The Middle Ages

Key Developments

• Return of ancient knowledge via Spain and Sicily

• Eastern Technological Innovations• Independent Inventions in Europe• Theology and the Unique Nature of Western

Monotheism

Return of ancient knowledge via Spain and Sicily.

Almagest of Ptolemy, 1100 via Spain. Gerard of Cremona (1114-1187). Seventy

translations including Avicenna's medical encyclopedia.

Arabic (actually Hindu) numerals. Astrolabe appeared in Moslem world ca.

800, Europe 1200. Six translations of Euclid by 1200.

Eastern Technological Innovations

Paper from China to Europe by 1200. Trebuchet (counterweight catapult) from

China ca. 1100. Compass appears in Europe ca. 1200. Windmills from near East ca. 1100. Gunpowder via Mongols ca. 1240. Possibly the concept of clock escapement

mechanisms.

Independent Inventions in Europe

Mechanical clocks, 1300’s. Linen Windmills Full exploitation of water power

Why Did Clocks Appear in Europe?

• In a world that never changes, time doesn’t matter

• If time doesn’t belong to you, there is no point in tracking it

• Autonomous people have agendas - places to go, people to see, things to do

• Clocks intimately connected to Western concepts of individuality

What is the Role of Religion in History?

What Role Did Religion Play In:

• The U.S. Civil Rights movement?• The Collapse of Communism?• Ethnic Cleansing in the Balkans?

The Major Misconception About Religion

• No Major Religion considers its doctrines beliefs

• Every Major Religion considers its doctrines to be objective facts– To a Christian fundamentalist, the Deluge is a

documented historical fact– No Muslim considers it a matter of opinion

whether Mohammed received messages from God

What Religion Can and Cannot Do• Individuals vary in commitment and priorities• Religion can motivate people to high ideals• Religion can serve to rationalize other motives• Religion can provide a template for organizing

thought• Religion can serve as a symbol of group identity• Religion has little power to erase deeply-ingrained

cultural traits• Religion has no power over biology– Can make people feel guilty about sex– Cannot stop people from having sex

The Unique Nature of Western Monotheism

• Judaeo-Christian god is the creator of the Universe, but still active in it

• Judaeo-Christian god is transcendent: unlimited in scope or powers.

Active Creator• Greco-Roman mythology: Zeus (Jupiter) is

the chief of the gods• Zeus’ father is Cronos (Saturn)• Cronos’ father was Uranus (Heaven), his

mother Gaia (Earth)• The Classical creator gods are not active• The Judaeo-Christian god is creator, but

also still active

Judgment of Paris, Rubens, 1632-35

Transcendent• Classical gods are limited– Can be deceived, tricked or caught unaware– Can be bargained with– Morally flawed (in no position to make moral

demands)

• Judaeo-Christian god is unlimited– Cannot be deceived, tricked or surprised– Does not bargain– Is morally perfect

Consequences of Western Monotheism

• Nature is not micromanaged by supernatural forces.

• There exist laws that are absolute and invariable

• There is one correct theology (philosophy, ideology, way to do things, etc.) Western culture tends to see things in black and white

Opposition to MagicFrom the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, we know that human beings have a fundamentally egocentric conception of the world. Growing up in modern society means learning to accept the existence of an external world separate from oneself. It is hard. Most of humankind, for most of its history, never learned to distinguish the internal world of thoughts and feelings with the external world of objects and events. ... Cutting this connection, which is necessary before science can develop, goes against the grain of human nature. – Alan Cromer in Uncommon sense: the heretical

nature of science (1993)

Bad Programming

• I Cry, Mom Feeds Me• What really happens: Cry triggers Mom’s

nurturing instinct• What gets programmed: I want something

and the universe supplies what I want• We have a word for this: Magic

The Magical Mind

• Religion asks: How can I conform to God?• Science asks: How can I conform to the way

the world works?• Magic asks: How can I get God and the world

to conform to me?

Why Magic?

• Offers Hope; Never Need to Take No for an Answer

• It’s Easy• Feeds Fantasies of Omnipotence• Feeds Fantasies of Being in the Know

21st Century Magic• Conspiracies• The Magic Money Pot• Free Stuff– Because I deserve it

• Magical Religion– Propitiation– Consolation– Permission

• Evidence Manipulation

The FallThe Fall: Adam and Eve expelled from Eden

for disobedience• Good and evil are not equal forces. Evil is

an aberration• Evil can be combated and overcome• Dark side of the force: Evil has no

legitimate place in the universe, therefore has no rights

Time and the Fall• In many cultures there is no real concept of

the future• In some societies, time is cyclicIn Judaeo-Christianity, the Fall is to be

remedied by a Messiah• Time has directionality and a very strong

future orientation• Probably at the root of many of our beliefs

about progress

Rediscovery of Roman Law• Justinian (c. 540) codifies Roman Law• Gratian 1140 organizes canon law• Bracton 1250 organizes English law

God as Ruler (Basis of laws) + De-Animization of nature+ Discovery of law as a form of logic= “Natural Law” (Francis Bacon, 1260)

Pierre Abelard, Sic et Non, 1130• Use systematic doubt and question

everything• Learn the difference between statements

of rational proof and those merely of persuasion

• Be precise in use of words, and expect precision of others

• Watch for error, even in Holy Scripture

A Substantive Argument

(Statement)Is

(True/False)Because

(Facts or Logical Propositions)

Abelard For Today• No package deals• Adjectives, Labels and Emotional Responses

are not Substantive Arguments• Labels may not be accurate or relevant• Wishing doesn’t make it so• Conflicting with an ideology doesn’t make it

false

When New Collides With Old• You can reject the new ideas. This is the

choice the Islamic world eventually made. • You can embrace the new and abandon the

old. In extreme cases, culture shock can result.

• You can meld the two without regard for logical consistency: syncretism or compartmentalization

• You can seek a consistent synthesis.

Syntheses in Western History• Hellenistic Greek and indigenous cultures• Greek ideas and Roman culture• Judaism and Greek culture in early

Christianity• Augustine’s fusion of Platonism and

Christianity• Irish melding of Celtic culture, Christianity

and European learning• Fusion of languages to create English