protestant denominations. A glance at the Presbyterian Book of Common Worship and the United Methodist Book of Worship shows new resonances with the 1979 Episcopalian Book of Common Prayer . Protestantism and Catholicism also infl uence each other. Shortly after the United Methodist Church produced a set of revised eucharistic prayers, Fr. Godfrey Diekmann, OSB, remarked that he wished he could celebrate mass with one of the new Protestant eucharistic liturgies.

Worship as practiced in local churches now requires what might be called “ inte-grated theological/liturgical judgments. ” The processes of planning for worship bear directly upon the quality and extent of congregational participation. At the same time, signifi cant tensions in styles and understandings of worship have increased. Critical refl ection born of actual practice is required in assessing the texts, the patterns, and especially the “ performative ” character and practice of worship. The cultural landscape is continuing to shift. All of this contributes to challenges in discerning the implicit and explicit theological meanings carried by particular forms of celebrating word, sacra-ment, and prayer in the present religious and cultural situation.

Future Directions in the Study and Practice of Worship

The past three decades have brought an unprecedented set of challenges to those who lead and participate in worshipping communities. The rise of mega - churches, the expanded use of electronic technologies, the erosion of denominational loyalty, and forms of distrust of and skepticism about classical theology and its authority have all made an impact on how communal worship is conceived and interpreted. This creates a complex set of problems for the study and teaching of worship in both church and academy. Venerability of tradition has, for many, become problematic. New forms of liturgy are constantly emerging, often growing up in local communities, generated from various kinds of movements: church growth, prosperity gospel, the emergent church, various liberationist perspectives, as well as ultra - conservative groups such as those in Roman Catholic circles who wish to return to the Tridentine Mass. In such a situation, a practical theology of worship and liturgical theology as its academic form face strong challenges.

A new range of inquiry clusters around the phenomenon of “ seeker services ” which began to develop in the 1980s in attempts to reach the unchurched and the disaffected. The Willow Creek Church in a Chicago suburb is the most infl uential early example, featuring praise bands, drama, and the conspicuous absence of traditional Christian symbols. Such “ services of worship ” include popular musical styles, casual dress, inten-tional informality, spontaneity, and a consistent attempt to speak in the vernacular relevant to a particular age range. While normally oriented to younger people, these services also attracted churchgoers who wanted more “ lively and relevant ” experience. The style of the music is often closer to older pop and even commercial musical idioms than to more current forms of popular music.

This observation opens up the question of what musical languages are capable of carrying sustainable theological content. What musical forms and styles are relevant

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to praise, lament, prophecy, intercession, awe, wonder, and hope? Asking such ques-tions will shed light on the distinctive kind of religious qualities communities fi nd most relevant to their conception of worship. These questions require attention to the way in which texts of various kinds are wedded to melody, harmony, rhythm, tempo, and instrumentation. Most worshipping congregations are not particularly self - critical when it comes to emerging musical styles. Yet, in the long run, developing practical criticism that is theologically and aesthetically informed is crucial to spiritual growth in the Christian life of communities of worship.

Within the past decade a wide range of religious communities known as “ postmod-ern, ” or “ poststructuralist, ” or simply “ emergent church ” have appeared. These are intentionally nondenominational, attempting to speak to a younger generation with little interest in historic church life and liturgy. A growing body of literature offers new resources and theological interpretations of these liturgical innovations (e.g., Baker and Gay 2004 ; Gibbs and Bolger 2005 ). “ Alternative worship ” has begun to replace the term “ contemporary worship. ” All of these are driven by a conviction that electronic media and postmodern ways of thinking and of perceiving reality have altered the pos-sibilities of Christian worship. At the time of writing it is too early to predict the long - term impact of these movements on Christian worship. It can be said that the study of cultural and socially constructed modes of communication will be central to under-standing and assessing them. Electronic technologies are now being integrated into more classical liturgical patterns. At the same time, the theological impulse behind many recent church movements is strongly evangelical, with hints at an unexpected stress on the importance of Christian sacraments.

All this sets an agenda that is both practical/pastoral and theological, refl ecting the fact that living Christian worship is always a mixture of anthropological and theologi-cal elements. New questions must be asked about the relationship between modes of experience dominated by the new media and spirituality. How is God perceived and understood within a postmodern conception of language? With the loss of fi xed texts and a vocabulary of traditional sacraments, what is able to mediate divine forgiveness or sanctifying grace to worshippers? Will the most mature and engaging of these non-traditionalist patterns of worship actually restore a more mystical form of communion with God? This seems in part the intention of the Ikon Community in Belfast, Ireland, a faith group that blends music, imagery, soundscapes, and theater. Its founder, Peter Collins, who borrows from French deconstructionist Jacques Derrida, writes in his book on the emergent church movement: “ the mystic approached God as a secret which one was compelled to share, yet which retained its secrecy ” ( 2006 : xiii). But what then are the differences between worship and entertainment, or between worship and religious apologetics?

