the state anthony de jasay

8/18/2019 The State Anthony de Jasay

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The Stateby Anthony de Jasay

1998. (First published 1985.)

About the Book and AuthorPreface

Author's Notentroduction

1. !he "apitalist #tate1.1 $iolence% &bedience% Preference1. !itle and "ontract1. !he "ontours of the ini*al #tate1.+ f #tates ,id Not -ist% #hould !he/ Be n0ented1.5 n0entin the #tate2 !he #ocial "ontract1.3 n0entin the #tate2 !he nstru*ent of "lass 4ule1. "losin the 6oop b/ False "onsciousness

. !he Ad0ersar/ #tate.1 4epression% 6eiti*ac/ and "onsent. !akin #ides. !inker's 6icence.+ !he 4e0ealed Preference of 7o0ern*ents.5 nterpersonal ustice.3 nintended -ffects of Producin nterpersonal tilit/ and ustice

. ,e*ocratic $alues.1 6iberalis* and ,e*ocrac/. !hrouh -:ualit/ to tilit/. ;o< ustice &0errides "ontracts.+ -alitarianis* as Prudence.5 6o0e of #/**etr/.3 -n0/

+. 4edistribution+.1 Fied "onstitutions+. Bu/in "onsent+. Addicti0e 4edistribution+.+ 4isin Prices+.5 "hurnin+.5 !o5)


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"ontent "op/riht ?2 1998% 6ibert/ Fund% nc. All rihts reser0ed. &riinall/ published1985 b/ Basil Blackkno


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rational>choice paradi* that underlies the *ore disciplined half of the social sciences%the consu*er *ai*ies satisfaction% the business undertakin *ai*ies profit% andthe state *ai*ies po


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.!he present book is an atte*pt to do this. Bra0in the risks of confusin institutions e/ed 0ariants of the instru*ental 0ie*arket choice or public choice school% the interaction of pri0ate choices throuh theinstru*ent of the state is liable to o0erproduce public oods and fail in other


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=hat% ho


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&n the other hand% the loner the/ ha0e been forced to cooperate% the less likel/ the/are to ha0e preser0ed (if the/ e0er had it) the facult/ to cooperate spontaneousl/.!hose


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and


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interest (as it is usual to place the*)% the t


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#o*e of the* (includin *an/ conse:uential utilitarians) *iht prefer the rule create*ore ains rather than *ore ainers and foret about the headcount. &thers *ihtinterestedpeople to opt for it. n passin% reEect 4a


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that both cannot pre0ail)% ho


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redistributi0e ains both per*its and incites unchecked roup for*ation to eact suchains. !his is so in as *uch as state>oriented interest roups can tolerate the free ridina*on their *e*bers that oriented roups.

.-ach interest roup% in turn% has an incenti0e to act as a free rider in relation to the rest

of societ/% the state bein the 0ehicle per*ittin this to be done to>*iddle di*ension. Abo0e all%the e0olution of the pattern increasinl/ escapes the state's o0erall control.

.+n the section 4isin Prices the roup structure of societ/ pro*oted b/ addicti0eredistribution is assu*ed to i*part an abilit/ to each roup to resist or reco0er an/ loss

of its distributi0e share. &ne s/*pto* of the resultin i*passe is ende*ic inflation. Arelated one is the co*plaint of the state about societ/ beco*in uno0ernable% lackinan/ i0e and reEectin an/ sacrifice that adEust*ent to hard ti*es or Eust rando*shocks


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#tate "apitalis*% deals fulfil*ent. !heir effect is so to chane the social s/ste* as to*ai*ie the potential for discretionar/ po


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tastes and te*pera*ents adEust accordinl/ (thouh not all


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to the social contract. &n the other hand% a state can be :uickl/ created b/ 0iolent*eans. !he hiher inco*es enendered b/ the eistence of the state thus bein toaccrue :uickl/. !he/ do not shrink so *uch


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anthropoloical absurdit/ to suppose such *o0e*ent. &n


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1.1.9

1. The Capitalist StateTitle and Contract

!he state is a capitalist state if it does not de*and o


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re*ained% concerned local Eustice and charit/


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the *ar:uisat rather than of the *ar:uisDso that the state interest


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Pareto has laid do


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of>


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!here is so*e presu*ption that in the state of nature a spontaneous cooperati0earrane*ent


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satisfactions of its citiens% the bein of a particular class% the ross nationalproduct% the *iht and lor/ of the nation% the state budet% taes% order and s/**etr/%the securit/ of its o


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rather not ha0e le0ers or po


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1. The Capitalist StateIf States #id Not $%ist, Should They &e Inented(

People co*e to belie0e that because the/ ha0e states% the/ need the*.

