the punch marked
TRANSCRIPT
The PUNCH
MARKED
C IN’S
VIVA COLLEGE OF ARTS,
COMMERCE
& SCIENCE.
CLASS: THIRD YEAR BACHELOR OF ARTS.
ACADEMIC YEAR: 2008 – 2009
SUBMITED BY: ISHAN MADHUKAR
GAIKWAD.
PROJECT GUIDE: Mr. Sunil AlmeIda
THIS IS TO CERTIFY THAT THE PROJECT TITLED THE
“PUNCH MARKED COIN’S” IS AN ORIGINAL WORK AND IS
BEEN SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FROM THE
BACHELORS DEGREE OF ARTS UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI.
NAME : ISHAN MADHUKAR GAIKWAD
ROLL NO:
PLACE : VIRAR.
DATE :
SIGNATURE OF STUDENT:
WE HEREBY CERTIFY THAT ISHAN
MADHUKAR GAIKWAD OF VIVA COLLEGE OF ARTS,
COMMERCE AND SCIENCE STUDYING IN T.Y.B.A HAS
COMPLETED HIS PROJECT ON THE “PUNCH MARKED
COIN’S” IN THE ACADEMIC YEAR (2008-2009) THE
INFORMATION SUBMITTED IN THE PROJECT IS TRUE
AND ORIGINAL TO THE BEST OF MY KNOWLEDGE .
SUNIL ALMEIDA.
(PROJECT GUIDE)
I AM EXTREMELY PLEASED TO THE TEACHERS OF
T.Y.B.A (HISTORY), THE SECOND REVISED EDITION OF
ELEMENTS OF ARCHEOLOGY, MUSEOLOGY & LIBRARY
SCIENCE. THE PRESENT WORK IS A PIONEERING ATTEMPT TO
STUDY INDIAN PUNCH-MARKED COINS AND CONTAINS
TECHNICAL AND SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF AN UNPUBLISHED
HOARD OF SUCH COINS RECOVERED BY TAXILA UNIVERSITY.
I HAVE MADE A SINCERE EFFORT TO PRESENT THE VARIOUS
CHAPTER IN THIS PROJECT TITLED “PUNCH MARKED COINS” IN
AN ORDERLY MANNER IN SIMPLE LANGUAGE.
I ONCE AGAIN THANKFUL TO PROFESSOR SUNIL ALMEIDA FOR
ENCOURAGING ME TO PRESENT THIS PROJECT. THIS PROJECT
HAS BEEN COMPLETED BECAUSE OF MY FRIEND SIDDHESH
PAWAR AND MY PARENTS CO-OPERATION.
IndEX
SR.NO. CHAPTER PG.NO.
INTRODUCTION. 1
FEATURES OF PUNCHED MARK COINS. 5
1. INDIAS FIRST COINAGE. 6
1.1 MAURYAS, THE FIRST EMPRORS. 13
1.2 POST MAURYAN PERIOD. 16
2. THE OLDEST COIN I THE WORLD. 18
2.1 ELECTRUM. 19
2.2 ELECTRUM STATER OF MILETOS. 20
2.3 PUNCH-MARKED KARSHAPANA OF 21
ASHOKA THE GREAT.
2.4 SYMBOLS. 22
3. SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN COINS. 27
4. SOTHERN INDIAN COINS. 31
4.1 THE CHOLAS OF TANJAVUR. 31
4.2 THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE. 33
CONTRIBUTION OF COINS THROUGH HISTORY OF OUR
COUNTRY.
History is a study of our past and coins contributed a great deal to it. It
may be pertinent to point out that our ancient Indian script Brahmi was
deciphered by James Prinsep in 1837 AD on the basis of study of Indo-Greek
bilingual coins, the same way the Egyptian hieroglyphic script was analysed by
French scholars after studying the multilingual inscription found on Rosetta
stone.
The study of ancient and medieval Indian coins brought to light the names of
many kings about whose existence there was no literary or inscriptional
evidence. For example the recent discovery of Kotalingala coins in the
Karimnagar district of Andhra brought out the coins of unknown Kings namely
Gobada, Narana, Kamvayasa , Sirivayasa and Samagopa. These kings ruled part
of Andhra after the fall of Mauryan empire and they preceded Satavahanas. It is
also true of medieval period when kings like Yildis and Qubacha ruled parts of
Northwestern India during the rule of some Delhi sultans. These kings were
known to the historians as governors of those provinces but their coins prove
that they were independent rulers. Same is true of many such kings in different
parts of India who came to be known through their coin finds.
The coins also helped in corroborating the information provided in puranas.
Vayu, Vishnu, Brahmanda, Baghavata and Matsya puranas mention about
Satavahana kings and coins of some of those kings found in different parts of
Deccan support the puranas. But facts provided by coins seem to be more
accurate than puranas. For example name of the first king of this dynasty is
mentioned variously as Chismaka, Sindhuka, Balyhita, Simuka etc in different
Puranas but coins name him as Chimuka which must be correct since they were
issued during his rule while puranas were written centuries later and hence
many inaccuracies crept into them. Coins of some rulers of the family were
found which were missed out in the Puranas namely Kumba and Karna. Hence
coins help in reconstructing our ancient history much more accurately than what
is possible from other sources.
The coins also help historians in ascertaining the religious leanings of those
kings. Though Kushan kings helped Buddhism, their leanings were towards
Hinduism, much more so with Shaivism. Their coins depict Siva, Bull and
Trisula. The symbols on coins such as tree in railing, arched hill and elephant
suggest the ruler was a Buddhist. Such symbols on some of the Satavahana
kings clearly demonstrate their faith. Though majority of later rulers of
Vijayanagara dynasty favoured Vaishnavite faith and some kings even used
'namam'symbol on their coins, the early rulers leaned toward shaivism. The first
dynasty kings of Vijayanagar namely Sangama were shaivites and their coins
depicted Bull, Umamaheshwara and Durga. Vaishnavite symbols found on coins
of Vijayanagara rulers were: Hanuman, Garuda, Venkateshwara , Balakrishna,
Srirama etc. It was no surprise that Tirupathi became very popular during the
rule of later Vijayanagar kings and continues to be so.
