The NounThe Noun

Lecture 4Lecture 4

The The nounnoun is a class of words denoting is a class of words denoting entityentity (a separate unit that is (a separate unit that is

complete and has its own complete and has its own

characteristics).characteristics).

The noun is the central nominative word class.

A typical noun has sense the A typical noun has sense the inherent meaning of the noun. inherent meaning of the noun.

Ex. the sense of Ex. the sense of girlgirl 'young female 'young female human being'human being'

NounsNouns are commonly thought of are commonly thought of as "as "namingnaming" words, and " words, and

specifically as the names of specifically as the names of ""peoplepeople, , placesplaces, or , or thingsthings".".

NounsNouns such as such as JohnJohn, , LondonLondon, and , and computercomputer certainly fit this description, but the class of certainly fit this description, but the class of nouns is much broader than this. nouns is much broader than this.

NounsNouns also denote abstract and intangible also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as concepts such as birthbirth, , happinesshappiness, , evolutionevolution, , technologytechnology, , managementmanagement, , imaginationimagination, , revengerevenge, , politicspolitics, , hopehope, , cookerycookery, , sportsport, , literacyliteracy....    ....   

Because of this enormous diversity of Because of this enormous diversity of reference, it is not very useful to reference, it is not very useful to study nouns solely in terms of their study nouns solely in terms of their meaning. meaning.

It is much more fruitful to consider It is much more fruitful to consider them from the point of view of their them from the point of view of their formal characteristics.  formal characteristics. 

Characteristics of Nouns

Semantic Semantic characteristicharacteristi

cs cs of a noun of a noun

Syntactic Syntactic characteristics characteristics

of a noun of a noun

Morphological Morphological characteristiccharacteristics of a noun s of a noun

Denotes Denotes concrete concrete

entity (e.g. entity (e.g. dogdog) or ) or abstract abstract

notion (e.g. notion (e.g. ideaidea) )

Functions as Functions as head of NP head of NP

(e.g. (e.g. the girlthe girl); ); can in some can in some

cases function cases function as a as a

premodifier in premodifier in a NP (e.g. a NP (e.g. an an oak tableoak table))

Inflected for Inflected for numbernumber

(plural) and (plural) and casecase

(genitive) (genitive)

The noun class can be subdivided into The noun class can be subdivided into

the following semantic subclasses:the following semantic subclasses: NounNoun

ProperProper CommonCommon((TomTom))

UncountableUncountable CountableCountable

AbstractAbstract Concrete Abstract ConcreteConcrete Abstract Concrete((hatehate)) ( (thoughtthought))

Collective MassCollective Mass Collective Collective IndividualIndividual

properproper ( (milkmilk)) improperimproper((crewcrew))

AnimateAnimate InanimateInanimate Animate AnimateInanimateInanimate

((verminvermin)) ((furniturefurniture)) ((toytoy))Personal Non-Personal Non-

personalpersonal((childchild)) ((dogdog) )

Common and Proper NounsCommon and Proper Nouns

The basic division of the noun class is The basic division of the noun class is into into common nounscommon nouns and and PROPER PROPER NOUNSNOUNS. .

Nouns which name Nouns which name specific peoplespecific people or or placesplaces are known as are known as proper nounsproper nouns. . 

They are used to denote They are used to denote individuals, individuals, places, oceans, institutionsplaces, oceans, institutions, etc. , etc.

For example, For example, John, Mary, London, John, Mary, London, FranceFrance. .

Since proper nouns usually refer to Since proper nouns usually refer to something or someone something or someone uniqueunique, they , they do do not normally take pluralsnot normally take plurals. .

However, they may do so, especially However, they may do so, especially when when numbernumber is being specifically is being specifically referred to:referred to:

   There are three Davids in my class.There are three Davids in my class. We met two Christmases ago.We met two Christmases ago.

For the same reason, names of people For the same reason, names of people and places are and places are not normally preceded by not normally preceded by determiners the or a/andeterminers the or a/an

though they can be in certain though they can be in certain circumstances: circumstances: 

    It's nothing like the America. It's nothing like the America. Remember my brother is an Einstein at Remember my brother is an Einstein at

maths. maths.

