the muslim empires: the ottomans, the safavids, and the mughals

The Muslim Empires:The Muslim Empires:The Ottomans, the The Ottomans, the Safavids, and the Safavids, and the

MughalsMughals

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire

►Beyond the domains of China and Europe, Beyond the domains of China and Europe, the Islamic civilization, which had been the Islamic civilization, which had been fragmented since about 900 CE, fragmented since about 900 CE, crystallized into four major empires: the crystallized into four major empires: the Ottoman, the Safavid, the Mughal, and the Ottoman, the Safavid, the Mughal, and the Songhay.Songhay.

►The most impressive and enduring of these The most impressive and enduring of these new states was the Ottoman Empire, which new states was the Ottoman Empire, which lasted in one form or another from the 14lasted in one form or another from the 14thth to the early 20to the early 20thth centuries. centuries.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►The Ottomans began around 1300 CE as The Ottomans began around 1300 CE as

the creation of Turkic warrior groups the creation of Turkic warrior groups which raided agricultural settlements in which raided agricultural settlements in northwestern Anatolia (Turkey).northwestern Anatolia (Turkey).

►Named after their warrior chieftain Named after their warrior chieftain Osman I (in Arabic: Uthmon); (1280-Osman I (in Arabic: Uthmon); (1280-1326)1326)

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►During its long duration (it will have During its long duration (it will have

Islam’s longest dynasty, lasting approx Islam’s longest dynasty, lasting approx 623 years) it encompassed a huge 623 years) it encompassed a huge territory of many diverse peoples and had territory of many diverse peoples and had economic and cultural sophistication.economic and cultural sophistication.

►The Ottomans will, through time, be The Ottomans will, through time, be transformed from a small frontier group transformed from a small frontier group to a prosperous, powerful, cosmopolitan to a prosperous, powerful, cosmopolitan empire, heir to both the Byzantine Empire empire, heir to both the Byzantine Empire and claimants to the Islamic world’s and claimants to the Islamic world’s leadership.leadership.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire► It would be the Ottoman Empire that It would be the Ottoman Empire that

represented the emergence of the Turks represented the emergence of the Turks as the dominant people of the Islamic as the dominant people of the Islamic world.world.

►By the mid 15By the mid 15thth century, they had carved century, they had carved an empire that encompassed most of an empire that encompassed most of Anatolia and they had pushed deep into Anatolia and they had pushed deep into southeastern Europe (the Balkans).southeastern Europe (the Balkans).

► In the two centuries that followed, they In the two centuries that followed, they had extended their control over most of had extended their control over most of the Middle East, coastal North Africa, the the Middle East, coastal North Africa, the lands surrounding the Black Sea, and lands surrounding the Black Sea, and deeper into Eastern Europe. deeper into Eastern Europe.


►Ottoman sultans brought unity to the Ottoman sultans brought unity to the Islamic world by combining the roles of a Islamic world by combining the roles of a Turkic warrior prince, a Muslim caliph Turkic warrior prince, a Muslim caliph (successor to the prophet Muhammad), and (successor to the prophet Muhammad), and a conquering emperor who was the great a conquering emperor who was the great defender of the faith, bearing the “strong defender of the faith, bearing the “strong sword of Islam.”sword of Islam.”

►Since Ottoman territory included the holy Since Ottoman territory included the holy cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, the cities of Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem, the Ottomans had the responsibility and Ottomans had the responsibility and prestige of protecting the holiest sites in prestige of protecting the holiest sites in Islam. Islam.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►The Ottomans represented a new phase The Ottomans represented a new phase

in the long encounter between in the long encounter between Christendom and Islam.Christendom and Islam.

►During the Crusades, Europeans had During the Crusades, Europeans had taken the aggressive initiative…the rise taken the aggressive initiative…the rise of the Ottomans reversed that role.of the Ottomans reversed that role.


► In the 14In the 14thth century, the Ottomans century, the Ottomans created an elite guard of infantry troops created an elite guard of infantry troops called the called the JanissariesJanissaries..

►Through a process known as the Through a process known as the devshirmedevshirme (the collecting or gathering), (the collecting or gathering), Balkan Christian communities were Balkan Christian communities were required to hand over a quota of young required to hand over a quota of young men who would be removed from their men who would be removed from their families, required to learn Turkish, families, required to learn Turkish, converted to Islam, and trained for civil converted to Islam, and trained for civil administration or military service.administration or military service.


►These young men were loyal to the These young men were loyal to the sultan (instead of to their local tribal sultan (instead of to their local tribal leaders) because the sultan gave them leaders) because the sultan gave them uniforms, cash salaries, and marching uniforms, cash salaries, and marching music. music.

►Although a terrible blow to their Although a terrible blow to their families, the families, the devshirmedevshirme represented a represented a means of upward social mobility within means of upward social mobility within the Ottoman system.the Ottoman system.


►The Janissaries were The Janissaries were the first standing the first standing army in the Middle army in the Middle East since the days of East since the days of the Roman Legions.the Roman Legions.

► Janissaries were Janissaries were among the first to among the first to use muskets, use muskets, grenades, and hand-grenades, and hand-held cannons.held cannons.


►By 1453, the Byzantine Empire was a By 1453, the Byzantine Empire was a mere shadow of its earlier glory and the mere shadow of its earlier glory and the Ottoman seizure of Constantinople Ottoman seizure of Constantinople marked the final demise of Christian marked the final demise of Christian Byzantium. Byzantium.

►The Ottomans had already spread their The Ottomans had already spread their influence across much of the eastern influence across much of the eastern Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Holy Mediterranean, the Balkans, the Holy Lands, and Anatolia...Constantinople was Lands, and Anatolia...Constantinople was almost all that was left of the once great almost all that was left of the once great empire.empire.


►Wanting to make Wanting to make Constantinople the capital Constantinople the capital of his expanding empire, of his expanding empire, the 19 year old sultan, the 19 year old sultan, Mehmet II, carefully Mehmet II, carefully planned his assault.planned his assault.

►Mehmet spoke seven Mehmet spoke seven languages fluently, languages fluently, studied history, studied history, philosophy, science, philosophy, science, literature, fine arts, and literature, fine arts, and architecture.architecture.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►First, he had a fortress built on the First, he had a fortress built on the

European side of the Bosporus (in 4 European side of the Bosporus (in 4 months) across from another Ottoman months) across from another Ottoman fortress (built 60 years earlier by his fortress (built 60 years earlier by his grandfather).grandfather).

►Realizing what Mehmet was doing, the Realizing what Mehmet was doing, the Byzantine emperor begged him to stop.Byzantine emperor begged him to stop.


►By early April, Ottoman soldiers were By early April, Ottoman soldiers were camped outside Constantinople.camped outside Constantinople.

►As Ottoman ships and cannons were As Ottoman ships and cannons were moved into place, the Byzantine moved into place, the Byzantine defense was barely 7,000 men defense was barely 7,000 men (against over 80,000 Ottoman (against over 80,000 Ottoman Janissaries and several thousand Janissaries and several thousand (peasant) conscripted infantry). (peasant) conscripted infantry).