The coins also point out the economic conditions of those times. Delhi sultans
namely Alauddin and Qutbuddin of Kalji dynasty issued a wide variety of gold
and silver coins in large numbers due to their treasury being full with the loot
and plunder of southern kingdoms. Whereas scanty coins of base metals issued
by their successors suggest chaotic economic conditions of that period. Coins
found in hoards and excavations reveal the trade of those times. For instance
punch marked coins discovered in hoards in Andhra revealed that a significant
proportion of those coins belonged to the north suggesting that there was a
brisk trade between north and south in the country more than two thousand
years ago. Similarly Roman coins were found in Andhra and other areas mixed
with coins of local kings implying that there was maritime trade during those
years with Rome.
Coins also help in finding out the personal traits of individual kings who issued
them. For instance Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, who was ahead of his times, issued
coins in the name of his dead father whom he killed in remorse in his early years
of rule. His successor Firoz brought out coins in the name of his dead son. Some
Delhi sultans were megalomaniacs, for example Alauddin called himself the
second Alexander and Qutbuddin declared his faith in Islam in grandiose terms
and called himself ' the supreme head of the religion of Islam, Khalifa of the lord
of heaven and earth'.
Some kings issued coins of his predecessor by putting a counter mark on it
which helps in finding out who followed whom. For example Gautamiputra
Satakarni issued coins of Nahapana with his counter mark corroborating the
historical evidence which suggested that he defeated him.
All of us now use only token currency but in India such token currency was
issued by Muhammad Bin Tughlaq 700 years ago. It was of course a failure since
people would not accept it. This was a token coin made of brass and he wanted
people to accept it as equivalent to silver which was 50 times costlier than brass.
The idea of token currency then was brilliant but being way ahead of times
ended in a fiasco.
The chemical analysis of the coins reveal the metals which were available then.
Billion coins were issued by many medieval kings and this is an alloy of silver
and copper. Lead coins were issued by Andhra Kings more than 2000 years ago
and they look well even today proving that our ancestor’s metallurgical
knowledge of lead alloys was commendable.
To conclude the study of coins is very useful for the reconstruction of our
ancient Indian history. The coins reveal many interesting facts about the kings,
their dynasties, religious beliefs, personal traits and economic conditions etc of
those times.
THE FEATURES OF PUNCH MARKED COINS
The following are the principles of Punch Marked Coin’s:
a) The earliest coin of the India have only figures, devices or symbols. They
were in various forms like hills, trees, birds, animals, reptiles, human
figures, floral and geometrical patterns, religious symbols etc. they did not
contain and inscription.
b) The coins of ancient period have the shapes of the conceivable liner,
geometrical forms, round, oval and elliptical. They bear the stamps from
the one to five punches.
c) The coins enable us to isolate the coins of one area from those of another
one.
d) The early silver punch marked coins have been found in large numbers,
scattered all over the country.
e) These coins are found only in a particular area or locality. Some or
probably all of the Mahajanpadas might have been using metal as
currency and money during the later vedic period.
The states which issued the Punch Marked Coin’s were:-
1) Surasena
2) Uttar Panchala
3) Vatsa
4) Kasi
5) Magadha
6) Gandhara
7) Vanga
8) Malla
9) Kalinga.
CHAPTER ONE
INDIA'S FIRST COINAGE
It is very difficult to know today where the concept of coinage first evolved, but
based on available evidences, it appears that the concept of money (as coins,
which by definition here would be a piece of metal of defined weight stamped
with symbol of authority for financial transaction), was conceived by three
different civilizations independently and almost simultaneously. Coins were
introduced as a means to trade things of daily usage in Asia minor, India and
China in 6th century BC. Most historians agree that the first coins of world were
issued by Greeks living in Lydia and Ionia (located on the western coast of
modern Turkey). These first coins were globules of Electrum, a naturally
occurring alloy of gold and silver. These were crude coins of definite weight
stamped with incuse punches issued by the local authorities in 650 BC.
Most likely the first coins of India were minted just before 5th century BC in
northern and central India. Although, few historian have suggested (based on
vedic records) that India minted perhaps the first coins of the world which were
introduced even earlier than Lydian/Ionian coins, in 8th century BC; most
scholars do not agree with this theory. Both, literary and archaeological
evidence confirm that the Indians invented coinage somewhere between 5th to
6th century BC. A hoard of coins discovered at Chaman Huzuri in 1933 contained
43 silver punch-marked coins (the earliest coins of India) with Athenian (coins
minted by Athens city of Greece) and Achaemenian (Persian) coins. Bhir (Taxila)
hoard discovered in 1924 contained 1055 punch-marked coins in very worn out
condition and two coins of Alexander in mint condition. These archaelogical
evidences clearly indicate that the coins were minted in India long before 4th
century BC i.e. before Greeks advanced towards India (Alexander's invasion of
Persia and India). Panini wrote Ashtadhyayi in 4h-5th century BC in which he has
mentioned Satamana, Nishkas, Sana, Vimastika, Karshapana and it's various
sub-divisions to be used in financila transactions. Thus coins are known in
ancient Indian literature from 500 BC. There is also a strong belief that silver as
a metal which was not available in Vedic India (pre 600 BC), became abundantly
available by 500-600 BC. Most of the silver came from Afganistan and Persia as
a result of international trade.
The earliest coins of India are commonly known as punch-marked coins. As the
name suggests, these coins bear the symbols of various types, punched on
pieces of silver of specific weight. Interestingly earliest Indian coins have no
defined shapes and they were mostly uniface. Secondly, these coins lack any
inscriptions written in contemporary languages and almost always struck in
silver. These unique characters makes early Indian coins very different than their
contemporaries in Greece. Many early historians believed that concept of
coinage was introduced in India by Greeks. But unlike Indian punch-marked
coins, Greek coins had inscriptions, they were round in shape, were stamped on
both the sides and minted using silver, electrum and gold too. Today we are
certain that the concept of coinage was invented in India independent of foreign
influence which imparted the unique characteristics to these punch-marked
coins, not seen in any other coins of the ancient world.