1.+.@Neither indi0idual nor class interest can Eustif/ a state on prudential rounds.

1.+.1=e ha0e deri0ed so*e of the characteristic features of a state


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that it is people in eneral


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Political hedonis* re:uires a benin state or a confor*ist subEect. Failin both% it is afoolhard/ attitude.

1.5.@

;obbes% appro0al% seek e*inence o0er others. f let */ fello< *an seeke*inence% he preser0ation*ust dri0e both of us to fiht each other% and there


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re:uires a special ps/choloical assu*ption in order not to result in 0oluntar/cooperation).

1.5.36et there be t


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of preferences2 (1) et forein oods for free% () trade ho*e oods for forein oods%() retain the ho*e oods (no trade)% and (+) foro the ho*e oods and et no foreinoods (total loss% confiscation% epropriation% off). !he tstate% the/ can either perfor* the contract or default% as infiure .

1.5.1@7a*e theor/ enforcer. !his prediction% of

course% is belied b/ the


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the ;obbesian reason for in0entin a state and escapin fro* the brutish *iser/ of thestate of nature% into its encirclin ar*s.

1.5.1s there *ore force in 4ousseau's thesis% that people in the state of nature are unable tooranie the social cooperation necessar/ for the realiation of their co**on ood (the

eneral


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#upposin% then% that at least the second hunter is ali0e to the ad0antae of ettin thefirst hunter to keep his place% sihted one) has sa0ed up a :uarter. Net ti*e out he danled it beforethe */opic e/es of the first hunter% keepin hi* at his task and lettin hi* ha0e it at theend of the da/


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destruction and to the epense of *aintainin a counter>threat% has not so far inducedthe* to seek shelter and assured self>preser0ation in a #o0iet>A*erican contract.

1.5.19&n a less apocal/ptic le0el% bear>th/>neihbour policies in international trade see*to be a perfectl/ ood practical illustration of the prisoners' dile**a as applied to states.

7enerall/ speakin% all states could be better off if% b/ cooperati0e conduct% the/ allo


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so that reliance on sinle>stae rationalit/ *a/ not correctl/ predict the *o0es of rationalpla/ersH (b) to *ake a pla/er's *o0e depend in part on the other pla/er's *o0e in apre0ious stae of the se:uential a*e% or in so*e other a*e altoether (i.e. to *ake itdepend on eperience)% either pla/er takin account of the reputation established b/ theother for touhness or softnessH (c) to *ake hi* pla/ as he ouht to if the other pla/er for>tatH (d) to introduce so*e reard for the relati0e 0alue of present and

futureH and (e) to let the increased pa/>off of a cooperati0el/ sol0ed a*e teach peopleto o for the cooperati0e solution in subse:uent a*es. t is intuiti0el/ plausible that in astate of nature staenon>cooperati0e perfor*ance of the dile**a a*e% but


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e*bracin co*pulsor/ arrane*ent% i.e. a state% can ensure that the riht a*ount of public oods ets *ade. n this 0ie


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accordin to its o


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can cite an on the other and a /et antithesis>s/nthesis. ;e can for instance decide% accordin to the re:uire*ents of his aru*ent%that


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differed fro* each other%


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!his belief is a source of difficulties and for none *ore so than for historians


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1.3.1

ust as the


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!he arist protot/pe of the state% in short% allo


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trust leislation% etc. !hese acts are pro>capitalist. !he state ser0es the rulin class%K+1and as these are acts of the state% the/ are necessaril/ in the (real) interest of therulin class. ndi0idual *e*bers of the capitalist class *a/ be too short>sihted toreconie their real interest% and *a/ be resti0e about the state's actions% Eoinin theohn Birch #ociet/ in opposition to boureois de*ocrac/% but the class as such


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*ust arise if there is di0ision of labour and conse:uentl/ societ/ beco*es co*ple% hedid not reall/ i*pl/ that capitalis* presupposes a state and that the eploitation of labour b/ capital could not take place in the state of nature. !o assert that he did i*pl/this is to ascribe to hi* a riid econo*ic deter*inis* or reductionis*% and thouh it isfashionable for *odern arists to patronie -nels% the/


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it renders%


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lines) it represents *ost people's notion of the de*ocratic state% and as such it is a 0er/influential one.

