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The Perspectives of Science Teachersin Relation to Current Thinking aboutEnvironmental EducationChris Gayford aa University of Reading, Department of Science and TechnologyEducation, UKPublished online: 07 Jul 2006.

To cite this article: Chris Gayford (1998) The Perspectives of Science Teachers in Relationto Current Thinking about Environmental Education, Research in Science & TechnologicalEducation, 16:2, 101-113, DOI: 10.1080/0263514980160201

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Research in Science & Technological Education, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1998 101

The Perspectives of Science Teachersin Relation to Current Thinkingabout Environmental Education

C H R I S G A Y F O R D , Department of Science and Technology Education, University ofReading, UK

ABSTRACT This article contains a discussion of aspects of current thinking related to the environment within theinternational community. This is followed by an enquiry into practice among a sample of 81 secondary scienceteachers in England. The study took place over 3 years with the purpose of identifying the thinking of the teachersabout environmental education and whether there were changes in that over the period of the investigation. Specificaspects of the enquiry included teachers' understanding of the concept of sustainability and whether they included itin their leaching; whether they integrated non-scientific elements, such as economic, cultural and ethical aspects ofenvironmental issues, into their science teaching; what they considered to be the most important environmental issuesto be included in their science programmes; and whether they were aware of the trends in environmental thinking inthe international community. The results showed that there was an increasing awareness among the teachers ofmatters related to sustainability. There had been a shift over the period of the study in their perception of the mostimportant issues that affect the environment and many of the teachers had an appreciation of some of the changes inenvironmental thinking in recent years.

Introduction

The first part of this paper contains a discussion of some recent developments in thedebate about environmental education. These arc issues that have often emerged at aninternational level, sometimes within groups who do not have direct access to the channelsof communication commonly used by teachers in schools or colleges. The extent to whichthese ideas affect the thinking of science teachers in schools is an issue that requiresinvestigation, since these teachers are frequently at the forefront of environmentaleducation within their own institutions, there being a natural tendency for them to takeon this role or for other colleagues to expect them to do so (Goodson, 1993). It is theintention to raise the level of the debate here and to point to ways in which teachers mayor should be affected.

Those who have observed the progress of environmental education in many parts ofthe world over recent years may be surprised by the suggestion that there may be anissue. On one hand, they possibly consider that environmental education is, self-evidently,an essential requirement for the future survival of humanity and, therefore, should betreated as a central component in all areas of education, especially the curriculum of

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formal education institutions (as advocated by the World Commission on Environmentand Development (1987) and the United Nations (1992)). This has been reiterated, forexample, by the Council and the Ministers of Education of the European Community(1988) and the Department for the Environment in the UK (1994). Yet despite this highlevel of support, there remains a resistance to fully implementing environmental educationwithin the curriculum of schools and colleges. On the other hand, they may wonderwhat the concern is about. They may share the view that environmental educationshould be part of the educational entitlement of all students, particularly those of statutoryschool age, but feel that it is already satisfactorily embedded within the curriculum.Superficially it may appear that a good deal of the content of traditional disciplines,especially science and geography, relates directly to the environment. In diis latter case,it is part of the purpose of this paper to show that, while subjects like science have animportant contribution to make, thinking about the nature and purposes of environmentaleducation have now moved on to an extent where teachers who take a more traditionalview of environmental education are likely to find themselves out of step with some ofthe important ideas put forward by modern environmentalists. Therefore, the aim hereis to introduce some of the more significant current issues related to environmentaleducation and to discuss the implications for reflective practitioners in science andtechnology education. It is emphasised that the list below is simply selective of an evenwider range of issues, but these have been chosen to exemplify some of the importantareas of current thinking which should help to broaden the discussion of science andtechnology teachers who wish to include aspects of environmental education in theirprogrammes in the future.

Some Current Issues in Environmental Education

These are summarised as follows.