Punch-marked coins are marked with 1-5 (and sometimes more) marks
representing various symbols. Two well known numismatists, D. B. Spooner and
D.R. Bhandarkar after careful study independently concluded that the punching
of various symbols representing animals, hills, tree and human figures followed
a definite pattern and these coins were issued by royal authority.
First coin of India (?)
Before 5th Century BC
Minted in Madhyadesha?, found
near Mathura
Silver unit Seven punch marks
Weight: 7.14 gm
In Rig-Vedic period (Rig Veda is the
first out of the four Vedas which
contains scriptures and hymns in
Sanskrit, probably composed in 8th-
10th century BC), the small kingdoms
came into existance all over the
suncontinent from Kabul (Kubha in
Sanskrit) to upper Ganga (Ganges).
most of these were the small states
under hereditary monarchs and few
republics. These small and large
states called Janapadas and
Mahajanpadas. About 6th century
BC, sixteen Mahajanapadas or
kingdoms rose to pre-imminence in
India. According to ancient text
Anguttara Nikayas they were as
follows: Anga, Magadha, Kashi,
Koshala, Vajji, Malla, Vatsa, Chedi,
Kuru, Panchala, Matsya, Surasena,
Ashvaka, Avanti, Gandhar and
Kamboja. One of the earliest coins of
india were minted by following
Mahajanapadas.
1) Ganga River valley :
Kashi
Koshala
Brij (?)
2) Upper Ganga river valley :
Kuru-Panchala.
3) Indus river valley : Takshashila
(Taxila) & Gandhara
(Pushkalavati)
4) Southern India (Godavari and
Narmada river valley):
Ashmaka or Ashvaka and
Avanti
Each of the kingdom have issued distinct type of silver coins to facilitate the
trade. Shown above is possibly the earliest coin of Indian subcontinent which
was found near Mathura. This rectagular coin, made of almost pure silver, was
issued in central India or Madhyadesha. It has seven distinct punch marks
including central `pentagon enclosing a sphere' punch mark. None of those
marks show much resemblance to punch marks routinely seen on coins of other
Janapadas. Three other punch-marked coins of India minted by Taxila, Koshala
and Ashmaka Janapadas are shown below. These are some of the earliest coins
of the India.
Koshala Janapada
600-470 BC
Silver, One and Half Karshapana ?
Weight: 4.68 gm ( 48 ratti)
Reference: Series III, Group A of
Hardaker, Rare
Ancient Indian coinage was based on
`Karshapana' unit that consists of 32
rattis (3.3 grams of silver). A `Ratti' is
equivalent to 0.11 gms which is the
average weight of a Gunja seed (a
bright scarlet colored seed).
Subsidiary denominations of
Karshapana like half Karshapana (16
ratti), quarter Karshapana (8 ratti)
and 1/8 of Karshapana (4 ratti) were
also minted. Shown below is a fine
example of 1/8th of Karshapana
which is as usual uniface. On obverse
is septa-radiate single punch
(identical to what is seen on two
ends of Satamana bar).
Taxila Janapada
5th Century BC
silver, 1/8th Karshapana
Septa-radiate single punch Mark,
Uniface
Weight: 1.4 gm (4 ratti)
The Pradyota kings of Avanti had a
large kingdom covering central and
western India. It was prosperous
nation due to the commerce with
Mesopotamia through a sea port at
Bharoch (modern Gujrath). Shown
below is a beautiful example of one
of the earliest coins of India minted
by Ashmaka kingdom in southern
India or Deccan. This coin which is
considered as double Karshapana, is
from a hoard that surfaced in village
of Ashmaka in Maharashtra in 90s.
Although this type was first
published by Elliot in the 1870s, very
few specimens have been around
until the recent hoard.
Ashmaka Janapada
600-350 BC
Silver, Double Karshapana
Pulley Type, Uniface, Weight: 6.7
gm.
Most of these Janapadas were
subsequently absorbed into
Magadha empire (ruled by
Saisunaga dynasty) between 600-
321 BC. Pradyotas of Avanti were
defeated by Saisunaga in 400 BC.
The most remarkable king of
Magadha was Bimbisara (also called
Shrenika) who ascended on throne in
545 BC. He annexed kingdom of
Anga (east Bihar) and married
princesses of Koshala and Vaishali
thereby expanding his kingdom to
the borders of Nepal. He was a very
efficient administrator and built the
city of RajGriha (Rajgir in Bihar).
Both, Goutam Buddha and Mahavir
Jain preached their doctrines during
his reign. His son Ajatshatru (494-
462 BC) defeated many of his
adversaries including humbling his
uncle Presanjit of Koshala. He
founded the city Pataliputra
(modern Patna) which was
metropolis of ancient India for next 4
centuries.
In ancient India during 600-321 BC, many Janapadas issued coins with only one
symbol like Lion (Shursena of Braj), humped bull (Saurashtra) or Swastika
(Dakshin Panchala). Four symbol coins were issued by Kashi, Chedi
(Bundelkhand), Vanga (Bengal) and Prachya (Tripura) Janapadas. Five symbol
punch marked coins were first issued by Magadha which were continued during
Mauryan expansion. Shown below is a very rare coin of Kalinga Janapada which
is in mint condition. This is from a recent hoard which supposedly surfaced from
river delta; about half square and rest circular in shape.
