The Need for The Need for Science/Research Science/Research

and and Research MethodsResearch Methods

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Why we need Psychological Why we need Psychological Science and ResearchScience and Research

Three reasons: 1. Intuition, 2. Hindsight Bias , 3. Three reasons: 1. Intuition, 2. Hindsight Bias , 3. OverconfidenceOverconfidence

Intuition = gut instinctIntuition = gut instinct That feeling inside of you telling you something is right or wrongThat feeling inside of you telling you something is right or wrong

Hindsight Bias = after you find out the outcome you Hindsight Bias = after you find out the outcome you believe you knew the outcome all alongbelieve you knew the outcome all along

Examples: Columbia Disaster, Gulf oil spill, Man on the Examples: Columbia Disaster, Gulf oil spill, Man on the moon(1969)moon(1969)

Overconfidence = thinking we know more than we do Overconfidence = thinking we know more than we do about something; tend to be more confident than correctabout something; tend to be more confident than correct

Examples man will never reach the moon(1957),”[Ronald] Examples man will never reach the moon(1957),”[Ronald] Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.” 1964, “Heavier than Reagan doesn’t have the presidential look.” 1964, “Heavier than air flying machines are impossible.” 1895air flying machines are impossible.” 1895

The Scientific Attitude and The Scientific Attitude and Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking

The scientific attitude The scientific attitude includes being curious, includes being curious, skeptical and humbleskeptical and humble

Explore, ask questions and Explore, ask questions and be willing to make or admit be willing to make or admit mistakesmistakes

Accepting those three Accepting those three characteristics allows one characteristics allows one to think criticallyto think critically

Critical thinkers:Critical thinkers: Are open mindedAre open minded Can live with uncertaintyCan live with uncertainty Distinguish fact from Distinguish fact from

opinion; rely on science opinion; rely on science rather than personal rather than personal experienceexperience

Realize the world is Realize the world is complex; don’t over complex; don’t over simplifysimplify

View all available evidence View all available evidence before reaching a before reaching a conclusionconclusion

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method

Research MethodsResearch Methods

Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method

Descriptive MethodDescriptive Method

Observe, collect, record dataObserve, collect, record data Describes but does not explainDescribes but does not explain Easy to collect dataEasy to collect data Little or no control over variables, biases Little or no control over variables, biases

and behaviorsand behaviors Three typesThree types

Naturalistic observation, survey method, case Naturalistic observation, survey method, case studystudy

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

Watching and recording the behavior of an Watching and recording the behavior of an organism in their natural environmentorganism in their natural environment

Only describes the behaviorOnly describes the behavior Ex: Counting the number of people who Ex: Counting the number of people who

wear hats on a college campuswear hats on a college campus

Survey MethodSurvey Method

research asks a representative sample (target group) of research asks a representative sample (target group) of people oral or written questions people oral or written questions

to find out about their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, to find out about their attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, opinions, and values. opinions, and values.

mail, face-to-face, by telephone, and the Internet mail, face-to-face, by telephone, and the Internet Standardized, Inexpensive, replicable, large amount of Standardized, Inexpensive, replicable, large amount of

data quicklydata quickly Describes doesn’t explainDescribes doesn’t explain Ex: Student survey of risky behaviorEx: Student survey of risky behavior

Case StudyCase Study

detailed in-depth investigation of a single case detailed in-depth investigation of a single case concerning a person, a family, an organization, concerning a person, a family, an organization,

or an event. or an event. detailed in-depth information detailed in-depth information Can lead to a hypothesis for further studyCan lead to a hypothesis for further study Doesn’t explain, cannot be replicated, reliability Doesn’t explain, cannot be replicated, reliability

and validity are in questionand validity are in question Ex: effects of smoking on one individualEx: effects of smoking on one individual

Experimental MethodExperimental Method

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research

Manipulation and control of variablesManipulation and control of variables Identifies cause and effectIdentifies cause and effect Allows researcher precise control over Allows researcher precise control over

variablesvariables Ethical concerns, practical limitations, Ethical concerns, practical limitations,

artificiality, uncontrolled variables, biasesartificiality, uncontrolled variables, biases