The Nature and Purpose of Environmental Education

Environmental educators have always been struggling with questions of the nature,purpose and scope of the field ever since the early days when this area of the schoolcurriculum was first specifically identified (Gayford, 1991, 1996a). It is likely that, becauseenvironmental education has had its roots in curriculum subjects like science andgeography (Goodson, 1993), the links have remained firm between environmentaleducation and knowledge and understanding of the natural environment, particularlyecology. However, there is increasing acknowledgement that these perceptions should bewidened to include problem solving and decision making (for example UNESCO-UNEP(1978)), critical thinking (Fien, 1995), as well as the development of certain types of skills,such as participatory abilities, often referred to as 'action competence' (Jensen & Schnack,1997) and attitudinal development (Gayford & Dillon, 1995). A good deal of this ismoving well away from the normal remit of science teachers in their traditional capacity.The concept of education for sustainability is currently widely used among environmentalists(sec item 5 below).

The Holistic Nature of Environmental Education

One of the fundamental qualities of environmental education that has emerged is thatissues that related to the environment have economic, cultural, aesthetic, political and

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Current Thinking about Environmental Education 103

spiritual dimensions, as well as scientific and technological ones. This is a particularchallenge to any educator or those who plan the curriculum (Smyth, 1995). There hasbeen considerable criticism of the tendency of educators to focus on the scientific andtechnological aspects of the environment to the exclusion of the sociological elements(Redclift, 1987). The problems that this presents to environmental educators arc discussedby Gayford & Dorion (1994) and arc identified as a serious limiting factor in establishingenvironmental education in the school curriculum. Furthermore, die reductionistapproaches frequently applied to traditional disciplines mean that environmental educa-tion is problematic for teachers and mitigate against developing these holistic viewsamong students (Giroux, 1988; Sterling, 1993).

Links between Knowledge and Attitudes and Behaviour

It is frequently assumed, without question, that there is a direct link between knowledgeand understanding and attitudes and behaviour. However, there is considerable evidencethat there is not a simple linear relationship between increasing knowledge, awarenessraising, attitudinal change and behavioural change (Gigliotti, 1992; Marcincowski, 1993).We now know much more about the factors which affect attitudes and behaviours.Elaborate models relating understanding, attitudes and behaviours have been formulated,based on empirical evidence in a wide variety of fields (Ajzcn & Fishbein, 1980; Ajzcn,1988; Dillon & Gayford, 1997). These include the influence of perceived social norms,understanding and evaluating the outcomes of particular types of behaviour and thedegree of control people perceive that they have over situations.

If science teachers arc to move in the directions that these ideas seem to be taking them,it raises questions about what constitutes responsible education when addressing valuesand attitudes. In the past there has been a naive acceptance that setting out to change theattitudes, values and behaviours of students is a central objective, without first examining:(a) the nature of values and attitudes; (b) the methodologies that teachers may use in theirattempts to affect these factors; and (c) whether this is a suitable object for education.

Assessment

In all parts of the world, special value is placed on those aspects of the curriculum that canbe reliably assessed (Layton, 1972). One of the most important features of environmentaleducation is that it is concerned as much with affective matters as cognitive ones;consequendy these aspects are usually not directly amenable to normal assessmentprocesses. Appropriate ways of reliably evaluating these areas of education have alwaysbeen problematic; but unless there is a willingness to resolve this type of difficulty, a gooddeal of what constitutes broad and balance education will become marginalised. Thereis a danger in assuming that if the qualities to be developed cannot be measured theycannot be suitable priorities for education. A fundamental issue for educators is toconsider the implicit or explicit values espoused by the educational system. As Orr (1992)points out, if competition for material rewards or prestige are strongly encouraged andcompetition rather than collaboration promoted, then this is likely to place emphasis onparticular assessment approaches. Environmental education currently places considerableemphasis on 'action competence' (Jensen & Schnack, 1997) and the ability to work co-operatively to achieve these aims. Suggestions for how this might be achieved throughaction research approaches (Elliott, 1995) or participatory appraisal techniques (Gayford,1996b) are documented and offer a possible direction for the future.