Kalinga Janapada
500-350 BC
Silver, half Karshapana
Uniface
Weight: 1.6 gm
Very Rare
Ajatshatru was followed by many
kings who eventually lost this
kingdom to the family of Nandas. To
maintain the huge army of 200,000
infantry and 3000 elephants
(supported by Greek evidence),
Nandas had to resort to heavy
taxation which was detested by
people. They found a new leader in
Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC)
who eventually with the help of
Taxilian Bramhin Kautilya or
Chankya overthrew the Nanda ruler
and laid the foundation of illustrious
dynasty of Maurya.
1:1 MAURYAS, THE FIRST EMPERORS:-
Mauryan Empire (Asoka the great?)
310-181 BC
Silver Karshapana
Obverse: 3 deities and peacock
Reverse: Peacock on hill
Weight: 3.35 gm (32 rattis)
Reference: GH, Series VII
Scarce.
Most likely, emperors of Maurya
dynasty ruled the largest empire
that ever existed in the Indian
subcontinent. Soon after the death
of Alexander, his empire was divided
among his generals. One of his
general Seleucus assumed the title of
King in 312 BC. He invaded India but
was repelled by Chandragupta
Maurya. Seleucus surrendered a
large part of Gandhara (modern
Afganistan and Pakistan). Seleucus
sent an ambassador named
Magasthenes to Chandragupta's
court, who has written detailed
account of might and pomp of
Mauryan empire. Chandragupta
(according to Jain scripture
converted to Jainism and spent his
last days at Shravan Belgola in
southern India) was followed by his
son Bindusara who increased his
empire by annexing Deccan. His son
Asoka seized Pataliputra after his
father's death and enthroned
himself as emperor. Asoka is the
greatest emperor of Muaryan
dynasty and most certainly the
greatest figure in the Indian history.
He was an ambitious ruler who
annexed a large part of southern and eastern India, including the
kingdom of Kalinga (modern Orissa)
Shown above is a an interesting silver Karshapana (mentioned in ancient
Sanskrit treatise Manu smruti being 32 rattis in weight) minted by Mauryan
authorities. The most striking feature of this punch-marked coins is presence of 3
deities, struck from single punch. It is very rare to see any human figure or
deities on punch-marked coins. Shown below is another coin minted by Mauryan
emperor which shows sun, the symbol of Mauryan.
Mauryan Empire
310-181 BC
Silver, Punch-marked coin
Weight: 2.3 gm
During Asoka's reign, the Mauryan
empire reached zenith covering an
area from modern Afganistan in
west to Assam in east and in north
from Himalayas to modern Andhra
Pradesh in southern India. These
imperial punch marked coins have
been discovered in all the regions
which cover modern India, Pakistan
and Afganistan, truly representing
the glory of the mighty Mauryan
empire. Although, Kalinga war
proved to be turning point and
produced far reaching consequence
in the history of India and whole
eastern world. Asoka came under
influence of Buddhist philosophy and
later sent his son (or brother?)
Mahendra to Sri Lanka who
converted king Devanampiya Tissa
and eventually the entire island
country to Buddhism.
Emperor Asoka drew up a code of laws noted for their humanity and erected
hundreds of stone pillars and magnificent Buddhist Stupas (dome shaped
monuments). It is believed that Asoka erected almost 85,000 stupas and pillars
all carved in stone with teachings of Buddhism engraved on them. After two
thousand years, we can still see ruins of them in most states of india including
Gujrat, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Tamilnadu. Some of Asoka's edicts , carved
on pillars and rocks, form the earliest known epigraphs in the subcontinent.
These pillars are made out of shafts of sandstone and display Buddhist symbols
such as the wheel and the lion. These pillars are some of India's earliest major
stone sculptures.
The great Stupa at Sanchi is perhaps the finest surviving relic of the Mauryan
empire. This great stupa is 54 feet in height and surrounded by exquisitely
carved stone railings and four gateways. These elaboratley carved gateways
depicts events in life of Buddha and also lifestyle of people of that era. A famous
Lion-Capital (four-lion pillar which is shown above) gleams in polished white
sandstone realistically represents the artistic achievements of Indian artists and
patronage of their masters. This Lion-Capital that Asoka erected at Sarnath (in
modern madhya Pradesh) has become the national emblem of modern republic
of India. All the coins and currency notes of modern India have this four-lion
symbol on it. The Mauryan Empire is famous for its great achievements in art,
culture architecture and literature. The classics of Indian literature, such as the
Arthashastra of Kautilya (a treatise for kings about ruling a state) and the
famous Kama Sutra by Vatsayan (unfortunately, today it is considered as just
the book for art of Love-Making) were written during Mauryan reign.
1:2 POST-MAURYAN PERIOD:-
Asoka was the last emperor of Mauryan empire which started it's decline soon
after his death. Many kingdom arose out of ruins of this great empire. Northern
India was divided into many republics (?) which were controlled by various
ganas (tribes) like Achuyta, Ahicchatra, Arjunayana, Ayodhya, Eran, Kaushambi,
Kuninda etc.. The coins issued by these republics/Kingdoms are very interesting
both historically and numismatically.
Amoghbhuti
Late 2nd Century BC
Silver Drachm, Bilingual
Obverse: Deer and Deity, Brahmi
Legends
Reverse: 6 symbols, Kharoshti
legends, Weight: 2.4 gm.
Kuninda, which referred as Kulinda
in ancient literature, issued very
attractive silver coinage in late 2nd
century BC. These coins were issued
by king Amoghbhuti who ruled in the
fertile valley of Jamuna, Beas and
Sutlaj rivers (modern Punjab in
northern India). The obverse of the
coins shows a deer and Laxmi
(goddess of wealth) is holding lotus
in her uplifted hand. Between horns
of deer, a cobra symbol is depicted.
The reverse shows 6 symbols. Hill
and river below, Nandipada (hoof of
bull), tree in railing, Swastik and Y
shaped symbol. Interestingly, the
coins were bilingual. On obverse,
legends were in Prakrit (closely
related to Sanskrit), written in
Brahmi script while on reverse were
in Kharoshti. The legends on obverse
reads Rajnah Kunindasya
Amoghabhutisya maharajasya. The
reverse bears Maharajasa in
Kharoshti script at the same place
where Indo-Greek and Saka coins
depicted their ruler's names.