►The Byzantines relied on their fabled The Byzantines relied on their fabled Wall of Theodosius Wall of Theodosius to save them, to save them, because it had repelled invading because it had repelled invading armies for centuries. But it was on the armies for centuries. But it was on the land side.land side.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire► In late April, in an incredible feat of In late April, in an incredible feat of

engineering and muscle power, the engineering and muscle power, the Ottomans Ottomans pulledpulled ships along log rollers ships along log rollers up a 200 foot hill and several miles up a 200 foot hill and several miles across the “Golden Horn” so that they across the “Golden Horn” so that they could attack the weaker river walls. could attack the weaker river walls.


►Fearing an attack from the weaker Fearing an attack from the weaker side (the “Golden Horn”), the side (the “Golden Horn”), the Byzantines moved more men along Byzantines moved more men along the river walls, weakening their the river walls, weakening their defense along the land side walls.defense along the land side walls.

► In early May, Mehmet II sent in ground In early May, Mehmet II sent in ground troops to soften up the Byzantine troops to soften up the Byzantine defenses (but not the elite Janissaries).defenses (but not the elite Janissaries).


►When the attack began, every bell in When the attack began, every bell in the city rang the alarm. The the city rang the alarm. The Hagia Hagia Sophia Sophia was full of people praying and was full of people praying and singing singing Kyrie Eleison Kyrie Eleison (“Lord, have (“Lord, have mercy”).mercy”).


►The Byzantines The Byzantines put up a good put up a good fight and repelled fight and repelled wave after wave wave after wave of Ottoman of Ottoman attackers.attackers.


►After three weeks of continued assault After three weeks of continued assault with the Byzantines not giving up, with the Byzantines not giving up, Mehmet II proposed peace: he would Mehmet II proposed peace: he would spare the city if annual tribute was spare the city if annual tribute was paid; or he would grant safe passage if paid; or he would grant safe passage if the citizens gave up the city…both the citizens gave up the city…both offers were rejected.offers were rejected.


►With this rejection, Mehmet ordered his With this rejection, Mehmet ordered his cannons to begin their bombardment, cannons to begin their bombardment, including a 19 ton “bombard,” believed including a 19 ton “bombard,” believed to be the largest cannon in the world (it to be the largest cannon in the world (it was 26 ft long and fired balls weighing was 26 ft long and fired balls weighing 1,200 lbs up to 1 mile).1,200 lbs up to 1 mile).


►Shooting the “bombard” created so Shooting the “bombard” created so much heat, it could only be fired three much heat, it could only be fired three times a day, and the barrel had to be times a day, and the barrel had to be wiped with olive oil to keep the brass wiped with olive oil to keep the brass from cracking.from cracking.

►At the same time, spies found a At the same time, spies found a weakness in the Byzantine defenses… weakness in the Byzantine defenses… someone accidentally left a small gate someone accidentally left a small gate open on an outer wall and by dawn the open on an outer wall and by dawn the next morning, the Turks were in the city.next morning, the Turks were in the city.


►Seeing a Turkish flag being raised on Seeing a Turkish flag being raised on one of the watch towers, the last one of the watch towers, the last Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, Byzantine emperor, Constantine XI, dismounted from his horse and flung dismounted from his horse and flung himself into the advancing Janissaries. himself into the advancing Janissaries.

►He died in the fighting and his head He died in the fighting and his head was paraded around the city. was paraded around the city.


►The battle now over, Mehmet allowed The battle now over, Mehmet allowed his men the customary three days of his men the customary three days of pillaging…they were allowed to take pillaging…they were allowed to take anything they wished from the anything they wished from the remaining inhabitants of the city.remaining inhabitants of the city.

►Realizing this could destroy the city he Realizing this could destroy the city he wanted, Mehmet ordered his men to wanted, Mehmet ordered his men to stop the pillaging on the second day.stop the pillaging on the second day.


►That afternoon, That afternoon, the 19 year old the 19 year old Ottoman emperor Ottoman emperor made his entry, made his entry, escorted by his escorted by his bodyguard of bodyguard of Janissaries.Janissaries.


►When he reached the gates of the When he reached the gates of the Hagia Sophia he dismounted, stooped Hagia Sophia he dismounted, stooped down at the threshold and scooped up down at the threshold and scooped up a handful of earth, which he let fall on a handful of earth, which he let fall on his turbaned head (as an act of his turbaned head (as an act of humiliation before the God who had humiliation before the God who had brought him victory).brought him victory).

►Mehmet then ordered every church to Mehmet then ordered every church to be converted into a mosque and be converted into a mosque and Constantinople’s name changed to the Constantinople’s name changed to the Turkish version of the Greek Turkish version of the Greek eis tin eis tin polin polin (“in the city”…(“in the city”…IstanbulIstanbul).).


► In an honorable Muslim tradition, the In an honorable Muslim tradition, the Ottomans planned a multicultural and Ottomans planned a multicultural and tolerant city.tolerant city.

►Skilled craftsmen and merchants from Skilled craftsmen and merchants from around the empire were brought into the around the empire were brought into the city to live and help it thrive.city to live and help it thrive.

►The Orthodox patriarch was left in charge of The Orthodox patriarch was left in charge of the (Orthodox) Church and when Jews were the (Orthodox) Church and when Jews were expelled from Spain (1492), many came to expelled from Spain (1492), many came to Istanbul where it was official policy to Istanbul where it was official policy to welcome them and let them live in peace.welcome them and let them live in peace.


►The Ottomans now The Ottomans now saw themselves as saw themselves as the successors to the successors to the Roman Empire. the Roman Empire.

►Mehmet II, the Mehmet II, the sultan who captured sultan who captured Constantinople Constantinople became known as became known as “the Conqueror”.“the Conqueror”.


►As the empire expanded across As the empire expanded across Anatolia, its largely Christian Anatolia, its largely Christian population converted to Islam and by population converted to Islam and by 1500, 90% of Anatolia’s inhabitants 1500, 90% of Anatolia’s inhabitants were Muslim.were Muslim.

► In the Balkans, Christians welcomed In the Balkans, Christians welcomed the Ottoman conquests because the the Ottoman conquests because the Ottomans were less oppressive than Ottomans were less oppressive than their former Christian rulers and they their former Christian rulers and they required fewer taxes.required fewer taxes.


►The Ottomans also allowed Christian The Ottomans also allowed Christian churches greater autonomy and churches greater autonomy and freedom. freedom.

►As a result, only about 20% of the As a result, only about 20% of the population became Muslim.population became Muslim.

►His successors Bayezid II and Selim I His successors Bayezid II and Selim I continued with victories over Poland, continued with victories over Poland, Hungary, Venice, the Safavids of Persia, Hungary, Venice, the Safavids of Persia, and the Mamluks of Egypt.and the Mamluks of Egypt.