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104 C. Gayjord

Changes in Emphasis on what are the Major Environmental Issues

Views of concerned environmentalists about the most important areas of emphasis havechanged over the last 20 years or more. Referring back to the 1970s with the debateabout Limits to Growth (Meadows et at, 1972) involving the work of the Club of Rome,the major concern was the exploitation of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuelsand other mineral resources. However, there was also an optimistic attitude thatinnovative technologies would help to resolve problems of resource depletion (Redclift,1994). More recently, attention has shifted towards the damage caused by unrestrainedcommercial exploitation of environmental resources which have resulted in the build upof 'Greenhouse gases' and concerns over global climate change, also ozone depletion,the severe reduction in biodiversity and widespread deforestation (United Nations, 1992).These concerns have been linked to the matter of development and severe poverty inmany parts of the world.

Emphasis now appears to be upon 'education for sustainability' which combines featuresof environmental education and development education and includes important elementsof economic and cultural understanding (Tilbury, 1995). One of the difficulties here isthat there is no satisfactory concise definition for sustainability (sec Hucklc (1996) for adiscussion of this issue). In order to understand more fully the principles and problemsthat this raises, it is necessary to appreciate some of the issues related to development.The perceptions involved may not be shared by the rich, developed, often industrialnations and the poor, developing or undeveloped ones.

Attitudes to environmental conservation in the industrialised nations tend to emphasisethe amenity value of the environment or its potential as a source of possible new resourceswhich may be exploited sometime in the future; whereas in poor countries the need touse environmental resources in the short term in order to simply survive predominates.The notion of conservation has different interpretations in these contexts (Redclift, 1994).This is also frequently compounded by the different perceptions in different cultures ofthe ways that knowledge is acquired and the status given to this knowledge. In theindustrialised countries, generally represented by Western culture, scientific technologicalknowledge predominates and has high esteem. Other cultures are expected to share thisviewpoint. There is an additional aspect which has strong political implications; thisrelates to situations where those from industrialised nations, with more power, usually interms of knowledge and access to resources, wish to co-operate with those who arc lesspowerful and usually less industrialised. In these cases there is a tendency to devalue andmarginalise the knowledge systems and indigenous technologies of the poorer nations(Castillo, 1997). Recognition of these factors could be helpful when attempting tounderstand apparent resistance to aid or other forms of assistance, particularly in relationto technologies, with a potential impact on partnerships for environmental conservationbetween different countries in the future (Fien & Cocoran, 1996).

The Nature of Environmental Educators

The purpose of environmental education is often given as the encouragement of'environmentally friendly' behaviour or the promotion of 'green attitudes'. However, ifthis idea is examined more closely it is apparent that it is less straightforward than at firstit may appear. Research studies of environmental attitudes among the general publichave consistently shown that 'green attitudes' arc heterogeneous, inasmuch as those whoprofess an environmental concern fall into several groups (O'Riordan, 1981; Cotgrove,

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Current Thinking about Environmental Education 105

1982; Withcrspoon & Martin, 1992). Among them are those who have a particularconcern for protection of the environment, especially focusing on the natural environment;such as rivers, woodlands, plants and animals. Their concern is cither that they need tobe preserved for their own sake or for their amenity value for human populations.Another group has a particular concern for pollution issues such as 'Greenhouse gases',nuclear waste, noise or vehicle emissions. Their main concern is linked to the impact ofpollution on human health and well-being. Yet another group, sometimes described as'deep ccologists' or 'dark green' (O'Riordan, 1981) wish to emphasise the interrelationshipsbetween much of human behaviour and the environmental consequences. This groupthinks more in terms of stewardship and living in harmony with the environment. Forthese the notion of 'sustainability' has particular importance.