These coins represent the first ever effort of an Indian ruler to issue silver
coinage which could compete in market with that of Indo-Greek coinage. Indo-
Greek kings who ruled in neighboring areas (Bactria and Punjab) issued
breathtaking examples of silver coins which, were highly sought after. This
made Amoghbhuti to issue coins of purely Indian design but of exceptional
beauty to ensure economic superiority over his neighbors. Shown above is this
very attractive silver coin of ancient India.
Kuninda kingdom was eventually invaded by Kushan and Shakas in middle of
first century BC. Both, Indo-Greek and Kuninda kingdoms were annexed to make
next great empire of India, Kushan empire .
CHAPTER TWO
THE OLDEST COIN IN THE WORLD
The heritage of ancient coins is a subject that intrigues and delights collectors
and scholars the world over. The oldest coin available today was discovered in
Efesos, an ancient Hellenic city and prosperous trading center on the coast of
Asia Minor. The 1/6 stater, pictured below, is more than 2,700 years old, making
it one of the very earliest coins. Made from electrum, a natural occuring alloy of
gold and silver, the coin originated in the area of Lydia. It had a design on one
side only, a result of the primitive method of manufacture. This ancient stater
was hand struck. A die with a design (in this case a lion's head) for the obverse
(front) of the coin was placed on an anvil. A blank piece of metal was placed on
top of the die, and a punch hammered onto the reverse. The result was a coin
with an image on one side and a punch mark on the other.
The stater is a key exhibit in the
Department of Coins and Medals of
the British Museum, which houses
one of the world's finest numismatic
collections, comprising about 1
million objects. The earliest issues,
thought to date from the reign of
Alyattes (about 610 - 560 BC) or
perhaps his predecessor Sadyattes -
both of the Mermnad dynasty -
feature the Lydian kings' emblem of
a roaring lion, almost always with a
curious knob, often called a "nose
wart," on its forehead.
2:1 ELECTRUM:-
The Pactolus River beside the slopes of Mount Tmolus in the kingdom of Lydia
was one of the most important sources of electrum in the ancient world.
According to Greek mythology, the river acquired its electrum when King Midas
of nearby Phrygia bathed in it to wash away his golden touch, which had turned
even his food into gold, a telling parable about the destructiveness of wealth. In
actuality, The Paktolos River acquired its electrum from electrum-laden quartz
deposits near Mount Tmolos (called Mount Bozdag today).
The alluvial deposits of gold were mixed with as much as 40% silver and some
copper; such a gold-silver mix is called electrum. The earliest coins were made of
electrum with a standardized 55% gold, 45 silver and 1-2% copper concentration
and had either no design or a some apparently random surface striations on one
side and a punch impression on the other.
Just as the rulers of the Middle East today have become wealthy from oil, so the
ancient Lydian kings became rich by accumulating and minting coins from
electrum. The capital city of ancient Lydia was Sardis, and it was a major
commercial center linking the Asian kingdoms of the east with the coastal Greek
cities of Ionia, including Miletus. It is not an accident that the first coins
appeared in the important commercial centers of Lydia and adjacent Ionia, nor
that the first system of bimetallic currency - the first system of interrelated gold
and silver issues - was also developed there. As the 19th century German
historian Ernst R. Curtius wrote, "The Lydians became on land what the
Phoenicians were by sea, the mediators between Hellas and Asia."
2:2 ELECTRUM STATER OF MILETOS:-
The most famous coin type of ancient Miletus, and one of the earliest of all coins
that can be attributed to a particular city, is the electrum stater that features a
crouching lion regardant on the obverse, and three incuse punches on the
reverse. Although they are not excessively rare, these electrum staters
(weighing just over fourteen grams) are understandably very expensive. The
fourteen-gram staters, however, represent only one denomination in a complete
denominational series that also included thirds, sixths, twelfths, and twenty-
fourths of a stater, and perhaps smaller denominations as well.
Several Greek cities, including
Miletos, as well as the Lydian kings
began minting these first coins by
stamping the badge of their city into
one side of a standard weight lump
of electrum and various punches into
the other. These devices were used
to facilitate trade by certifying that
the intrinsic value and weight of the
metal was guaranteed by the issuing
authority. Of these first coins, those
of Miletos like the current example
(600-550 BC), are probably the finest
from an artistic perspective. The lion,
cleverly configured with its head
reverted and tail curled over its
haunch to neatly fit within the
rectangular frame, is a masterpiece
of Archaic Greek art. Mean
Diameter: 21 x 17.5 mm. (0.827 x
0.689"). Weight: 13.91 gm. (0.435
Troy oz.)
2:3 PUNCH-MARKED KARSHAPANA OF ASOKA THE GREAT:-
Five symbols:
1. Sun.
2. Sadaracakra (dynasty wheel) or Dharmacakra (Wheel of Dharma) (type
uncertain).
3. Caduceus (Ashoka's royal symbol).
4. Three-arched hill.
5. Triskeles and unknown symbol.
Ashoka's mudra (Caduceus) :
Chandragupta Maurya's Prime
Minister Kautilya (also known as
Chanakya) describes in his book
Arthashastra how the coins of this
period were made. The metal was
melted, purified with alkalies,
beaten into sheets, and cut into
pieces. Subsequently, the symbols
were punched on these pieces. Since
the pieces had to be cut and clipped
to make them conform to a
particular weight, coins were made
in all kinds of shapes and sizes.
Sometimes, metal of the desired
weight was melted and either
poured on a flat board to take its
own shape or made into pellets,
which were then flattened.
2:4 SYMBOLS:-
Initially, the coins carried only one symbol. Gradually, the number of symbols
increased to two, and then five. If the coin bore a single symbol, it was placed at
the center of the flan. If there were two symbols, they were placed side by side.
Four symbols were usually placed in pairs (one pair opposite the other).