1..B/ 0irtue of ha0in to


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po


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interfered part/ rihts


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is not% as the arist theor/ of consciousness pleasure% cost>benefit%help>or>hindrance calculus tells hi* that he is better off under less o0ern*ent% he life capitalist fro*


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4eliance on consent% as a substitute for repression or leiti*ac/% *akes the state into ade*ocratic and di0isi0e force.

.1.@!o tell one sort of state fro* another% one should first look at ho< the/ o about ettinobe/ed.

.1.1n oraniations that sur0i0e% a fe< co**and and the rest obe/. n all% the fe< disposeof so*e *eans of sanctionin disobedience. !he sanction *a/ be the punish. suall/% ho


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A less hopeful 0ie< of the *orpholo/ of the state sees a rub in this. Appeal fro* oneinstance of the state to another in eneral% and the independence of the Eudiciar/ inparticular% presuppose the 0er/ conditions the/ are desined to ensure% like the raincoat


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state's superior co**and o0er *eans of repression. !he least straihtfor


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Nothin% ob0iousl/% could suit a rational state better than to beco*e leiti*ate in thissense. !he onl/ eception


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neither fro* repression nor fro* leiti*ac/% but fro* an i*plicit contract


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education to the e*erence of a socialist electoral *aEorit/ in France% and o0er theinter0enin turns and b/


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"onse:uentl/% it is difficult to en0isae the politics of consent rule% one>*an>one>0ote t/pe of pure electoral de*ocrac/%


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=hen it is a :uestion of obtainin tenure of the state in the first place% or not losin it%first thins co*e first% leiti*ac/)% the loic of their situationDdriftDthe politics of s*all steps dri0e the* on in the de*ocratic direction.!he/ *ust deal


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pro*ote a ood cause% it *ust not rel/ on the oodfifths of the* enaed in the raisin of the re0enue.K58

..+


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proressi0e predo*inance had (in part predictable) conse:uences for the freedo* of contract% the autono*/ of capital and ho< people ca*e to 0ie< their responsibilit/ for their ocapitalist drift of the refor* *o0e*ent

certainl/ did not co*e fro* so*e cle0er calculation on the part of the state that there

18 electoral arith*etic% this


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..!he doctrinal i*potence of the capitalist interest is nicel/ illustrated b/ the course of labour laprofessor of econo*ics trade con0ictions that such a callin tends to enender% to "obden in 6ondonH it took the

t


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bureaucrac/. !he French professional ci0il ser0ice% built b/ the labours of "olbert%6ou0ois% achault% aupeou and% in unbroken continuit/% b/ Napoleon%


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technicall/ and co**erciall/ ridin the crest of the


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t is probabl/ fair to sa/ that there has ne0er been an A*erican ad*inistration buildin% lends itself poorl/ to clarif/in the relation of consent b/ 0ote to consent b/ clout. !ake instead an/ countr/


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=hen the state takes sides% not onl/ is it buildin the re:uired base of consent. Perhapsunconsciousl/ and un


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..

t is fairl/ con0entional practice to discern three staes in the e0olution of the state'sfunctions (thouh the/ are better rearded as heuristic rather than as historical% real>ti*estaes). n the first% a 0auel/ ;obbesian state resol0es a basic prisoners' dile**a b/enforcin respect for life and propert/% such enforce*ent bein taken to include

protection aainst a forein state also. =hen political theor/ is handled as if it stae state can be assi*ilated to the sinle>product *onopolisticfir* *akin one public ood% e.. order. !he second or Bentha*ite sort of state product fir*


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of a possible bad conse:uence (if onl/ as an e*pt/ bo)% a for*


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oreo0er% as each alternati0e conse:uence is capable of affectin se0eral persons%*ai*iin epected utilit/