The implications of this variety of perspectives is significant for environmental edu-cators. Teachers, as well as their students, arc members of the general public and theattitudes that they adopt are likely to relate to the different areas of emphasis described.Consequently, this range of views and priorities is almost certain to influence the waythat different teachers function. So-called 'green teachers' are, therefore, unlikely to sharecommon aims and there will be lack of agreement on these and the appropriatemethodologies to use.

Thinking Globally but Acting Locally

The major environmental issues tend to be addressed by educators on a global scale(Morris & Shagan, 1997). Yet for most people the personal and more local context islikely to have the most direct effect on them in terms of their understanding or behaviour.This problem has been recognised and the concept of thinking globally and acting locally hasbeen advocated through the United Nations (1992). These ideas have been taken upfurther in many parts of the world through Local Agenda 21 initiatives (see for exampleLocal Government Management Board, 1993). Using approaches outlined in thesepublications and elsewhere, individual or local community behaviour can be linkeddirectly to their impact on wider, more remote or global issues. (For examples of howthis can be adapted to work in communities see Local Government Management Board(1997) and in schools sec Gayford (1996b).

An important clement in linking local action to global thinking has been raisingawareness to consumer behaviour and its impacts on the environment. Understandingthe lifecycles of goods and services that are in common use is an important vehicle wherebyemphasis is placed on the environmental impact of manufacturing processes, the impactof their use in society and their subsequent disposal and waste management. This wholearea has significant implications for science and technology education. The notion thatenvironmental education should have as one of its important aims the encouragement ofinformed consumers is not new (Gayford, 1991) and there is a clear relationship betweenthe purposes of environmental education and the desire for relevance in the schoolcurriculum.

The ideas outlines above and the issues that arise for science teachers formed thebackground to the following study.

The Study

An enquiry was undertaken which initially involved 108 secondary school science teachers(teaching students of 11-16 or 18 years) in England and Wales; all of whom expressed a

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106 C. Gayford

willingness to take part in the enquiry. These teachers were also taking a leading role inenvironmental education in their respective schools. The teachers included those fromrural as well as urban schools. None of them worked in schools with students selected onthe basis of ability, although nearly 10% were teaching in single sex schools. All were inmaintained schools, either grant maintained by central government or through localgovernment.

The survey began in April 1994 and continued for 3 years until April 1997. Thepurpose was to find out the understanding and emphasis splaced on aspects of educationfor sustainability by the teachers and whether there were any discernible trends intheir teaching and priorities over this period. Information was gathered using a briefquestionnaire (see Appendix). Overall, 81 teachers completed all stages of the survey,although a small proportion of these changed schools during the course of the study, butremained in contact. The results of their responses arc given below.

The emphasis of the enquiry was on some of the issues discussed in the earlier part ofthis article as follows:

• teachers' understanding of the ideas of sustainability;• whether science teachers explicitly relate aspects of sustainability to their teaching

programmes;• whether science teachers recognise the need for their students to appreciate non-

scientific aspects, such as economic, cultural or ethical elements in relation tosustainability;

• the perceptions of science teachers of the relationship between improving students'knowledge and understanding of environmental issues and the impact that this has onstudents' attitudes and behaviour;

• what science teachers consider to be the most important issues that they should beteaching in relation to the environment;

• the principal motivation for science teachers to be involved in environmental education;• whether these science teachers were involved in activities in relation to the environment

and sustainability outside of their normal class teaching and, if so, the nature of theseactivities; and

• the extent to which science teachers were aware of issues and developments in currentenvironmental thinking.

The Results

The results are only semi-quantitative and, therefore, it was appropriate to carry out alimited amount of statistical analysis. Comments on the results, therefore, tend to bedescriptive and comparative. The findings from each question are presented in turn andeach is followed by a discussion of some possible inferences and implications.