►Even though Ottoman authorities were Even though Ottoman authorities were relatively tolerant of Christians within relatively tolerant of Christians within their borders, the empire itself their borders, the empire itself represented an enormous threat to represented an enormous threat to Christendom generally.Christendom generally.

►One of the most celebrated Ottoman One of the most celebrated Ottoman victories occurred in August 1526 when victories occurred in August 1526 when they arrived on the plains of Hungary to they arrived on the plains of Hungary to battle the Christian Hungarians.battle the Christian Hungarians.


►The Ottomans The Ottomans came with came with 100,000 soldiers 100,000 soldiers and 300 new long-and 300 new long-range cannons.range cannons.

►The The Battle of Battle of MohacsMohacs began at began at noon and was noon and was over in two hours.over in two hours.


►The Hungarian The Hungarian cavalry was cavalry was destroyed and destroyed and 20,000 foot 20,000 foot soldiers drowned soldiers drowned in a swamp. in a swamp.

►The Ottomans The Ottomans lost fewer than lost fewer than 200 men.200 men.


►Two weeks later the Ottomans captured Two weeks later the Ottomans captured the Hungarian capital of Buda and began the Hungarian capital of Buda and began preparations to lay siege to the Austrian preparations to lay siege to the Austrian capital of capital of ViennaVienna (it would take three (it would take three years to actually begin the siege).years to actually begin the siege).

►Vienna was the seat of the Hapsburg king Vienna was the seat of the Hapsburg king (Ferdinand-who was the brother of the (Ferdinand-who was the brother of the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V). Holy Roman Emperor Charles V).


►Vienna was only a Vienna was only a few days’ march few days’ march from Buda. In from Buda. In 1529 the 1529 the Ottomans began Ottomans began their assault of the their assault of the city, in the heart city, in the heart of Central Europe.of Central Europe.

►The siege lasted The siege lasted 45 days.45 days.


►Several attacks on the city failed, so the Several attacks on the city failed, so the Ottomans withdrew in October 1529 Ottomans withdrew in October 1529 (before the coming of winter).(before the coming of winter).

►Suleiman expected to resume his attack Suleiman expected to resume his attack the following year (but he never did).the following year (but he never did).

►By the fall of 1529, the Turks had By the fall of 1529, the Turks had overrun most of Hungary, annexed overrun most of Hungary, annexed Bulgaria, and moved into Austria. Bulgaria, and moved into Austria. Baghdad was captured in 1535.Baghdad was captured in 1535.


►Many Europeans then spoke fearfully of the Many Europeans then spoke fearfully of the “terror of the Turk“terror of the Turk.”.”

►When the Turks withdrew from their attack When the Turks withdrew from their attack of Vienna, Martin Luther said “The day of of Vienna, Martin Luther said “The day of judgment is at hand, and will destroy Gog judgment is at hand, and will destroy Gog the Turk and Magog the Pope, the one the the Turk and Magog the Pope, the one the political and the other the ecclesiastical political and the other the ecclesiastical enemy of Christ.” (1529)enemy of Christ.” (1529)

►GogGog and and MagogMagog symbolized the enemies of symbolized the enemies of the Kingdom of God (Revelation 20:8) the Kingdom of God (Revelation 20:8)


►On the On the Mediterranean, the Mediterranean, the Ottoman navy Ottoman navy dominated the dominated the eastern sea. eastern sea.

►Suleiman’s admiral Suleiman’s admiral Barbarossa (the Barbarossa (the “Red Beard”) was “Red Beard”) was the most feared the most feared sailor on the seas.sailor on the seas.


►They had also extended their power into They had also extended their power into the western Mediterranean, causing the western Mediterranean, causing Europeans to fear they would turn the Europeans to fear they would turn the whole sea into a “Turkish lake.”whole sea into a “Turkish lake.”

►The Ottomans would dominate the The Ottomans would dominate the Mediterranean until 1571, when a Mediterranean until 1571, when a monumental battle for supremacy was monumental battle for supremacy was fought, with the future of European naval fought, with the future of European naval hegemony hanging in the balance.hegemony hanging in the balance.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire► In 1571, the “Holy League” (Spain, In 1571, the “Holy League” (Spain,

Venice, Papal States) met and defeated Venice, Papal States) met and defeated the Turkish fleet at the Turkish fleet at LepantoLepanto (off the (off the coast of Greece), ending this threat.coast of Greece), ending this threat.


►The Ottomans lost between 25,000-30,000 The Ottomans lost between 25,000-30,000 killed and wounded and an additional 3,500 killed and wounded and an additional 3,500 captured…the Holy League lost 8-13,000. captured…the Holy League lost 8-13,000.

►Their fleet lost 210 (of 286) ships, of which Their fleet lost 210 (of 286) ships, of which 130 were captured by the Holy League. 130 were captured by the Holy League.

►Coming at what was seen as a crisis point Coming at what was seen as a crisis point for Christianity, the victory at for Christianity, the victory at LepantoLepanto stemmed Ottoman expansion in the stemmed Ottoman expansion in the Mediterranean and prevented their Mediterranean and prevented their influence from spreading westward.influence from spreading westward.


►Even though the Even though the Ottomans rebuilt Ottomans rebuilt their fleet within a their fleet within a year and retained year and retained their naval base in their naval base in Cyprus, for the Cyprus, for the moment, Spain moment, Spain now controlled the now controlled the Mediterranean.Mediterranean.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►By mid-1683, the Ottomans were again By mid-1683, the Ottomans were again

marching through Hungary towards marching through Hungary towards Vienna.Vienna.

►This time they were stopped by a mixed This time they were stopped by a mixed army of Austrians, Poles, Bavarians, army of Austrians, Poles, Bavarians, and English.and English.


►The Ottomans never again The Ottomans never again mounted a major offensive on mounted a major offensive on European soil.European soil.

►The Ottomans would face new The Ottomans would face new challenges from the growing challenges from the growing Austrian Empire (to the west) and Austrian Empire (to the west) and the Russians (to the north)the Russians (to the north).


►The head of the Ottoman system was The head of the Ottoman system was the the Sultan Sultan (always hereditary-but not (always hereditary-but not always the eldest son). always the eldest son). The sultan The sultan was the supreme authority in all was the supreme authority in all military and political matters.military and political matters.

►Struggles for power between brothers Struggles for power between brothers often led to the death of the loser often led to the death of the loser (usually strangled with a silk (usually strangled with a silk bowstring) or to imprisonment. bowstring) or to imprisonment.

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►An heir to the throne was first trained An heir to the throne was first trained

to rule by becoming a general or a to rule by becoming a general or a governor of a province.governor of a province.

►The heart of the sultan’s power was The heart of the sultan’s power was Topkapi Palace, in the heart of Topkapi Palace, in the heart of Istanbul.Istanbul.


►Topkapi Palace is the world’s oldest and Topkapi Palace is the world’s oldest and largest to survive into the 21largest to survive into the 21stst century century (it has been a museum since 1924).(it has been a museum since 1924).