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unless the cost>benefit co*parison is fa0ourableG Let it treats the balancin of benefitsand costs% ood and bad conse:uences% as if the loical status of such balancin speakin countries%Bentha* has a stroner clai* than the foundin fathers of socialis* to be theintellectual proenitor of the proress (as roundabout and occult as his parenthood of it


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predictabilit/ tends to be replaced b/ the si*ple eclusion of the distant and the lonter*. Practical consideration is i0en to readil/ 0isible proi*ate conse:uences onl/ (a


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s/nthesied in the indi0idual *ind. #uch a 0ie< presupposes that there are no absolutepriorities% that for each person e0er/ one of his ends is continuous% and suitabl/ s*allbits of it can be traded off at so*e rate aainst bits of an/ other end. !houh con0enient%this treat*ent is so*e


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the support of others. !o the etent that state polic/ and do*inant ideolo/ *ustad0ance *ore or less in step% droppin utilitarianis* in the oubliette could ha0e left thede*ocratic state te*poraril/ out on a li*b% to be rescued e0entuall/ b/ the rise of substitute doctrines. t is not altoether clear


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indi0iduals can be added into a social


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shall condition these Eude*entsG f so*e e:uitable


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people's shares in the product are si*ultaneousl/ deter*ined b/ causes subsu*edunder such cateories as the state of the art% tastes for oods and leisure% capital andpeople's capacities for 0arious t/pes of effort. (!he reader is no doubt alert to the factthat this account of distribution losses o0er for*idable proble*s. -nterprise%


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rips


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ine:ualit/. f there are no reasons


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accessible to the ordinar/ plodderH there could be different 0ie


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=hen% then% is a contract unfree% an instru*ent of disuised oppressionG t is no oodans


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.5.+t is alfor*in substance. !he addict then beco*es as

*uch a 0icti* as the person he *us in order to feed his habit.

.5.&b0iousl/% if all contracts had been reall/ free


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.3.1

=hether it is concei0ed as pursuin interpersonal utilit/ or distributi0e Eustice% the statepro0ides a ood for so*e of its subEects. #tretchin


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A priceless instance of this aru*ent% unearthed b/ Friedrich 0on ;a/ek% fiures in an1885 speech b/ the 0er/ liberal oseph "ha*berlain2 No< o0ern*ent is the oranisedepression of the


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place. !he sa0in difference is that


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eli*inated b/ the state's pursuit of interpersonal utilit/ and distributi0e Eustice until%


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hedonist% seekin to escape alleed ;obbesian la


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!he epectations of the hedonist could concei0abl/ be fulfilled e0en b/ a state pursuinits ends


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realied at another part/'s epense. f the other part/ is an un


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*inorit/. ,efined in this


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!houh it is not one of its essential rules% de*ocrac/ is for sound practical reasons alsoidentified in the public *ind for*in and lo>rollin are ha*pered b/ secrec/. !rades of the 0ote


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since. !here is no reason to suppose that either is bein c/nical in reardin control b/the other as anti>de*ocratic% since control b/ oneself is for the better and control b/ theothers is for the


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0alues b/ the liberal ideolo/Dthe


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capable of controllin the state and that the latter is therefore necessaril/ a benininstitution% the obser0ance of de*ocratic procedure sufficin to confine it to thesubordinate role of carr/in out societ/'s *andate


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!hese criteria *ust pri*aril/ o0ern the scope and *anner of state interference


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.1.

t is to sho< up the decepti0e ease


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of the state


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*ore to the poor *an than to the rich. &n reflection% all that intuition reall/ stronl/supports is that a i0en absolute su* increases the poor *an's utilit/ relati0el/ *ore(sa/% ten>fold) than that of the rich (sa/% b/ a tenth). Nothin in these cardinalco*parisons of the poor *an's initial utilit/


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or output obtained fro* co*binin increasin :uantities of the one


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..1@No< an/one


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successi0el/ s*aller incre*ents of utilit/ or satisfaction as the ceilin of capacit/ *akers and utilit/>*ai*iers ne0er took enouh notice of -deeihteens% in the old% in those ha0in and in those not ha0in an acade*ic education%


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etc. ,iscernin the pattern restores the utilitarian rationale of reco**endations todistribute societ/'s inco*e one


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those of political theor/. !he usual and ti*e>tested approach of these disciplines is totake tastes% preferences as i0en. !reatin the* as part of the proble* *a/%ne0ertheless% be


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..