Responses to question 1 showed a noticeable increase in the breadth of understandingof the ideas related to 'sustainability' by teachers between 1994 and 1997. This wasreflected in the increase in the number of relevant statements made by teachers inresponse to the question. The average number of relevant ideas was, 1-8 (1994), 2'3(1995), 2-8 (1996), 3-2 (1997). In all cases, right from 1994, there was particular emphasison the need to cater for present needs and the requirement to safeguard the needs offuture generations. Links with poverty were expressed by 35, 43, 58 and 75%, respectively,for each successive year of the survey. A statistical comparison of the results indicates asignificant increase over the period of the study between 1994 and 1997 (/»<0-01; N.B.

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Current Thinking about Environmental Education

TABLE I. Question 2: the extent to which teachers explicitly relate aspects of'sustainability' to their teaching and/or other school activities

% of teachers giving each response

A great deal Often Sometimes Occasionally Never

107

1994199519961997

2434

561110

12252835

38373335

43282516

analysis using Chi square tests was used wherever statistical results are given to supporta conclusion in this study).

While from the responses to question 2 (see Table I) it is clear that very few teachersmade 'sustainability' a central issue in much of their teaching, there is a noticeableincrease in the number who 'sometimes' introduced these ideas (comparisons between1994 and 1997 show a significant increase; /> < 0-01). The number who never do soshowed a consistent decline over the period of the study.

From the results from question 3 (Table II) there is an apparent progressive increaseover the period of the study in the extent to which the science teachers were willing toinclude socio-economic considerations into their teaching. Ethical aspects become anincreasingly important aspect of the teachers' concerns, with economic considerationsbeing nearly as frequently cited. Cultural elements were included far less. This issupported by statistical analysis which indicated that while for economic, cultural andethical aspects there was no significant change over the period of the study in the numberof teachers who claimed to include a 'great deal' of these aspects in their leaching(/><0-05), there were significant increases in those who included economic or ethicalelements 'often' or 'sometimes' (/><0-01). However, many teachers made notes on thereturns stating that they found it difficult to differentiate between economic and ethicalelements or cultural and ethical elements.

TABLE II. Question 3: the extent to which teachers consider economic, cultural or ethical aspects

1994

1995

1996

1997

EconomicCulturalEthical

EconomicCulturalEthical

EconomicCulturalEthical

EconomicCulturalEthical

A great deal

306205303224

% of teachers giving each response

Often

317

1629

184

11173

18

Sometimes

238

27291238371548451355

Occasionally

452142312439352338322823

Never

2670182262

97

5804

540

Statistically significant increases occur over the period of the study (/><0-01) especially in relationto teachers who claim to include economic and ethical aspects in their teaching 'often' or'sometimes'.

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108 C. Gayford

TABLE III. Question 4: perceptions of teachers of the extent to whichknowledge and understanding of the issues is likely to affect student behaviour

1994199519961997

A great deal

129

107

% of teachers giving the response

Quite a lot

38322935

To some extent

42545850

Very little

8538

Replies to question 4 (Table III) indicated that there was relatively little change overthe 3 years of the study in the teachers' estimation of the effect of knowledge andunderstanding on behaviour (/>>0-05). A small proportion seemed to feel that it was byfar the most important factor; but many more felt that it was tempered by other factorssuch as social norms and peer pressures, writing notes to this effect on their returns.Generally, however, knowledge and understanding was considered to be importantparticularly in relation to behaviourally related outcomes.

From the results to question 5 (Table IV) it appears that teachers hold a variety ofopinions on this matter, but that some of the threats that have been traditionally perceivedas most important, for example population and mineral resource depletion, were identifiedby relatively far fewer teachers, compared with issues such as climate change, reductionof biodiversity and rainforest destruction, threats that were particularly recognised in theUnited Nations Agenda 21 (1992). It was also notable that poverty and armed conflict,issues until recently not directly associated with environmental education, were identifiedby large numbers of teachers as major threats to sustainability. There were also somepossible trends which can be seen over the period of the study. For example, the influenceof poverty and the activities of global corporations appear to be perceived as of increasingimportance, and population of reducing importance.