►Besides being home to the sultan’s Besides being home to the sultan’s residence, within the palace walls (over residence, within the palace walls (over 5 km long) were the centers of Ottoman 5 km long) were the centers of Ottoman administrative affairs, the treasury, administrative affairs, the treasury, mint, and state archives.mint, and state archives.

►There were also two hospitals, a There were also two hospitals, a bakery, and the University of the Sultan bakery, and the University of the Sultan located inside.located inside.


►The empire was efficiently divided into The empire was efficiently divided into provinces and districts, each governed provinces and districts, each governed by bureaucrats. by bureaucrats.

►The sultan controlled his bureaucracy The sultan controlled his bureaucracy through an imperial council that met through an imperial council that met four times a week. four times a week.

►The council was led by the chief The council was led by the chief minister, called the minister, called the Grand VizierGrand Vizier (or (or wazir).wazir).


►The Grand Vizier The Grand Vizier was the Sultan’s was the Sultan’s deputy in charge of deputy in charge of all routine all routine administrative administrative business.business.


►During nearly half of During nearly half of the 16the 16thth century, the century, the Ottomans were Ottomans were ruled by ruled by Suleiman Suleiman the Magnificentthe Magnificent,, who came to power who came to power after the death of after the death of his father Selim I in his father Selim I in 1520. 1520.

►Suleiman was 26Suleiman was 26

The Ottoman EmpireThe Ottoman Empire►Suleiman had to immediately prove himself in Suleiman had to immediately prove himself in

order to become a respected sultan.order to become a respected sultan.►Suleiman performed many acts of kindness Suleiman performed many acts of kindness

and mercy toward his people including and mercy toward his people including freeing hundreds of slaves, bestowing his freeing hundreds of slaves, bestowing his officers with gifts, and erecting a school for officers with gifts, and erecting a school for slaves.slaves.

►Leading his troops at Belgrade (1521), Leading his troops at Belgrade (1521), Rhodes (1522), Mohacs (1526), and against Rhodes (1522), Mohacs (1526), and against Vienna (1529), Suleiman quickly won respect, Vienna (1529), Suleiman quickly won respect, and fear, by raising “the specter of a Muslim and fear, by raising “the specter of a Muslim takeover of all of Europe.”takeover of all of Europe.”


►Suleiman was Suleiman was considered the most considered the most dangerous man in the dangerous man in the world by the Europeans, world by the Europeans, but he was actually a but he was actually a very fair ruler. very fair ruler.

►Suleiman fought Suleiman fought corruption and was a corruption and was a great patron of the arts, great patron of the arts, sciences, and sciences, and philosophy.philosophy.


►Suleiman filled his palace with music Suleiman filled his palace with music and he wrote beautiful poetry and he wrote beautiful poetry (considered by scholars to be among (considered by scholars to be among the finest ever written in Islam).the finest ever written in Islam).

►He was also very tolerant of Jews He was also very tolerant of Jews (unlike the Europeans) and Christians, (unlike the Europeans) and Christians, who found a safe haven within his who found a safe haven within his territory.territory.

► It is believed that his capital, Istanbul, It is believed that his capital, Istanbul, was the largest and most was the largest and most sophisticated city in the world. sophisticated city in the world.


►Suleiman had schools, mosques, Suleiman had schools, mosques, hospitals, city walls, bridges, and an hospitals, city walls, bridges, and an aqueduct built that surpassed any aqueduct built that surpassed any built by Rome.built by Rome.


► Suleiman Suleiman was known was known as “The Magnificent” as “The Magnificent” in Europe because of in Europe because of his conquests and his conquests and opulent court and opulent court and lifestyle.lifestyle.

► To the Ottomans, he To the Ottomans, he was known as was known as “The “The Lawgiver”Lawgiver”, because of , because of his forward thinking his forward thinking and changes to the and changes to the legal andlegal and


►His lifestyle at his palace displayed his His lifestyle at his palace displayed his wealth (he was believed to be the wealth (he was believed to be the world’s richest man). world’s richest man).

►He would never wear the same clothes He would never wear the same clothes twice, he ate off of solid gold plates twice, he ate off of solid gold plates encrusted with jewels, and his harem encrusted with jewels, and his harem consisted of over 300 women.consisted of over 300 women.

►The walls in one room of the palace The walls in one room of the palace were covered in solid gold. were covered in solid gold.


►During his forty-six year reign, During his forty-six year reign, Suleiman undertook thirteen military Suleiman undertook thirteen military campaigns of conquest. campaigns of conquest.

►He managed to conquer large parts of He managed to conquer large parts of Eastern Europe, Austria, and nearly Eastern Europe, Austria, and nearly Rome itself. Rome itself.

►He pushed his armies to the edge of He pushed his armies to the edge of Vienna, and at one point ruled over Vienna, and at one point ruled over 30,000,000 people.30,000,000 people.


►The Ottomans had grown richThe Ottomans had grown rich collecting transit taxes from goods collecting transit taxes from goods traded between Asia and Europetraded between Asia and Europe that that were transported across their territory.were transported across their territory.

►The reason the Portuguese pushed The reason the Portuguese pushed into the Indian Ocean was cut out the into the Indian Ocean was cut out the Ottoman middlemen.Ottoman middlemen.


►The all-water trade route the The all-water trade route the Portuguese discovered meant untold Portuguese discovered meant untold prosperity for the Europeans but prosperity for the Europeans but ultimate disaster for the Ottomans.ultimate disaster for the Ottomans.

►This started a chain reaction that over This started a chain reaction that over the next 250 years disrupted the the next 250 years disrupted the political, military, and social coherence political, military, and social coherence of Ottoman society.of Ottoman society.


►This, plus a halt in conquests, caused This, plus a halt in conquests, caused

the Ottoman treasury to lose income the Ottoman treasury to lose income which halted Ottoman growth.which halted Ottoman growth.

►Global trade also increasingly shifted Global trade also increasingly shifted towards the Atlantic Ocean and away towards the Atlantic Ocean and away fro the Mediterranean or Indian fro the Mediterranean or Indian Oceans.Oceans.


►The Middle East remained the Ottoman The Middle East remained the Ottoman heartland, but they lost territory in heartland, but they lost territory in North Africa, Eastern Europe, and North Africa, Eastern Europe, and around the Black Sea.around the Black Sea.

►The Empire shrank in size but The Empire shrank in size but remained culturally and politically remained culturally and politically independent. It remained the force in independent. It remained the force in the Middle East until the end of WWI the Middle East until the end of WWI (1918) when the European victors (1918) when the European victors carved up the Empire into several carved up the Empire into several sovereign states (including IRAQ).sovereign states (including IRAQ).

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire

►To the east of the Ottoman Empire in To the east of the Ottoman Empire in the neighboring Persian lands, another the neighboring Persian lands, another Islamic state was taking shape in the Islamic state was taking shape in the late 15late 15thth and early 16 and early 16thth centuries—the centuries—the Safavid EmpireSafavid Empire..