2. #e"ocratic Values4o5 Justice errides Contracts

f rational people


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..+o0ed b/ such considerations% shall no< atte*pt to tr/ out so*e i*plications of onede*ocratic theor/ that en0ious) to solicit each other to neotiate asocial contract% a sort of o*nilateral super>contract rankin abo0e and% in case of

conflict% o0erridin bilateral contracts.K9 -0en before startin to


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.. Aru*ent (b)% for all its &ld !esta*ent fla0our% is at least consistent


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f he is not bluffin% i.e. if he is both capable and prepared to deli0er it% and if the specialter*s he de*ands for doin so do not cost others *ore than this incre*ent% he


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And if special% better>than>*arket ter*s ha0e to be offered b/ so*eone to so*ebod/else to dra< forth his


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..1

n the basic% Eustice as fairness 0ersion of his theor/% 4a


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alread/ share his co**it*ent to the article of faith that une:ual endo


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4a


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an ealitarian societ/ allo


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life>plansG 4aplan and his t


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that t/pe of societ/. !he/ can% as


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-ach person in the oriinal position knorationalit/Dfull cost pricin% ro


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a*bles.K+3 7a*blin for the lifeti*e stipend is% therefore% sure to be one of the *osti*portant a*bles


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!he choice of a particular order% s/**etr/% rule or e:ualit/ o0er its alternati0es needseither habit% custo*% or the force of substanti0e aru*ent to eplain itH if it is the for*er%political theor/ ets s


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*eanin but ha0e no< beco*e obsolete 0erbal rubbish... ideoloical nonsense aboutriht and other trash so co**on a*on the de*ocrats and French #ocialists.

Zuite apart fro* the anal/sis so far i0en% it called distribution and put the principal stress on it.K51

!rue to for*% clearer and *ore to the point% -nels blurts out2

!he idea of socialist societ/ as the real* of e:ualit/... should no< be o0erco*e% for itonl/ produces confusion in people's heads.K5

.5.9!ake tone>pa/. !here *a/ be a *ultitude of ood reasons for i0in priorit/ to the one or the otherHbut it see*s i*possible to clai* that lo0e of s/**etr/% order and reason can


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better to *erit and /ields *ore rational e:ualities. But this is Eust our sa/>soH another reasonable *an *iht arue the oppositeH


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special case obtainin in artificiall/ si*plified situations onl/.K53 f the alternati0e isenerall/ another e:ualit/% the aru*ent is interestin but uni*portant.K5 &rder inplace of chaos *a/ pro0ide its o


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.5.19B/ contrast% there is no consensus about the analoous role of one>*an>one>pa/% a rulecallin for e0er/bod/ ettin the sa*e pa/ either because the/ are all e:ual% one *anbein as ood as another% or because their ine:ualities are not rele0ant to :uestions of pa/. A reat *an/ ri0al rules continue to co*pete% suestin 0ariousl/ that pa/ ouht tobe proportional to 1). ;ence it


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.5.

At the sa*e ti*e% liberal ideolo/ fosters the clai* that certain rules of e:ualit/ are stillbetter (*ore Eust% or *ore conduci0e to other undisputed 0alues) than others% itspreference bein for distributions rate ta) and fro* each accordin to his capacit/ topa/ (i.e. proressi0e inco*e ta


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reduced) that


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e:ualied% i.e. it can abolish en0/. (Needless to sa/% this is a loical i*plication% not apolic/ reco**endation.) f effort is a neati0e ood% it *a/ be possible for efficienc/ tobe consistent


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.3.8

t is no *ore i*plausible to suppose other t/pes of causation. An ine:ualit/ *a/ causeen0/ as a trier causes a ban. A bier trier


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4eardless of the breadth of le0ellin *easures% an/ concei0able real>life situation *uststill contain a sufficienc/ of ine:ualities


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n coercin the* to realie the eneral


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eneral and predictable% it pro0ides so*e sense of securit/ aainst the rando* use of state po


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separation of po


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+.1.1

n his brilliant eploration of so*e paradoes of rationalit/% on -lster suests that asociet/ bindin itself b/ a constitution (in fact% it is the state that is bound% but thedistinction bet