Steps for ExperimentationSteps for Experimentation

1) Theory - idea1) Theory - idea Sugar rots your teethSugar rots your teeth

2) Hypothesis/Operational Definition – 2) Hypothesis/Operational Definition – testable, measurable, verifiabletestable, measurable, verifiable

- - Eating one bowl of sugar cereal every Eating one bowl of sugar cereal every morning rots your teethmorning rots your teeth

3) 3) VariablesVariables

-Independent Variable (IV): manipulated variable -Independent Variable (IV): manipulated variable (types of cereal, amount of cereal )(types of cereal, amount of cereal )

- Dependent Variable (DV): actual outcome (rotten - Dependent Variable (DV): actual outcome (rotten teeth)teeth)

- Confounding Variable: any variable other - Confounding Variable: any variable other

than the IV that could effect the outcome than the IV that could effect the outcome

4) Groups4) Groups

- Control Group: does not receive treatment - Control Group: does not receive treatment (Placebo)(Placebo)

- Experimental Group: receives treatment (cereal)- Experimental Group: receives treatment (cereal)

How groups are selectedHow groups are selected

PopulationPopulation People that the sample is drawn fromPeople that the sample is drawn from

• Ex: Swampscott High SchoolEx: Swampscott High School

SampleSample Subjects drawn from a particular population; target Subjects drawn from a particular population; target

groupgroup• Ex: 9Ex: 9thth grade boys grade boys

Random SampleRandom Sample Randomly choosing from a populationRandomly choosing from a population

• Ex: picking every 10Ex: picking every 10thth student who walks through the door student who walks through the door

Control MeasuresControl Measures

Single BlindSingle Blind Controls subjects awarenessControls subjects awareness Researcher knows who is receiving active drug and Researcher knows who is receiving active drug and

who is receiving placebowho is receiving placebo Researcher can influence resultsResearcher can influence results

Double BlindDouble Blind Controls both subject and researchers awarenessControls both subject and researchers awareness Third party controls distributionThird party controls distribution Less biasLess bias More scientificMore scientific

DrinkDrink BeliefBelief BeliefBelief

Vodka TonicVodka Tonic Believed drinking VodkaBelieved drinking Vodka Believed drinking Tonic Believed drinking Tonic WaterWater

Tonic WaterTonic Water Believe drinking VodkaBelieve drinking Vodka Believed drinking tonic Believed drinking tonic waterwater

BehaviorBehavior

More aggressiveMore aggressive

BehaviorBehavior

Less aggressiveLess aggressive

Conclusion: Belief affected behavior more than actual drink

Hypothesis: Drinking Vodka causes aggressive behavior

Correlation MethodCorrelation Method

CorrelationCorrelation

Correlation ResearchCorrelation Research Statistical analysis of relationships between variablesStatistical analysis of relationships between variables Identify relationships and how well one variable Identify relationships and how well one variable

predicts anotherpredicts another Helps clarify relationships between variables that Helps clarify relationships between variables that

can’t be examined by other methods and allows can’t be examined by other methods and allows predictionprediction

Does not allow researchers to identify cause and Does not allow researchers to identify cause and effect relationshipseffect relationships

Correlation causationCorrelation causation

Types of CorrelationTypes of Correlation

PerfectPerfect Rarely occursRarely occurs

PositivePositive When both factors go up When both factors go up

(left-right)(left-right) 0 - +1.00 - +1.0

NegativeNegative When one factor goes up When one factor goes up

and the other goes down and the other goes down (right – left)(right – left)

0 - -1.00 - -1.0 ZeroZero

No relationshipNo relationship

Statistical MeasuresStatistical Measures Mean (average) = Mean (average) = Median (middle) = Median (middle) = Mode (most frequent)= Mode (most frequent)= Range (difference between hi/lo) = Range (difference between hi/lo) =