TABLE IV. Question 5: which do you consider to be the five most important issues related to'sustainability' which should be addressed in schools

Climate changeBiodiversity reductionArmed conflictPovertyRainforest destructionOzone depletionMarine pollutionNuclear arsenals and outdated reactorsPopulation increaseMineral resource depletionAir pollutionSoil destruction, erosion and desertificationActivities of 'tiger economies'Activities of global corporations

1994

85-265-448-144-443-237-034-627-252'923-524-718-512-39-9

% of teachers

1995

79061-744.445-748-139-528-422-222-225-930-714-816021-0

giving the response

1996

76-569139-553-143-238-233-319-818-517-328-412-321-029-6

1997

69-171-640-758030-835-837-029616-024-718-513-618-535-8

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Current Thinking about Environmental Education 109

TABLE V. Question 6: which of the following do you think most closely describes your motivationfor being involved in environmental education?

(i) The need to conserve the natural environment for its own sake or as an amenity for humanpopulations (40%).

(ii) The need to reduce pollution to safeguard human health (32%).(iii) The need to encourage people to live in harmony with their environment (28%).

The percentages written after each of the three statements in Table V (question 6)show the proportion of teachers that felt that it most closely described their motivationfor being involved with environmental education. However, it should be noted that therewere some problems with this question, as there were many comments that made it clearthat whilst many felt that statement (iii) was an ideal it was unrealistic in the presenteconomic and cultural climate. To pursue the ideal would be to jeopardise achievingwhat is more realistic. An approach which may be described as 'enlightened self-interest'was, therefore, advocated which more closely related to (i) and (ii). The views of manyare perhaps well summarised by quoting one respondent, 'I have voted for statement (ii)since I feel that this aim is more achievable given the way that people react in our societyto things that affect them personally. I do recognise, however, that (iii) is the ideal towhich we ought to aspire ultimately'.

In question 7 (Involvement in activities related to environmental education outsidenormal class teaching), over the period of the study between 65 and 72% claimed to beinvolved and between 35 and 28% claimed not to be involved.

When asked about the nature of these activities, the most popular included: out ofschool visits (64%), local field studies (44%), assisting with recycling programmes in theschool and local community (35%), running an environmental club (27%), developmentof a conservation area around the school or in the local community (25%), creation of apond and wet area (22%), conservation work in the locality (17%), setting up exhibitionson environmental issues in the school and locally (12%), photographic work in relationto the local environment (5%). (The numbers in brackets show the average numbers ofteachers stating each type of activity for each year of the study.)

From these results it is apparent that a large proportion of the teachers extend theiractivities related to environmental education outside their formal teaching and this wasfairly consistent over the period of the study. Also, there was a good range of activitiesand many of these extended to the local community.

The responses to question 8 (What do you consider to be the most important trendsor developments in environmental thinking in recent years?), which was asked only atthe end of the study in 1997, are probably best summarised under the following broadideas (the percentage of teachers making each statement is indicated in brackets):

• Ideas about sustainability, rather than simply environmental education (91%).• Links between environmental issues and poverty (78%).• Seeing the economic, cultural and ethical as well as the scientific and technological

implications of environmental issues (73%).• The shift of emphasis away from population and resources to issues such as biodiversity

and climate change (65%).• Making connections between local activity and global impact (57%).• Recognising the interconnections between most environmental issues, for example

pollution, poverty, rainforest destruction, reduction in biodiversity, etc. (54%).

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110 C.Gayford

• Reduction in anthropoccntric thinking about the environment (48%).• Less confidence in the ability of scientists or technologists to solve environmental

problems (46%).