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&n the other hand% if the uardian of the constitution is part of the state% there is apresu*ption that it 1981 socialist o0ern*ent of the Fifth4epublic% are ood cases in point. !he #upre*e "ourt obstructed or retarded so*e of Franklin 4oose0elt's leislation affectin the rihts of propert/ till 19%


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distribution of the resultin benefits and burdens% to asse*ble preponderant support for the a*end*ent). At


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circu*stances% produce a less fa0ourable% indeed a do


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+.. A little reflection sho


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chance% people o for the polic/


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f societ/ is differentiated b/ riches onl/% state and opposition ha0e onl/ t


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+..18

(f there is no such thin as a taable capacit/


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4ich part/offers

Poor part/offers

!o the rich >9 >1@

!o the *iddle [9 [1@

!o the poor @

@ @

+..

() nder () the rich part/


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presented to look *ore lucrati0e to the ainers or less costl/ to the losers than theprobable realit/. norance% the unpredictabilit/ of true incidence and the opacit/ of social and econo*ic *atter%


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+..9=e are nearin the heart of the *atter% bu*pin as


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lastin about a centur/)% such states found the*sel0es% in a special but :uite precisesense% 0irtuall/ po


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si*pl/ te*porar/ adEust*ent to passin conditions. t i*plies *ore than chanes in*o*entar/% short>ter* beha0iour. t in0ol0es a loner>ter*% :uasi>per*anent adaptationof the para*eters of beha0iour2 it chanes character. !hese chanes *a/ to so*eetent be irre0ersible. =ithdra


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of the potential total%


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runnin e0en if one passener pa/s all and the others all ride free. !here is no ob0ious%*ost>loical% *ost>efficient% *ost>ealitarian or *ost>fair rule for sharin out the totalburden to be borne. f all passeners socialbeha0iour has no perceptible i*pact on the roup re


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rational for hi* to continue to *isbeha0e as lon as the incidence of the conse:uentreduction of roup reen0ious. f the/ *ust% the/


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of the e*plo/er% blackin of his oods and his supplies *a/ be necessar/ before ane< (or old but not 0er/ stron) union can i*pose the closed shop. 4etaliation aainst aprice>cutter and cartel>breaker *a/ take the *ost cunnin for*s. -0en so% it is notin0ariabl/ effecti0e. ohn ,. 4ockefeller%


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b/ one roup *a/ be seen b/ the disinterested obser0er as bein at the end of the da/broadl/ co*pensated b/ the etra benefits the other roups *anae to secure at itsepense. !his is rouhl/ the pluralistic% end>of>ideolo/ 0ie< of ho< *odern societ/nature societ/ *iht. f it is

co*prehensi0el/ oranied% net ains and losses due to cohesi0e roup action can behoped to be s*all (thouh on paper e0er/bod/ ains as an oranied producer at theepense of his oeo% the un>oranied consu*er). oreo0er% ecessi0el/ hardbarainin b/ a roup 0is>S>0is other roups in poorer barainin positions% is liable toset up so*e of the sa*e sort of self>reulatin% self>balancin effects as ecessi0e freeridin does


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of a ta concessionG =ho is depri0ed of


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to percei0e specific *arinal additions to it. Nor can the/% therefore% be epected to reactdefensi0el/ to the incre*ental free rider.

+..+=hile the dilution of costs 0ia the 0astness and co*pleit/ of the state's redistributi0e*achiner/ attenuates resistance to free ridin b/ roups% free ridin oriented

interest roups is rendered relati0el/ innocuous b/ the special nature of the burdenroup *e*bers *ust carr/ in order to reap the roup reoriented roup*ust full/ (thouh not necessaril/ e:uitabl/ nor Eustl/) allocate a*on its *e*bersthe burden of roup actionDthe cost of runnin the roup bus% the discipline and loss of pa/ in0ol0ed in obe/in a strike call% the lost profit of restricted sales% the self>denialneeded to respect a code of conduct. nless one of the conditions sketched abo0e inthis section (altruis*% non>en0/ and a*ple surplus of roup rerider proble*


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redistributi0e apparatus. oreo0er%