Changes in the meaning of the Changes in the meaning of the noun along the scale proper noun along the scale proper → →

commoncommon + proper+ proper +/- animate+/- animate +/- human+/- human +/- female+/- female +/- countable+/- countable + concrete+ concrete

+ common+ common - sex (neuter)- sex (neuter) + countable+ countable + concrete+ concrete

Common NounsCommon Nouns

Common nounsCommon nouns denote classes of denote classes of similar referentssimilar referents or or specific specific representativesrepresentatives of certain classes: of certain classes:

The computer is widely used The computer is widely used nowadays. nowadays.

The computer is on the desk. The computer is on the desk.

common nounscommon nouns countablecountable nouns nouns && uncountableuncountable

nounsnouns Some can be either Some can be either countcount or or non-countnon-count, ,

depending on the kind of reference they have. depending on the kind of reference they have.

Ex. Ex. I made a cakeI made a cake, , cakecake is is a count nouna count noun, , singular numbersingular number. .

However, in However, in I like cakeI like cake, the reference is , the reference is less less specificspecific. It refers to ". It refers to "cake in generalcake in general", and so ", and so cakecake is is non-countnon-count in this sentence. in this sentence.

Count and Non-count NounsCount and Non-count Nouns

Common nouns are either Common nouns are either countcount or or non-countnon-count. .

count nounscount nouns can be " can be "countedcounted", as ", as follows:  follows:  one pen, two pens, three pens, one pen, two pens, three pens, four pensfour pens...  ...  

non-count nounsnon-count nouns cannot be counted in cannot be counted in this way: this way: one software, *two softwares, one software, *two softwares, *three softwares, *four softwares*three softwares, *four softwares... ... 

non-count nounsnon-count nouns do not takedo not take a/ana/an

Countable nounsCountable nouns have two categorical have two categorical forms of number – forms of number – singular and pluralsingular and plural. .

Uncountable nounsUncountable nouns have only one form – have only one form – either singular or pluraleither singular or plural. .

CountCount Non-countNon-count

a pen  a pen  *a software *a software

BothBoth countable and countable and uncountable uncountable nouns fall into two nouns fall into two

semantic varieties semantic varieties – – concreteconcrete and and abstractabstract. .

ConcreteConcrete nouns denote nouns denote materialmaterial referentsreferents. . AbstractAbstract - - immaterial immaterial referentsreferents. .

individual nounsindividual nouns Countable concrete nounsCountable concrete nouns

collective nouns collective nouns improperimproper

animate (beings)animate (beings) Individual nounsIndividual nouns - - material entitiesmaterial entities

inanimate (objects)inanimate (objects)

personal (human beings) personal (human beings) Animate nounsAnimate nouns

non-personal (other non-personal (other species) species)

singular form singular form Individual nounsIndividual nouns

plural form plural form

Collective nouns improperCollective nouns improper are are treated grammatically as treated grammatically as countable countable nounsnouns

The class is in the room. The class is in the room.

The classes are in the roomThe classes are in the room. .

PluralityPlurality can also be marked by a can also be marked by a plural pronoun: plural pronoun:

The senior class, who had a meeting, The senior class, who had a meeting, decided they would have a partydecided they would have a party. .

Uncountable concrete nounsUncountable concrete nouns

mass nouns mass nouns collective nouns collective nouns proper proper

Mass nounsMass nouns denote denote substancessubstances

Example: Example: Honey is good for youHoney is good for you..

Animate collective nouns properAnimate collective nouns proper + + pluralplural word forms: word forms:

Vermin were crawling all over the place. Vermin were crawling all over the place.

Inanimate collective nouns properInanimate collective nouns proper are are treated as treated as singularsingular: : Fruit is good for Fruit is good for you. you.