The flan of the coin was often much smaller than the size of the punches.
Therefore, in coins with four or five symbols (such as the one I have posted), you
would find parts of the symbols off the flan or overlapping one another. These
factors (coupled with the astounding varity of the symbols) often make the
correct identification of the symbols very challenging (especially for a newbie
like me).
Originally, the symbols were punched only on one side of the coin (which may be
called the obverse). When the coin became worn, a fresh symbol (or group of
symbols) was pressed on the reverse. For coins bearing four or five symbols, the
reverse was either blank or bore minute symbols (mostly one or two in number),
which are believed to be those of shroffs or money testers. Coins of later period
(bearing five obverse symbols) carried a conpicuous symbol on the center of the
reverse, which became quite bold during the Mauryan period.
Coins of Magadha (the seat of the powerful Maurya dynasty) can be divided
into two periods.
1. Earlier issues of the time when Magadha was merely a janapada (small
state):
These can again be divided into two sub-periods.
(a) The period during which Rajagriha was the capital: Coins of this period are of
an irregular, roughly rectangular shape. The number of symbols on them varies
from one to six.
(b) Coins issued after the capital was shifted to Patliputra (Patna): These coins
bear four symbols, of which two are the sun and the six-armed symbol
(Sadaracakra). The earlier coins of this period are irregular, and the later ones
circular.
2. Coins issued during the period of Magadha's imperial expansion: Thin, broad
coins are thought to be earliest in chronology and the thick, smaller ones latest.
These coins are found in a variety of shapes, all of which have five different
symbols on the obverse, placed in a definite order. More than 450 varieties of
these symbols can be identified on these coins! Based on the symbol groups, the
coins can be classifed into about 600 varieties, which can be sub-divided into
various classes and, in turn, into six or seven series.
Coins of the first four series bear bear minute symbols on the reverse. Coins of
series five bear a distinct mark on the reverse, in addition to these minute
marks. Coins of series six and seven have a reverse mark as bold as the obverse
symbols.
CHAPTER THREE
SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN COINS:-
The coins contributed a great deal to the Indian history. The main sources
of ancient Indian coins are treasure troves, excavations, riverbeds and rarely
temple collections from devotees. All countries do have treasure trove laws and
according to them, any coin, bullion, gold or silver article found hidden in the
earth for which no owner can be found belongs to the crown or government.
Even in ancient India claims of the king to the treasure troves were supported by
the theory that he is the owner of the earth and its protector. The finder of the
treasure was entitled to some compensation and Manu declared that the king
obtains one half of the hoard. The owner of the land had no rights to the find
since the land is the property of the king. During the Muslim rule finder of the
treasure was its owner unless its value exceeded one lakh rupees. If the value
exceeded one lakh rupees finder was advised to give part of it to charity. Finder
of non-Islamic treasure like coins would get the intrinsic value plus 20%. The
Indian treasure trove act was passed on 13th February 1978, which authorized
the government to claim possession of any treasure unearthed that exceeded
ten rupees in value. This act is still in force in various states as modified in
September 1949. In its application to the Andhra Pradesh it is known as Indian
treasure trove (Andhra Pradesh Amendment) act 1949.
Hoard is a collection of coins left behind as savings, loot or treasure usually
buried in receptacles like copper or clay pots. The coins found in such hoards end
up in archaeological museums. Bayana hoard of 1821 Gupta gold coins were
discovered in Baratpur district of Rajasthan, which yielded types of this
dynasty's coins not seen before. The coins belonged to Chandra Gupta II (376-
414 AD), Kumara Gupta I (415-450 AD) and Skanda Gupta (455-467 AD). Hence
these coins were hoarded during the rule of Skanda Gupta and were discovered
in 1946 AD. Another large hoard of Satavahana coins was found in Tarhala of
Akola district of Maharashtra. This hoard had coins of all the later Satavahana
rulers from Gautamiputra Satakarni onwards besides the coins of some rulers of
this dynasty, which were missed out in the Puranas. Jogalthembi in Nasik district
of Maharastra was another site of major hoard of 13250 silver coins. The coins
solely belonged to Nahapana and Nahapana conis restuck by Gautamiputra
Satakarni. Majority of coins housed in different museums of our country are
these coins from hoards and they are available for academic research which
enriches our history. Each museum keeps an inventory of the coin hoards
prepared on the basis of treature trove files. Some museums do by some
important coins from the market and some coins may come from voluntary
donations. Andhra Pradesh Government museum has over 350000 coins in its
cabinets and majority of these were procured from treasure troves and a few
were donations from the Durbars of erstwhile princely states and some were
given by other museums.
Excavations are planned diggings and many sites may yield coins such as at
Nagarjunakonda, Amaravati, Veerpuram, Kondapur etc. Bulk of coins found at
these four sites were Ikshvaku, punch marked, Maharathi and Satavahana coins
respectively. Besides the coins many other artifacts may be found in
excavations. Coins found in stratified levels are of great importance in dating
the stratum along with it all associated objects resting in the same stratum.
Kondapur excavations were carried out in 1940s, which provided a wealth of
information of significant historical importance. Coins of Satavahanas namely
Gautamiputra and Pulumavi were found along with a datable Roman coin.
There were also restruck Satavahana coins at this site. Coin moulds of various
materials were found suggesting that this site could have been an ancient
Satavahana mint town. Beads of various materials, decorated pottery, seals
both inscribed and uninscribed, toys and metal implements were also recovered
at this site.
Dropping of coins into the rivers and fountains has been an age-old tradition all
over the world especially into the rivers considered holy. Great many ancient
coins have been found in the river beds and people search for them in summer
months when water levels of rivers recede. Paithan, ancient Prathistan, on the
banks of river Godavari yielded large number of Satavahana and other coins. In
recent years Karur on the banks of Amaravathi in Tamil Nadu has been source of
large number of Sangam age Tamil coins besides the coins of various. Middle
East and European countries. Sometimes the coins may be found way down the
riverbed from the site of offering. Majority of such coins ends up with coin
collectors and large number of these coins are reported in our numismatic
journals.