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for eecutin it% and ser0es as a precedent incitin other persuasi0e lobbies to oranieand pro*ote the net cause.K

+..+1Behind e0er/


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*iht i0e rise to enuine perpleit/ as to their incidence on the national product. -0enthose least inclined to anosticis* *iht honestl/ :uestion the non>distorti0e nature of so*e re0enue>raisin ta% ho


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Alternati0e theories of inflation are a case in point. !he/ are notoriousl/ co*petiti0e. &neconducts its aru*ent in ter*s of ecess de*ands for oods% su**in it up as ashortfall of intended sa0in relati0e to intended in0est*ent. !his is in turn linked to anecess of the epected return on capital o0er the interest rate% or


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!he se0eral price>*akers% co*petin to *ake their contractin parties better off% perfect ob0erse of this *illenniu* is% of course% so*e approi*ation to *odernsociet/ as it has been takin shape in the last half>centur/. &0er this period%


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budetar/ ependiture effects real redistribution in the present *o0es on the part of the losersH so that inflation *a/ not nullif/ allredistribution. &nce no one


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death product. !he eneral co**on feature of thesetransactions is that on balance the state is robbin Peter to pa/ Paul. !he/ are notPareto>opti*alH the/ interested Peter andPaul. n this sense the/ rank belo< social contracts of the t/pe and>none>loses t/pe of arrane*ents% not because lose arrane*ents% on the other hand% are


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the fiscal functions of the state under the headins of allocation and distribution.Knder allocation are subsu*ed the


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resource cost of Paul's ain in so*e accountin sense eactl/ offset the resource cost of Peter's loss% the t


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+.5.1@

An e:uall/ co**onplace aru*ent leads fro* industrial policies to churnin. =hether to pro*ote its ro


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of directi0es% incenti0es% prohibitions% taes% tariffs% etc. in force% a subEect need not bestupid to be *istaken about


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into so*e redistributi0e auction. !he co*parabilit/ of ri0al offers is *ore li*ited than inthe abstract rich>to>*iddle ta>and>transfer 0ersion. !here is no loner one si*ultaneoustender offer of a coherent set of positi0e and neati0e pa/*ents for support% addressedto particular se*ents of societ/. nstead% there is a proloned cascade (perhaps ebbinand flo


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pain e:ui0alence


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+.3.@

,id Plato's 4epublic deenerate on the


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+.3.5

"ertain policies% and the specific *easures the/ call for% can at least conceptuall/ besinled out as ha0in a co**on neati0e feature2 the/ appear to contribute to noplausible end% satisf/ no *anifest taste% au*ent no concei0able enEo/*ent of the stateother than the *aintenance of its tenure. !he/ Eust help keep it in po


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*aintenance of the labourer. !he surplus 0alue that his labour ti*e has produced inaddition% accrues to capital as the pa/>off to do*ination. n our sche*e% surplus 0alue


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Eustice% to bein the drude onl/ Eust copin i*posed redistributi0eobliations. oreo0er% it has entrapped itself in se0eral predica*ents at once. &ne isco*petition% bein on the tread*ill. Another is the chanin character of societ/ inresponse to its orider beha0iour b/ each interest roup to


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+.3.1

8. State Capitalis"

9hat Is to &e #one(

#tate capitalis* is the fusion of political and econo*ic po


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the consent of *ore than a *inute 0anuard% see*s to *e dia*etricall/ different.-ceptin the case of takin o0er a state laid flat b/ defeat in a *aEor


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and presu*abl/ to the further spread of pri0ate ar*ies.K+9 !here is not the least trace atpresent of a tendenc/ for social chane to take an/ such turn. !he e0entualit/ of adispersal of political po


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#tressin the parado%


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e0entuall/ lead to a passi0e acceptance of a step>b/>step etension of public o


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slo< star0ation% thouh that is a 0aluable enouh result. t is rather that it can obtain non>opposition in return for *ere subsistence% or if that ter* is too fluid to ser0e% in returnfor less than it


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ha0e reduced it to druder/% it


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people


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5.1.1

!hus% totalitarianis* is not a *atter of fanatical *inds and bull/in defence for an/ state


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5.1.5-cept for the paro/s* of indiscri*inate terror in 19>8 and the fe< /ears of haphaard eperi*entation after 1955% both of