►Like the Ottomans, the Safavid Empire Like the Ottomans, the Safavid Empire started as a Turkic nomadic group from started as a Turkic nomadic group from central Asia (not Persian).central Asia (not Persian).

►The Safavids descended from Turks The Safavids descended from Turks who followed the mystical branch of who followed the mystical branch of Sunni Islam called Sufism (who then Sunni Islam called Sufism (who then converted to Shiah Islam in the early converted to Shiah Islam in the early 1515thth century). century).


►So unlike the Ottomans (Sunni), the So unlike the Ottomans (Sunni), the Safavids were Shi’ite (leaders of the Safavids were Shi’ite (leaders of the faith should be the “true” heirs of faith should be the “true” heirs of Islam… descendents of Muhammad’s Islam… descendents of Muhammad’s son-in-law Ali).son-in-law Ali).

►Shi’ites believed that the true heirs of Shi’ites believed that the true heirs of Islam, called the Islam, called the imamsimams, continued until , continued until the 9the 9thth century when the 12 century when the 12thth descendent disappeared as a child, only descendent disappeared as a child, only to become known as the “to become known as the “Hidden Hidden ImamImam.”.”


►According to Shiah tradition, after the According to Shiah tradition, after the 1111thth imam was killed, his successor imam was killed, his successor (the 12(the 12thth imam) was hidden by Allah in imam) was hidden by Allah in order to save his life.order to save his life.

►Shi’ites claim he remains miraculously Shi’ites claim he remains miraculously alive and will one day return to guide alive and will one day return to guide the faithful. the faithful.


► Early in the 16Early in the 16thth century a century a young (12 yrs old) Safavid young (12 yrs old) Safavid named named Ismail Ismail claimed to claimed to be the representative of be the representative of the “Hidden Imam.”the “Hidden Imam.”

►He acquired a devoted He acquired a devoted following and led troops following and led troops that captured Shirvan in that captured Shirvan in 1500 (today’s Azerbaijan).1500 (today’s Azerbaijan).

►He proclaimed himself He proclaimed himself Shah of Azerbaijan.Shah of Azerbaijan.


► Ismail then announced he Ismail then announced he was the “Hidden Imam” was the “Hidden Imam” who had returned to rule who had returned to rule and lead the faithful.and lead the faithful.

► He proclaimed Shia to be He proclaimed Shia to be the official faith.the official faith.

►Within 10 years, Ismail had Within 10 years, Ismail had conquered most of Persia conquered most of Persia (Iran), captured Baghdad, (Iran), captured Baghdad, and had defeated and and had defeated and driven back the Uzbeks.driven back the Uzbeks.


►This expansion caused the Safavids to This expansion caused the Safavids to come up against Ottoman territory.come up against Ottoman territory.

►When the caliphate passed to the When the caliphate passed to the Ottomans they saw themselves as the Ottomans they saw themselves as the interpreters and governors of the faith.interpreters and governors of the faith.

►The Shi’ite Safavids were anti-Ottoman. The Shi’ite Safavids were anti-Ottoman. ►The Safavids now posed a threat to the The Safavids now posed a threat to the

Ottomans.Ottomans.


► In early 1514, Selim I (Suleiman’s In early 1514, Selim I (Suleiman’s father) wrote to the Safavid ruler Ismail: father) wrote to the Safavid ruler Ismail:

““You have denied the sanctity of divine law…you You have denied the sanctity of divine law…you have deserted the path of salvation and the sacred have deserted the path of salvation and the sacred commandments…you have opened to Muslims the commandments…you have opened to Muslims the gates of tyranny and oppression…you have raised gates of tyranny and oppression…you have raised the standard of irreligion and heresy…Therefore the standard of irreligion and heresy…Therefore the the ulama ulama (conservative religious scholars)(conservative religious scholars) and our and our doctors have pronounced a sentence of death doctors have pronounced a sentence of death against you, perjurer, and blasphemer.”against you, perjurer, and blasphemer.”

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire►During the summer of During the summer of

1514, the Ottomans under 1514, the Ottomans under Selim I, marched into Selim I, marched into Persia and fought Ismail Persia and fought Ismail and his Safavids.and his Safavids.

►The Ottomans (Sunnis) The Ottomans (Sunnis) and the (Shia) Safavids and the (Shia) Safavids hated each other, and this hated each other, and this sectarian hatred set up sectarian hatred set up one of the most fateful one of the most fateful battles in Islamic history.battles in Islamic history.

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire► In August 1514, the Safavids met the In August 1514, the Safavids met the

Ottomans in battle at Ottomans in battle at Chaldiran Chaldiran (NW (NW Persia). It was a monumental battle of Persia). It was a monumental battle of Sunni vs Shia.Sunni vs Shia.

►The Safavid’s sent their best cavalry, The Safavid’s sent their best cavalry, the the qizilbashqizilbash (“red heads”) armed with (“red heads”) armed with swords and knives.swords and knives.


►The Battle of Chaldiran (1514).The Battle of Chaldiran (1514).


► Ismail was Ismail was wounded and wounded and nearly captured…nearly captured…he survived but he survived but lost his aura of lost his aura of invincibility.invincibility.

►He died in 1524.He died in 1524.


►Even though the Ottomans won a Even though the Ottomans won a decisive victory, they didn’t follow up decisive victory, they didn’t follow up because winter was approaching and because winter was approaching and the Safavid capital (Isfahan) was too far the Safavid capital (Isfahan) was too far from Ottoman supply lines.from Ottoman supply lines.


►The Safavids eventually recovered, The Safavids eventually recovered, eventually acquired gunpowder eventually acquired gunpowder weapons (from Europeans…violating weapons (from Europeans…violating a papal decree against doing so), and a papal decree against doing so), and occasionally fought the Ottomans for occasionally fought the Ottomans for the next 200 the next 200 years…but Shi’ite years…but Shi’ite expansion was stopped at Chaldiranexpansion was stopped at Chaldiran. .

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire►The Safavids reached The Safavids reached

their peak of power in their peak of power in the late 1500’s – early the late 1500’s – early 1600’s under Abbas I 1600’s under Abbas I (r.1587-1629).(r.1587-1629).

►Abbas negotiated a Abbas negotiated a peace treaty with the peace treaty with the Ottomans and Ottomans and reorganized his military reorganized his military on the European model on the European model of a standing army.of a standing army.


►Like the Ottoman Like the Ottoman Janissaries, the Janissaries, the Safavids had Safavids had Russian boys Russian boys captured, captured, educated, educated, converted to Islam, converted to Islam, and trained to use and trained to use gunpowder gunpowder weapons.weapons.

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire► Even though the Safavids Even though the Safavids

thought Europeans were thought Europeans were infidels, they hired English infidels, they hired English brothers to develop their brothers to develop their armaments industry.armaments industry.

► But no navy was ever But no navy was ever created, and the capital created, and the capital city of city of IsfahanIsfahan was far was far inland, away from the sea-inland, away from the sea-based trade that was based trade that was transforming the world.transforming the world.