Uncountable abstract nounsUncountable abstract nouns are in are in the the singularsingular: : Hate is a negative feeling. Hate is a negative feeling.

the the semantic and formal featuresemantic and formal feature

undergoing change undergoing change → → types of shifttypes of shift::

Proper noun → Common nounProper noun → Common noun Common noun → Proper nounCommon noun → Proper noun Countable noun → Uncountable nounCountable noun → Uncountable noun Uncountable noun → Countable nounUncountable noun → Countable noun Abstract noun → Concrete nounAbstract noun → Concrete noun Concrete noun → Abstract nounConcrete noun → Abstract noun

Shifts are discussed by M. Mincoff Shifts are discussed by M. Mincoff in his ‘English Grammar’ (1958)in his ‘English Grammar’ (1958)

various transformations are leading various transformations are leading to the shift to the shift

these shifts will be discussed in pairs these shifts will be discussed in pairs

Proper noun → Common nounProper noun → Common noun

Proper nounsProper nouns have have unique unique referentsreferents

No pluralNo plural No articleNo article

Certain Certain types of semantic change types of semantic change →→

the nounthe noun in the in the pluralplural or with or with some some grammatical determinergrammatical determiner

the + personal namethe + personal name

a. The + name + relative clause: a. The + name + relative clause:

I recognized Brian, the Brian who had been I recognized Brian, the Brian who had been at school with me.at school with me.

b. The + a famous name: b. The + a famous name:

‘‘The man’s name was Alfred Hitchcock. Not The man’s name was Alfred Hitchcock. Not the Alfred Hitchcock.’ the Alfred Hitchcock.’

the + personal name pluralthe + personal name plural

Ex: Ex: She has been lunching with the Wilsons She has been lunching with the Wilsons for nearly three months. for nearly three months. (=the members of (=the members of the family of Wilson)the family of Wilson)

Ex: Ex: Two Janes work in this office. Two Janes work in this office. < Two < Two Janes work in this office.Janes work in this office.

a + personal name singulara + personal name singular

one of the members of a familyone of the members of a family: : Remember you are an Osborn – it’s a name Remember you are an Osborn – it’s a name

to be proud of.to be proud of.

a/an + a/an + the name of a famous personthe name of a famous person s.o. else with s.o. else with similarsimilar abilities, abilities, appearance, character: appearance, character:

Already he is being hailed as a young Albert Already he is being hailed as a young Albert Einstein.Einstein.

a + personal name singulara + personal name singular

the speaker the speaker doesn’t knowdoesn’t know anything anything about about the referent of the namethe referent of the name: :

There is a Mr. Alex Murrey asking to see you. There is a Mr. Alex Murrey asking to see you. ‘There is a man called Mr. Alex Murrey.’‘There is a man called Mr. Alex Murrey.’

a/an + the name of a famous artist or a/an + the name of a famous artist or writer instead of a picture or a book of that writer instead of a picture or a book of that person: person:

The gallery has recently acquired a Picasso. The gallery has recently acquired a Picasso.

another + proper nounanother + proper noun

someone or something with someone or something with similar similar qualitiesqualities: :

Music fans are already calling him another Music fans are already calling him another Frank Sinatra. Frank Sinatra.

There were fears that the war is Bosnia There were fears that the war is Bosnia might become another Vietnam.might become another Vietnam.

the + numeral + geographic namethe + numeral + geographic name

Parallel geographical names exist. Parallel geographical names exist. Such names can be used in the plural Such names can be used in the plural

and also defined by the definite and also defined by the definite article: article:

the two Americasthe two Americas

Common noun → Proper nounCommon noun → Proper noun

Many Many properproper nouns have originated nouns have originated from from commoncommon nouns: nouns:

a daisy → Daisy; a daisy → Daisy;

brown → Brown; brown → Brown;

a bush → Busha bush → Bush

Such nouns are included in Such nouns are included in dictionaries as dictionaries as separate lexemesseparate lexemes. .

Countable noun → Uncountable Countable noun → Uncountable nounnoun

The shift from The shift from countablecountable to to uncountableuncountable is often accompanied by a shift from is often accompanied by a shift from individualindividual to to generalizedgeneralized or from or from concreteconcrete to to abstractabstract (no article)(no article): :

Her husband has been sent Her husband has been sent to prisonto prison for for three yearsthree years.. (The speaker is referring to (The speaker is referring to the institution in general.)the institution in general.)

We went We went by planeby plane.. (The speaker is talking (The speaker is talking about a form of transport.)about a form of transport.)