Conclusion

From the results of this study it is apparent that many science teachers are intenselyinterested in environmental matters. The teachers here were committed science teachers,but they also felt that they had a broader contribution to make. They were well read onenvironmental matters and showed that they had thought deeply about the issuesinvolved. Many showed that they had knowledge of current environmental thinking andmade an effort to update their knowledge and to keep abreast of debate on the variousissues. However, it would be a mistake to assume that these teachers necessarily representthe majority of teachers, since they were on their own admission involved in environmentaleducation in their schools.

It is, therefore, important that the great majority of teachers who are involved in anyaspect of environmental education should understand the ideas that arc being debatedamong environmentalists, politicians, academics and planners. This is a rapidly changingfield and it is easy for teachers to find themselves out of step with current ideas and,therefore, to appear misinformed. How this can be realistically achieved is perhaps thetopic of another study; but it should begin with the professional needs of the teachersand ways in which professional development can be achieved within the profession.

Correspondence: Dr C.G. Gayford, Department of Science and Technology Education,Faculty of Education and Community Studies, Bulmershe Court, Earley, Reading RG61HY, UK. E-mail: essgafrd@reading.ac.uk

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Appendix

Question 1. What do you consider to be the main ideas in relation to the term sustainability whenit is applied to the environment? Write your answer as a single paragraph, of no more than 50

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112 C.Gayford

words. It is acknowledged that while the term is widely used among environmentalists there are nocommonly agreed definitions. (In analysing the responses those answers that included the followingideas were considered most relevant. That sustainability relates to providing for the needs of presentgenerations without compromising the ability to provide for the needs of future generations. Theneed to reconcile aspects of poverty, economic development and environmental conservation.There is a context which includes economic, cultural, political, ethical, as well as scientific andtechnological considerations. The link between local or individual action and awareness of a globalimpact. This is based on ideas set out in International Union for the Conservation of Nature(1980); The World Commission on Environment and Development 1987, United Nations (1992), Tilbury(1995) and Huckle (1996).)

Question 2. Please make an estimation of the extent to which you explicitly relate aspects ofsustainability to your teaching programmes and other school involvements. Indicate this on a scaleas follows (tick the appropriate box):

A great deal • often • sometimes • occasionally • never Q

N.B. If you answer 'a great deal' it is expected that this will be a major aspect of your schoolinvolvement.

Question 3. Please estimate the extent to which you encourage your students to consider theeconomic, cultural or ethical dimensions of issues that you include in your environmental education.

Economic: A great deal • often • sometimes • occasionally • never •

Cultural: A great deal • often • sometimes • occasionally • never •

Ethical: A great deal • often • sometimes • occasionally • never •

N.B. If you answer 'a great deal' it is expected that this will be a consistent element within yourprogrammes.

Question 4. Estimate your perception of the extent to which knowledge and understanding ofenvironmental issues affect student behaviour in relation to the environment.

A great deal • often • sometimes • occasionally • never D

Question 5. Select from the list below what you consider to be the five most important issues orthreats to sustainability.

Ozone depletion; Marine pollution; Mineral resource depletion; Rainforest destruction; Theactivities of global commercial corporations; Biodiversity reduction; Population increase; Poverty;Soil destruction, erosion and desertification; Global climate change; Armed conflict; Air pollution;Nuclear arsenals and outdated nuclear reactors; The activities of 'tiger economies', i.e. thosewhich are rapidly growing and with few legislative controls to protect the environment.

N.B. This list was compiled as a result of separate discussions with eight people with extensiveexperience working in environmental education.

Question 6. Look at the list below and select the one that probably most closely expresses yourmotivation for being involved in environmental education.

The need to conserve the natural environment •

The need to reduce pollution to safeguard human health •

The need to encourage people to live in harmony with their environment •

Question 7. Are you involved in activities related to environmental education outside your normalclass teaching?

Yes D No D

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Current Thinking about Environmental Education 113

If so, please briefly state the nature of these activities.

Question 8. What do you consider to be the most important developments in environmentalthinking over the last 5 years or so.

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