► Abbas’ capital city, Abbas’ capital city, Isfahan Isfahan was was considered one of considered one of the wonders of the the wonders of the world and its beauty world and its beauty astounded astounded European visitors.European visitors.

► It had 163 mosques, It had 163 mosques, more than 250 more than 250 public baths, and public baths, and about 1,800 shops.about 1,800 shops.


► Isfahan was filled Isfahan was filled with beautiful parks, with beautiful parks, large squares, large squares, libraries, and libraries, and religious schools. religious schools.

► Isfahan’s blue-tiled Isfahan’s blue-tiled Shah Mosque Shah Mosque (built (built 1611-22) is one of 1611-22) is one of the architectural the architectural masterpieces of the masterpieces of the early modern era.early modern era.


►The Imam Mosque (Isfahan):The Imam Mosque (Isfahan):


►The Sio-se Pol Bridge (Isfahan): The Sio-se Pol Bridge (Isfahan):


► Safavid Safavid Architecture:Architecture:

►Ottoman Ottoman Architecture:Architecture:

The Safavid EmpireThe Safavid Empire►The long-term The long-term

significance of the significance of the Safavid Empire was Safavid Empire was its decision to its decision to forcibly impose a forcibly impose a ShiaShia version of version of Islam as the official Islam as the official religion of the state. religion of the state.

►Over time, this Over time, this defined the unique defined the unique identity of Persian identity of Persian (Iranian) culture.(Iranian) culture.


► This Shia empire was a This Shia empire was a sharp political and sharp political and religious contrast to its religious contrast to its Sunni neighbors to the Sunni neighbors to the east and west.east and west.

► Between 1534-1639 Between 1534-1639 periodic wars erupted periodic wars erupted between the Ottomans between the Ottomans and Safavids, reflecting and Safavids, reflecting territorial rivalry and their territorial rivalry and their sharp religious differences.sharp religious differences.


►This Sunni/Shia hostility continued to This Sunni/Shia hostility continued to divide the Islamic world well into the divide the Islamic world well into the twentieth century.twentieth century.


►This culminated in This culminated in the early 1980’s as the early 1980’s as Iran and Iraq Iran and Iraq fought a bloody fought a bloody war that killed over war that killed over 1,000,000 people.1,000,000 people.

►The United States The United States supported Iraq and supported Iraq and Saddam Hussein.Saddam Hussein.

Mughal IndiaMughal India

►Not long after Not long after Europe arrived in Europe arrived in India a new and India a new and powerful dynasty powerful dynasty established itselfestablished itself——thethe Mogul or MughalMogul or Mughal (Persian for Mongol)(Persian for Mongol) dynastydynasty. This was an . This was an Islamic, not Hindu, Islamic, not Hindu, dynasty.dynasty.


►Even though the Even though the Mughal EmpireMughal Empire was was an Islamic one operating in a Hindu an Islamic one operating in a Hindu world, this was one of the few periods world, this was one of the few periods in India’s history of political unity and in India’s history of political unity and was the last era of independence and was the last era of independence and political unity before the British took political unity before the British took over.over.


►The founder of the Mughal dynasty was Babur, “The Tiger,” who lived from 1483 to 1530 (r. 1526-1530).

►Descended from Ghengis Khan and Timur, he defeated the Delhi Sultanate.


►Babur was not interested in or Babur was not interested in or motivated by spreading Islam (like his motivated by spreading Islam (like his Ottoman and Safavid neighbors to the Ottoman and Safavid neighbors to the west)…he was an opportunist who west)…he was an opportunist who wanted plunder and treasure.wanted plunder and treasure.

►He didn’t really like the green and well He didn’t really like the green and well watered India, instead preferring his watered India, instead preferring his homeland (Ferghana) on the arid homeland (Ferghana) on the arid steppes of central Asia (today’s steppes of central Asia (today’s eastern Uzbekistan). eastern Uzbekistan).


►Besides being a fierce Besides being a fierce military genius who military genius who fought alongside his fought alongside his troops, he had troops, he had technological technological superiority over his superiority over his enemies for Babur was enemies for Babur was among the first Islamic among the first Islamic conquerors to use conquerors to use muskets and artillery muskets and artillery pieces.pieces.


►Like his ancestors, Babur Like his ancestors, Babur was as much a scholar, was as much a scholar, poet, musician, and poet, musician, and gardener as a soldier.gardener as a soldier.

►He brought to India a He brought to India a taste for luxury and taste for luxury and culture, the influences of culture, the influences of his Islamic faith, and a his Islamic faith, and a love of order, symmetry love of order, symmetry and formality.and formality.


►When Babur died When Babur died suddenly (aged 48), suddenly (aged 48), his eldest son, his eldest son, Humayan “the Humayan “the Fortunate” inherited Fortunate” inherited the throne (aged 22).the throne (aged 22).

►He was an ineffective He was an ineffective ruler known for his ruler known for his opium addiction and opium addiction and as a seeker of as a seeker of pleasure.pleasure.

Mughal IndiaMughal India►Challenged by one of his Challenged by one of his

brothers and eventually brothers and eventually deposed by an Afghan deposed by an Afghan chieftain after ruling 10 chieftain after ruling 10 years, he fled to the years, he fled to the Safavid court for where he Safavid court for where he lived for the next 16 years. lived for the next 16 years.

►While living with the While living with the Safavids, he was greatly Safavids, he was greatly influenced by Persian influenced by Persian culture.culture.


►He regained the He regained the throne in 1556 but throne in 1556 but ruled less than a ruled less than a year before he year before he met an met an unfortunate death.unfortunate death.

►He is considered He is considered one of history’s one of history’s great “losers.”great “losers.”

►Humayan’s tomb.Humayan’s tomb.


►The most famous The most famous Mughal emperor Mughal emperor was was AkbarAkbar (b. (b. 1542 r. 1560-1542 r. 1560-1605) in Arabic 1605) in Arabic his name means his name means “the Great”.“the Great”.


►He was very progressive (for a 16He was very progressive (for a 16thth century ruler) and is considered by century ruler) and is considered by most historians to be the greatest most historians to be the greatest emperor in Indian history, (and one of emperor in Indian history, (and one of the greatest in all history) despite the the greatest in all history) despite the fact he was illiterate (the only Mughal fact he was illiterate (the only Mughal emperor who was). emperor who was).


►Despite his illiteracy, Despite his illiteracy, Akbar Akbar had a had a great desire for knowledge. This led great desire for knowledge. This led him not only to maintain an extensive him not only to maintain an extensive library but also to learn. library but also to learn.

►Even though he couldn’t read, he had Even though he couldn’t read, he had courtiers read to him and he became courtiers read to him and he became as knowledgeable as most scholars.as knowledgeable as most scholars.


►Akbar had many Akbar had many kingly qualities…he kingly qualities…he was brave to the was brave to the point of folly (he point of folly (he enjoyed riding his enjoyed riding his own fighting own fighting elephants into battle elephants into battle and once he killed a and once he killed a tiger with his sword).tiger with his sword).