The kids are still The kids are still at schoolat school.. (The speaker (The speaker is referring to the period of one’s life when is referring to the period of one’s life when one goes to school.)one goes to school.)

Uncountable noun → Countable Uncountable noun → Countable nounnoun

Uncountable nounsUncountable nouns do do notnot form form a plurala plural. . They do They do notnot take take the indefinite articlethe indefinite article. .

However, in certain contexts, However, in certain contexts, uncountable uncountable nounsnouns acquire semantic connotations acquire semantic connotations converting them into countable nouns. converting them into countable nouns.

The semantic shifts of uncountable The semantic shifts of uncountable concrete mass nouns to countable nouns concrete mass nouns to countable nouns involve involve shifts from generalized to shifts from generalized to individualized meaningsindividualized meanings..

An uncountable concrete mass An uncountable concrete mass nounnoun →→ a countable nouna countable noun (a (a

particular kind of substance):particular kind of substance):

CheeseCheese is a solid food made from milk. is a solid food made from milk. (generalized)(generalized)

This shop sells a range of French This shop sells a range of French cheesescheeses.. (individualized)(individualized)

He was lying full length on He was lying full length on the grassthe grass.. (a common plant)(a common plant)

I could see various tall flowering I could see various tall flowering grassesgrasses.. (particular types)(particular types)

A mass nounA mass noun →→ a countable nouna countable noun

((a portiona portion - individualized quantity): - individualized quantity):

Ice creamIce cream is frozen sweet food. is frozen sweet food.

Would you like Would you like an ice creaman ice cream??

(one portion)(one portion)

A mass wordA mass word can be used can be used by by metonymymetonymy to refer to to refer to an object an object

made from the substancemade from the substance::

NickelNickel is a hard silver metal. is a hard silver metal. A nickelA nickel is a coin worth five cents. is a coin worth five cents.

She likes She likes cakecake.. (a sweet food) (a sweet food) She was making She was making a cakea cake for his for his

birthday.birthday. (a particular product) (a particular product)

Uncountable abstract nounsUncountable abstract nouns countable nounscountable nouns, undergoing a , undergoing a

parallel shift from parallel shift from abstractabstract toto

concreteconcrete:: BeautyBeauty is the quality of being very good to is the quality of being very good to

look at.look at.

(the quality)(the quality) She is She is a beautya beauty.. (a beautiful woman) (a beautiful woman) I like cars and this one is I like cars and this one is a beautya beauty..

(an object characterized by the quality)(an object characterized by the quality) The beautyThe beauty of working at home is that you of working at home is that you

don’t have to travel.don’t have to travel. (advantage) (advantage)

Sometimes the use of the shifted noun Sometimes the use of the shifted noun is is metaphoricalmetaphorical..

The neighbours said that we were The neighbours said that we were making too much making too much noisenoise.. (literal use)(literal use)

She makes all the right She makes all the right noisesnoises about about economic reform.economic reform. (metaphorical use)(metaphorical use)

Not allNot all uncountable nouns can uncountable nouns can undergo such semantic shifts.undergo such semantic shifts.

There are other means of There are other means of individualizationindividualization and and concretization of meaningconcretization of meaning. .

One of them is the One of them is the partitive phrasepartitive phrase. .

Concrete nounsConcrete nouns::

a blade of grassa blade of grass a piece of cheesea piece of cheese

a bottle of ruma bottle of rum a bar of chocolatea bar of chocolate

a glass of milka glass of milk a cake of soapa cake of soap

a mug of coffeea mug of coffee a packet of biscuitsa packet of biscuits

Abstract nounsAbstract nouns::

a piece of music a piece of music a bit of consolationa bit of consolation

a word of praisea word of praise an item of newsan item of news

a stroke of good a stroke of good luckluck

an act of revengean act of revenge

an article of newsan article of news a hint of advicea hint of advice

Sometimes individualization is Sometimes individualization is achieved through achieved through pairs of nounspairs of nouns

the uncountable nounthe uncountable noun in the pair in the pair denotes denotes the substancethe substance

the countable nounthe countable noun denotes denotes the the article made from that substancearticle made from that substance::

wood → treewood → tree; ; bread → loafbread → loaf