In addition to fundamental questions about language and experience in the post-modernist spirit, liturgical theology must ask about the nonverbal domains of liturgy with fresh intention. Beyond the well - established phenomenological approaches to the study of time, space, sight, sound, gesture, and ritual action discussed above, the study of worship must now learn to discern and analyze questions of power and authority that control various decisions and implementations about worship. These too are part of the larger practical theological domain.

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Counter - forces are also at work, inviting new kinds of comparative analysis and interpretation. The music and worship forms at the French ecumenical community known as “ Taize ” have attracted many younger people, as well as the Celtic - infl uenced music and prayer styles from the Iona Community in Scotland. These musical prayer forms have now permeated almost all major traditions. The recovery of the centrality of the eucharist or the Lord ’ s supper across Protestant lines, and the unexpected ecu-menical reappearance of the Easter Vigil, are other examples. Renewed interest in catechesis (formative experiential teaching of the congregation, especially in relation to baptismal preparation) and the ancient practice of mystagogy (disciplined self - refl ection on the experiences of common worship) bring new resources for practical and pastoral work in churches. The discipline of a practical theology of worship now moves between the demands of emerging forms and styles and the authentic retrieval of more ancient liturgical forms.

The question of how best to prepare a congregation for such self - refl ective participa-tion broadens to include what transpires outside the rooms of worship in congrega-tional life. The future agenda thus includes much more critical refl ection on the inner connections between worship and ethics. The same can be said about participation in the Lord ’ s Supper, or Eucharist, a strong example of which is found in William Cavanaugh ’ s Torture and Eucharist ( 1998 ).

Recent large - scale attempts at reforming and renewing the worship life in most churches have set a new agenda requiring much more attention to lay participation in planning and celebrating, and in greater awareness of the relationships between par-ticular ministries within the gathered community. New catechetical patterns and proc-esses are emerging which take seriously the moral and ethical development of persons at different age levels and life passages. Here the study of worship and moral formation and ethical development converge.

The future of Christian worship depends upon recovering the inner connection between worship and service, between love of God and love of neighbor, between justice sung, preached, and prayed and justice done in society and communal life. Theology belongs to a mode of understanding deeper than that comprehended by reason alone. In worship, texts and symbolic actions are inscribed on human bodies. The study of worship understands that the body remembers long after the mind may be dimmed. In the case of music, hymns carry embodied theology by virtue of the fusion of melody and words. The image of God is received in sound and image, in touch and movement. Actions, such as bowing, kneeling, the uplifting of hands, and receiving of bread and wine, that are repeated across time mark more than what the body does. In and through such actions the body comes to understand, however inchoately, what it is to be created and redeemed in the image of God. Hence the psalmist ’ s phrase “ O taste and see ” exhib-its an inner connection between a sensate bodily action and discernment. In recent worship practice as well as in practical theological work on worship, understanding the relationships between action and the human senses is a prominent contemporary theme (e.g., Saliers 1996 ).

Central to the issues to be addressed in worship is the perennial problem of the accommodation of the Christian gospel to the unfolding human cultures in which it is incarnated. This arises from the claim of God incarnate at the heart of Christianity.

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Since the word of God touches human fl esh, all subsequent worship - oriented theologies must seek language to account for how human - embodied fl esh (in communities and in individuals) can become refl ective word about God.

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Bieler , Andrea , and Schottroff , Luisa ( 2007 ). The Eucharist: Bodies, Bread, and Resurrection . Minneapolis : Fortress Press .

Browning , Don S. ( 1991 ). A Fundamental Practical Theology . Minneapolis : Fortress Press . Cavanaugh , William T. ( 1998 ). Torture and Eucharist . Oxford : Blackwell . Chauvet , Louis - Marie ( 1995 ). Symbol and Sacrament: A Sacramental Reinterpretation of Christian

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Chupungco , Anscar J. ( 1982 ). Cultural Adaptation of the Liturgy . New York : Paulist Press . Collins , Peter ( 2006 ). How (Not) to Speak of God . Waltham, MA : Paraclete Press . Gibbs , Eddie , and Bolger , Ryan K. ( 2005 ). Emerging Churches: Creating Christian Community in

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