►He won over the He won over the Hindus by naming Hindus by naming them to important them to important military and civil military and civil positions, by positions, by conferring honors conferring honors upon them, and by upon them, and by marrying several marrying several Hindu princesses. Hindu princesses.

Mughal IndiaMughal India►Akbar surrounded himself with writers, Akbar surrounded himself with writers,

scholars, musicians, painters, and scholars, musicians, painters, and translators. His court had the fabled translators. His court had the fabled Nine GemsNine Gems - nine famous personalities - nine famous personalities from different walks of life.from different walks of life.


►AkbarAkbar developed an developed an efficient bureaucracy efficient bureaucracy (which was later adopted (which was later adopted by the British), was by the British), was innovative on tax issues, innovative on tax issues, and he was tolerant of and he was tolerant of different religions. different religions.

►He even developed a new He even developed a new universalistic religion universalistic religion (called Din-i Ilahi).(called Din-i Ilahi).


►Akbar’s Akbar’s Din-i-IlahiDin-i-Ilahi blended Hinduism, blended Hinduism, Islam, and Zoroastrianism…it was his Islam, and Zoroastrianism…it was his attempt to end the religious divisions of attempt to end the religious divisions of his people.his people.

►He eliminated the special tax assessed on He eliminated the special tax assessed on non-Muslims (the non-Muslims (the jizyajizya, which the Hindus , which the Hindus bitterly resented) and he eliminated the bitterly resented) and he eliminated the “pilgrimage” tax put on Hindus traveling “pilgrimage” tax put on Hindus traveling to Hindu pilgrimage sites. to Hindu pilgrimage sites.

►He ordered Muslims to respect cows.He ordered Muslims to respect cows.


►Hindu temples were respected. Akbar Hindu temples were respected. Akbar even had some Hindu temples built. even had some Hindu temples built.

►He abolished slavery, forced He abolished slavery, forced sutteesuttee (sati), (sati), and and purdahpurdah (women living in (women living in forced seclusion).forced seclusion).

►He even allowed the Hindu women of He even allowed the Hindu women of his harem to practice the rites of their his harem to practice the rites of their own religion (an unprecedented act for own religion (an unprecedented act for a Muslim ruler).a Muslim ruler).

Mughal IndiaMughal India►Akbar had Hindu Akbar had Hindu

literature translated literature translated (the epic (the epic RamayanaRamayana was translated into was translated into Persian), he participated Persian), he participated in Hindu festivals, and in Hindu festivals, and he understood that a he understood that a strong and stable strong and stable empire depended on empire depended on alliances with his Hindu alliances with his Hindu nobility (known as nobility (known as Rajputs).Rajputs).


►While Europe and Asia were embroiled While Europe and Asia were embroiled in sectarian persecution and violence, in sectarian persecution and violence, Akbar took a genuine interest in all Akbar took a genuine interest in all creeds and doctrines (why he was creeds and doctrines (why he was known to be a known to be a Philosopher-king/Enlightened ruler).Philosopher-king/Enlightened ruler).

►His son (and successor) Jehangir wrote His son (and successor) Jehangir wrote proudly of his father: “He associated proudly of his father: “He associated with the good of every race and creed with the good of every race and creed and persuasion…The professors of and persuasion…The professors of various faiths had room in the broad various faiths had room in the broad expanse of his incomparable sway.”expanse of his incomparable sway.”


►He built a culture based on Persia: one He built a culture based on Persia: one which stressed and valued philosophy, which stressed and valued philosophy, literature, painting, and architectureliterature, painting, and architecture. .

►Persian artists and writers were Persian artists and writers were welcomed into the empire and Persian welcomed into the empire and Persian classics were translated into Hindi and classics were translated into Hindi and Sanskrit.Sanskrit.

► Instead of a purely Islamic identity, Instead of a purely Islamic identity, Akbar created a cosmopolitan hybrid of Akbar created a cosmopolitan hybrid of Indian- Persian-Turkic culture. Indian- Persian-Turkic culture.


► In the 1570’s, Akbar set about building In the 1570’s, Akbar set about building a new capital city…the “perfect city”…a new capital city…the “perfect city”…called Fatehpur Sikri (“City of Victory”).called Fatehpur Sikri (“City of Victory”).


►But Akbar’s policies But Akbar’s policies fostered sharp fostered sharp opposition among opposition among some Muslims. The some Muslims. The philosopher Shayk philosopher Shayk Ahmad Sirhindi Ahmad Sirhindi (1564-1624), claiming (1564-1624), claiming to be the “renewer” to be the “renewer” of authentic Islam, of authentic Islam, strongly objected to strongly objected to his cultural synthesis.his cultural synthesis.


►The worship of saints, the sacrifice of animals, supporting Hindu religious festivals all represented impure intrusions that needed to be rooted out.

►According to Sirhindi, it was the duty of a Muslim ruler to impose sharia law, to enforce the jizya on nonbelievers, and to remove non-Muslims from high offices.

Mughal IndiaMughal India►Akbar’s favorite son Akbar’s favorite son

Jehangir (means Jehangir (means “World Dominator” “World Dominator” r. 1605-1627) came r. 1605-1627) came to the throne at to the throne at Akbar’s death.Akbar’s death.

►Also tolerant of other Also tolerant of other religions, he was religions, he was known for releasing known for releasing prisoners of war.prisoners of war.


►He set up a He set up a "Chain of Justice" "Chain of Justice" outside his outside his palace. Anyone in palace. Anyone in trouble could trouble could simply pull the simply pull the chain and receive chain and receive a hearing from a hearing from the Emperor.the Emperor.


►He lavishly patronized He lavishly patronized the arts: painting, the arts: painting, architecture, architecture, philosophy, and philosophy, and literature. literature.

►His reign is often His reign is often called the “Age of called the “Age of Mughal splendor.”Mughal splendor.”

► Jehangir and Abbas I.Jehangir and Abbas I.


►He was also an alcoholic and opium He was also an alcoholic and opium addict, easily swayed by others addict, easily swayed by others (especially his wife). (especially his wife).

► It was during Jehangir's reign that the It was during Jehangir's reign that the British (British East India Company) got British (British East India Company) got formal permission to trade freely within formal permission to trade freely within the Mughal Empire. the Mughal Empire.

►This is often thought to be his greatest This is often thought to be his greatest blunder.blunder.


►When Jehangir died, When Jehangir died, his son Shah Jahan his son Shah Jahan (r. 1627-1658) (r. 1627-1658) replaced him.replaced him.

►Shah Jahan was Shah Jahan was known as a lover of known as a lover of all things big…big all things big…big mosques, big forts, mosques, big forts, big gemstones, etc.big gemstones, etc.


►He had an He had an extravagant solid extravagant solid gold throne made gold throne made (completed 1635), (completed 1635), encrusted with encrusted with hundreds of hundreds of precious precious gemstones (the gemstones (the famous Peacock famous Peacock Throne).Throne).