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n fairness to -nels% it is his Anti>,uehrin aain


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5..87ranted the tacit assu*ption that separation of o


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the office>holders abo0e us. =hether a social s/ste* is acceptable or a


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5..15

n order for the separation of o


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!he *ost casual reader of the financial paes of ne


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=ithin each t/pe% there is no doubt roo* for hu*an 0ariations lea0in their sta*p on thelife of the societ/ the/ help ad*inister. ndeniabl/% the/ can lend socialis* a hu*anface% or an inhu*an one. t is 0er/ *uch a *atter of each subEect's personal destin/


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e*plo/er% re*o0es the inconsistenc/ bet


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back on allocation and distribution% frustratin the state's plan. f it allocates


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An/ *echanis*% ho


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there is free *ilk% free concerts and free housin (thouh not e0er/bod/ ets all thehouseroo* he


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=ith eneral obliations arisin fro* people's status crofulfil*ent


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N&!-#% "hapters 1> Notes2 "hapters 1> Notes2 "hapters +>5

ntroduction

1. . ar% !he e


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recipients. !he/ do not e0en kno< the ae the/ li0e in (thouh this see*s hard toreconcile


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title to its lands prior to 185 and that its ser0ice tenure up to 191 bred third>eneration sla0es% for reasons


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18. 6ocke% seekin to oppose ;obbes and to present a *ore palatable doctrine% sa< thatif people's natural riht


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#tate and =ar% 1935% esp. p. 138. /opia can *ake the deer


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no do*inant strate/% *ai*in or other. t is not inherentl/ inconsistent


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beca*e successful entrepreneurs fro* the last third of the eihteenth centur/ on


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+3. on -lster% #our 7rapes% in A*art/a #en and Bernard =illia*s (eds)% tilitarianis*and Be/ond% 198% has a penetratin discussion of adapti0e preferences% and


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53. #ir 0or ennins% Part/ Politics% 193% 0ol. % p. +1.

5. !he esti*ates are those of 7. . Fr/ in his !he 7ro


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*ai*iation of social


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h/pothesis of endless iteration and does not support that of con0erence to


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+. s the liberal intellectual better off in the state of nature% or under state capitalis*G f he Eust cannot tell% and if he is the sort


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1. !a


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preference relation% it is no *ore than properl/ cautious


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. n fairness to 4a


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"lose>knitness is 0er/ hard to *ake sense of in a sche*e


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+. For co*pleteness% distributions inter*ediate bet


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+3. nlike poker or business


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are si*ultaneousl/ at 5 Notes2 "hapters 1> Notes2 "hapters +>5

"hapter +. 4edistribution

1. "f. the 4a


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the state b/ constitutional bounds. !he pre>re0olutionar/ pri0ilees and i**unities in*ost of -urope re0olutionar/ constitutional uarantees% bothli*ited the preroati0es of the state. ;o


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!his su* *a/ be% for all


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!here *a/% in addition% be other reasons for obEectin to the concept in particular circu*stances. f a certain pattern of redistribution is addicti0e like dru>takin% it is aeuphe*is* to sa/ that societ/ chooses to *aintain or accentuate that pattern. Atbotto*% this is the eneral proble* of toda/'s 1). =e should%ho


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@. For the funda*ental difference bet


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!he distinction *a/ be interestin for so*e purposes. t recalls the one the courts *akebet


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+. As


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Bureaucrac/ and 4epresentati0e 7o0ern*ent% 191% -cono*ic odel of the nitedindo*% -cono*ic ournal% 88% une 198%


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51. !o readers of . 4a


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f this h/brid s/ste* is less suffocatinl/ totalitarian than the thorouhbred statecapitalist


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-cono*ic nstitutions "o*pared% 199% p. 51). =hat% then% is pri0ate capitalis*% andho< do


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the bureaucrac/% *akin and un>*akin efforts depended on the output of butter alone% there


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. t could be arued that *anaers of pri0ate capitalist enterprises are also ser0int


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3. 4obert =illia* Foel and #tanle/ 6. -ner*an% !i*e on the "ross2 !he -cono*icsof A*erican Nero #la0er/% 19+% 0ol. 1% p. @.

-nd of Notes to "hapters +>5.

the state anthony de jasay

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