Last and unusual source of ancient coins is from the temple offerings by the
devotees. Tirupati being the most popular deity received large numbers of gold
coins besides the coins of silver and copper. Usually the authorities sell away the
coins of lower denominations and gold coins have been made into chains, which
adorn the deities. Late Dr. Ramesan photographed these coin chains and before
he could analyze them and report the findings he passed away. There is
staggering variety of these gold coins, which were offered by the devotees over
the years. These coins belonged to Mughal rulers such as Akbar (1556-1605 AD),
Aurangzib (1658-1707 AD), Shah Alam (1707-1712 AD), and East India Company,
British India and very many foreign coins from Vatican, UK, Spain, South Africa
etc. The oldest of these coins belong to Akbar and it may be worth noting that
this temple became popular during the rule of later Vijayanagar kings. The early
Kings of Vijayanagar leaned towards Shaivism while later kings were strong
Vaishnavites. One king Venkatapati Raju II even issued coins with 'namam'
symbol. There is epigraphic evidence that Krishnadeva Raya (1509-1529 AD)
visisted the temple twice and presented offerings to the deity. A detailed study
of all the gold coins in the temple may yield many interesting points of historical
importance. In many old temples one may find silver and gold coins struck
around the doors and floor of the site for decoration. Some tribal women folk
like Lambadas use coin pendants and coin chains as ornaments. Coin collection
is a hobby with many and the usual sources of coins are the jewelers, saraffs and
moneychangers. Rodgers describes beautifully how he was able to collect large
variety of rare ancient coins from these sources in Amritsar in the last century
where he spent three decades. In recent years there are coin societies to serve
the purpose of numismatics.
CHAPTER FOUR
SOUTHERN INDIAN COINS
4:1 THE CHOLAS OF TANJAVUR:-
Cholas is an ancient dynasty of southern India having roots in Indian
mythology. It was in 850 AD, Vijayalaya Chola, a feudatory of Pallava captured
Tanjore (or Tanjavur) and brought Chola dynasty to prominence once again. His
son Aditya Chola (871-907 AD) squarly defeated Pandyas and Pallawas, two
other major power brokers of South India to become sovereign ruler of south
India. Raja Raja Chola (985-1014 AD) was the greatest ruler of this dynasty. He
first destroyed Chera (the rulers of Kerala, south India) navy at Trivendrum, then
captured Madura and subsequently defeated Sinhalese (Shri Lankan) king
Mahendra V thus occupying northern Cylon (modern Shri lanka). He further
went ahead and conquered Maldive islands. His son Rajendra Chola (1012-1044
AD) was very worthy successor. He expanded his inherited empire by occupying
whole of Shri Lanka (1018 AD) and later crowning the glory by inflicting a
crushing defeat on Shrivijaya, the King of Indonesia, in 1025 AD. His empire
consisted of whole of southern India, Sri Lanka, and parts of the Malay
peninsula (modern Malysia) and the Sumatran-based Srivijaya Kindgom
(modern Indonesia). His successors managed to retain control over Sri Lanka for
another 50 years but eventually lost it. Chola kings ruled for another century
without losing any of their mainland territory. Eventually Chola empire
disintegrated and former feudatories Banas, Kadavas and Pandyas assumed
independence. Rajaraja Chola III (1216-1246 AD) was reduced to the rank of
minor king. Later his capital was captured by Pandya King Jatavarman Sundara
and Chola dynasty came to an end.
Anonymous coin of Sri lanka
Prototype Used by Raja Raja Chola
990-1017 AD
Gold Kahavanu
Minted in Shri Lanka in 933 AD
Weight: 4.7 gm
Reference: Mitchiner1998:311
Cholas were great patrons of
literature, philosophy, art and
architecture. Raja Raja I was
responsible for construction of
magnificent temple at Tanjore. This
temple, which is dedicated to Lord
Shiva (also called Bruhadishwara) is
a masterpiece of architecture. It is
built out of the red sandstones with
large number of sculptures carved
outside and inside involving
immense labour and infinite pain.
Chola art is characterised by a
massive grandeur truly reflected in
this massive temple which consists of
great `Shikhara' of fourteen stories,
crowned by massive dome carved
out of a single stone which weigh
probably 100 tons!!! It is believed
that to install this dome on the
temple (which is of 190 feet height),
a ramp of 5 miles was constructed. A
famous historian Fergusson has
written `Chola artists conceived like
giants and finished like jewellers'.
The picture of this magnificent
temple is shown above.
Shown above is the gold coin of Sri lanka which was used as prototype by Raja
Raja Chola when he conquored Shri Lanka. King (most likely) is shown sitting
and holding conch in one hand. He took the title of `Lankavibhu', the Lord of (Sri)
Lanka. This title, which was written in Devnagri script, is seen on the obverse of
coin. Chola empire was eventually disintegrated and Nayakas (Chola governor)
took control of Tanjavur. In 16th century, brother of Shivaji the great, defeated
Nayakas and firmly established the Maratha dynasty of Tanjavur which ruled
for next 200 years from Tanjavur.
4:2 THE VIJAYNAGAR EMPIRE:-
Foundation of Vijaynagar empire is certainly the most significant event in the
history of medieval India. It lasted for 3 centuries and successfully prevented the
extension of Muslim sultanetes in south. History of Vijaynagar empire is truly an
unbroken era of bloody wars with Bahamani and other Muslim rulers. Two
brothers Harihara and Bukka laid the foundation of the Vijaynagar city on the
southern bank of Tungabhadra river near Anegundi fortress. A sage Madhav
Vidyaranya and his brother Sayana (his commentry on Vedas is famous) were
the inspirational source for the foundation of this Hindu empire. Bukka sent an
embassy to China in 1374 and after his death was succeded by Harihara II.