►Shah Jahan’s Peacock Throne was Shah Jahan’s Peacock Throne was constructed out of 1150 kg of gold and constructed out of 1150 kg of gold and 230 kg of precious stones. 230 kg of precious stones.

► It was said to be modeled after the It was said to be modeled after the throne of King Solomon and supposed throne of King Solomon and supposed to mirror the throne of God in Heaven.to mirror the throne of God in Heaven.


► To ascend the Peacock To ascend the Peacock Throne were three jewel Throne were three jewel encrusted steps made of encrusted steps made of sterling silver.sterling silver.

►On the top of each pillar On the top of each pillar there were to be two there were to be two peacocks, thick-set with peacocks, thick-set with gems and between every gems and between every two peacocks a tree set two peacocks a tree set with rubies and with rubies and diamonds, emeralds and diamonds, emeralds and pearls. pearls.


►Among the historical diamonds Among the historical diamonds decorating it were the famous decorating it were the famous Kohinoor (186 carats), the Akbar Shah Kohinoor (186 carats), the Akbar Shah (95 carats), the Shah (88.77 carats), (95 carats), the Shah (88.77 carats), the Jehangir (83 carats) and the the Jehangir (83 carats) and the second largest ruby in the world — the second largest ruby in the world — the Timur ruby (283 carats). Timur ruby (283 carats).

►When made, it cost more than the Taj When made, it cost more than the Taj Mahal.Mahal.


►The Taj Mahal was The Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan built by Shah Jahan between 1630-1653 between 1630-1653 as a tomb for his as a tomb for his deceased wife deceased wife (after she gave (after she gave birth to their 14birth to their 14thth child). child).


► It is considered one of the world’s It is considered one of the world’s greatest pieces of architecture and one greatest pieces of architecture and one of the seven wonders of the world. of the seven wonders of the world.

►Legend has it that Shah Jahan had the Legend has it that Shah Jahan had the hands of every workman cut off so that hands of every workman cut off so that the same masterpiece could never be the same masterpiece could never be built again. built again.

►But the incredible expense of Mughal But the incredible expense of Mughal court and building projects (like the Taj court and building projects (like the Taj Mahal and Peacock Throne) Mahal and Peacock Throne) impoverished the country.impoverished the country.


►To pay for his projects, Shah Jahan raised taxes on the land from 30% to 50% creating major discontentment.

►Unable to gauge this discontentment Unable to gauge this discontentment among his own court, he was deposed among his own court, he was deposed by his third son Aurangzeb and spent by his third son Aurangzeb and spent the last eight years of his life the last eight years of his life imprisoned in his Red Fort, watching the imprisoned in his Red Fort, watching the building of the Taj Mahal.building of the Taj Mahal.


►Shah Jahan planned to build a Shah Jahan planned to build a companion tomb for himself across the companion tomb for himself across the river in black marble but that was foiled river in black marble but that was foiled by his son’s revolt.by his son’s revolt.

►He is buried in the Taj Mahal, next to his He is buried in the Taj Mahal, next to his wife (but her tomb is much bigger than wife (but her tomb is much bigger than his).his).


►Aurangzeb Aurangzeb (“Conqueror of (“Conqueror of the World” b. the World” b. 1618, r. 1658-1618, r. 1658-1707) ascended to 1707) ascended to the throne after the throne after having his father having his father imprisoned and imprisoned and three brothers three brothers killed.killed.


►Honest, intelligent, Honest, intelligent, and hard-working, and hard-working, Aurangzeb took Aurangzeb took over an India that over an India that had been in need had been in need of administrative, of administrative, military, and social military, and social reforms for reforms for decades.decades.


►Under Jehangir and Shah Jahan (who Under Jehangir and Shah Jahan (who both preferred living a good life to both preferred living a good life to effectively running an empire), India effectively running an empire), India was threatened by internal decay and was threatened by internal decay and external enemies.external enemies.

►The Mughal bureaucracy was bloated The Mughal bureaucracy was bloated and corrupt and so was the military (as and corrupt and so was the military (as well as backward in weaponry and well as backward in weaponry and tactics).tactics).


►Aurangzeb was determined to do two Aurangzeb was determined to do two things: 1). extend Muslim control over things: 1). extend Muslim control over the whole Indian subcontinent; and 2). the whole Indian subcontinent; and 2). purify Indian Islam and rid it of Hindu purify Indian Islam and rid it of Hindu influences that he was convinced were influences that he was convinced were steadily corrupting it.steadily corrupting it.

►He forbade the building of Hindu He forbade the building of Hindu temples and he reinstated taxes temples and he reinstated taxes assessed on non-Muslims (the assessed on non-Muslims (the jizyajizya).).


►Music and dance were now banned at court, and previously tolerated vices such as gambling, drinking, prostitution, and opium were actively suppressed.

►“Censors of public morals” enforced Islamic law in the larger cities.


►He conducted He conducted several military several military campaigns to campaigns to extend the empire extend the empire and was able to and was able to increase Mughal increase Mughal India to its greatest India to its greatest extent, but it extent, but it drained the treasury drained the treasury (one campaign (one campaign lasted 26 years).lasted 26 years).


►The peasantry was taxed to near The peasantry was taxed to near starvation because of Aurangzeb’s starvation because of Aurangzeb’s constant wars of expansion, and the constant wars of expansion, and the political alliances established by Akbar fell political alliances established by Akbar fell apart.apart.

►To be a Hindu and advance within the To be a Hindu and advance within the bureaucracy of the government or military bureaucracy of the government or military became less and less likely; conversion became less and less likely; conversion became necessary for success.became necessary for success.


►Aurangzeb ended a century of Aurangzeb ended a century of religious toleration and one major religious toleration and one major result was the alienation of many result was the alienation of many subjects’ loyalties.subjects’ loyalties.

►Antagonized Hindus openly opposed Antagonized Hindus openly opposed the emperor: “Your subjects are the emperor: “Your subjects are trampled underfoot…every province of trampled underfoot…every province of your empire is impoverished…God is your empire is impoverished…God is the God of all mankind, not the God of the God of all mankind, not the God of the Mussalmans (Muslims) alone.” the Mussalmans (Muslims) alone.”


►So Aurangzeb was the So Aurangzeb was the last of the “Great” last of the “Great” Mughal emperors.Mughal emperors.

►The empire had become The empire had become too large and unwieldy too large and unwieldy to be managed to be managed effectively.effectively.

►There would be a Mughal There would be a Mughal emperor for the next 150 emperor for the next 150 years (until 1857).years (until 1857).


►When Aurangzeb died, a crisis of When Aurangzeb died, a crisis of succession arose among his three sons succession arose among his three sons and the empire almost at once began and the empire almost at once began to break apart.to break apart.

►The Europeans (especially the British) The Europeans (especially the British) were waiting in the wings to assert were waiting in the wings to assert their power over the weakened their power over the weakened dynasty. dynasty.

the muslim empires: the ottomans, the safavids, and the mughals

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