Harihara II extended this newly founded kingdom by conquoering almost whole
of southern India, including Mysore, Kanara, Chingalpet, Trichinopally and
Kanchivaram. Harihara II was devotee of Virupaksha (Shiva) but was tolerant to
all other religions. He was the first King of Vijaynagar empire who assumed the
title of Maharajadhiraj Rajaparmeshwara.
In 1486, Vir Narasimha of Chandragiri, who had rose into promienance, took
control of the Vijaynagar empire. This led to the direct rule of the Tuluva
dynasty over Vijaynagar empire. His younger son Krishanadev Raya is certainly
the greatest ruler of Vijaynagar and one of the most famous kings in the history
of India (In my opinion, other 3 would be Asoka, Vikramaditya and Shivaji). He
was gallant warrior and like Vikramaditya, he was always successful in the wars
which he waged throughout his reign. He was a fine statesman and treated the
defeated enemy with honour. First, in 1511-1512 AD, he captured southern
Mysore, Shivasamudram fortress and Raichur. In 1513 AD, he humbled the king
of Orissa Gajapati and in 1514 AD he captured Udaigiri. Eventually he captured
Vishakapatnam and completely abolished the authority of King of Orissa. His
greatest and most celebrated military achievement was crushing defeat of
Ismail Adil Shah on 19th March 1520. This ended the muslim dominance in south
and made him master of whole of south India.
Krishanadev Raya
1509-1530 AD
Half Gold Pagoda
Obverse: Seated Balakrishna (baby
Krishna)
Reverse: Legends in Devnagri script
Weight: 1.7 gm
Reference: Mitchiner1998:641
Shown above is a fine example of his
coin. It shows Balakrishna seated on
obverse of coins while on reverse his
name is written in Nagri script. The
coins of Vijaynagar empire were very
popular and were used as prototype
even after its decline. Most dynasties
in south (which include British and
other European colonies) issued
coins very similar to Vijaynagar coins
till the begining of the eighteenth
century. Shown below is another fine
example of Krishnadev Raya's coin
which is unusually large (2 cm in
diameter as compared to 1.3 cm of
regular kind) showing four armed
garuda on reverse. On obverse is his
name `Pratapa Krishna Raya' in
Devnagari script.
Krishanadev Raya
1509-1530 AD
Copper, five jitals
Obverse: Garuda
Reverse: Legend in Devnagri Script
Weight: 16.48 gm
Mitchiner1998:645
Scarce
During his last days, Krishanadev
Raya devoted all his attention in
organization of his empire and
improving the administration. He
maintained friendly relationship
with Portugese and granted some
concessions to governer
Albuquerque. Reign of Krishanadev
Raya reached to its zenith not only in
terms of expanse of the empire, but
also in terms of growth and
development of literature, music, art
and culture. Raya himself was an
accomplished poet, musician, scholar
and was fluent in Sanskrit, Telugu
and Kannada (and perhaps Tamil
too!). He wrote a immensely
important (both historically and
religiously) book Amuktamalyada in
Telugu. He patronized many poets
which includes Ashtadigajas (eight
elephants, the great poets of Telugu)
and scholars like Tenalirama. His
reign also saw the remarkable
development in art and architecture.
The famous Hazara temple built
during his reign is one of the most
perfect example of Hindu Temple
architecture. Vithalswami temple is
another fine example of the
Vijaynagar style of architecture.
Krishandev Raya and all other rulers
of this empire were pious Hidus and
were devoted to Dharma, but they
had very liberal outlook for other
religions. According to Barbosa, a
historian and many contemporary
travellers, `the Kings allows such
freedom that every man would live
without suffering and annoyance,
whether he is a Christian, Jew, Moor
or Hindu'.
Krishnadev Raya
Copper Jital
Obverse: Dagger and conch
Reverse: Legends in Devnagri script
Weight: 1.3 gm
Mitchiner1998:767
Shown above is another coin of
Krishnadevraya, the reverse of it
shows a dagger with chakra on left
and Shankh (conch) on right. On
obverse is Vrishabha (bull). It is well
executed coin with finer details
clearly visible.
Achyut Raya succeeded as the ruler of empire but soon lost control to his
brother-in-law Tirumala. Eventually, the power was trasferred to prime minister
Ram Raya who seized the throne for himself. Finally, three muslim sultanetes of
Deccan, Bijapur, Ahmadnagar and Golkonda formed a coalition and met the
massive Vijaynagar Army (half a million!) near village Tagdi on 23rd January
1565 AD. In spite of the vast numerical superiority over allied forces, Vijaynagar
lost the war. A small group of muslim soldiers separated the elephant of Ram
Raya from his army in a swift move. He was at once beheaded by Husain Nizam
Shah. The whole army in confusion left the battle ground and 250 years old
empire was lost in few hours . What followed was one of the greatest plunder
and destruction in the history of India. According to historian, Sewell `After
victory, muslims reached capital and for next five month they destroyed and
plundered relentlessly. Nothing seemed to escape them. They burned
magnificent buildings, pavillions and finally the beautiful Vithalswami temple
near the river. With swords, crowbars and axes they smashed exquisite stone
sculptures. Never perhaps in history of the world such havoc has been wrought
on so splendid city, teeming with a wealthy and industrious population. City was
seized, pillages and reduced to ruins, amid scenes of savage massacre and
horrors beggaring description'.
The ruins of Vijaynagar city can be seen today near Hampi in Karnataka which
realisticly reflects the splendour and opulance during the reigns of Rayas of
Vijaynagar.This so called battle of Talikota was one of the decisive battles in the
history of India. It destroyed the Hindu supremacy in southern India till rise of
Marathas in seventeen century. In spite of the tremendous damage, Vijaynagar
did survive but the old grandeur was lost. Coalition muslim forces did not gain
much in spite of all out victory. Alliance was soon dissolved and brother of Rama
Raya took this opportunity and tried to bring back the old glory to the kingdom.
After death of Venkata II in 1614, the kingdom disintegrated and went into total
obscurity.