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Slide 1 Tian Shan Mountains

The Life and Times of the Silk Roads and those who travelled on them – from Marco Polo to

relatively modern times

By Julianna Lees

Slide 2 Eremurus & mountain Those of you who came to Part One of these talks, will remember that we started with a brief overview of the geography of the area now known as “The Silk Roads”.

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Silk Routes by land and sea

Slide 3 Silk Roads by land & sea map These are the various routes by which exchanges of all kinds took place between Eastern and Western peoples by land and by sea. We also made a rapid survey of the history of the area up to the period of Marco Polo in the 13-14thc centuries. Silk was first produced in China around 3000 BC

Silk was first produced in Chinaaround 3000 BC.

Slide 4 silk was produced As early as the second millennium BC, cinnamon from Sri Lanka, Cassia from China and other spices arrived in the Middle East by land and sea. Other goods exchanged came to include silk, ivory, porcelain, metals and gem stones. Thus the Spice Routes were also the maritime Silk Routes.

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Slide 5 Spice Routes were also the maritime Silk Routes. This vast steppe area together with the steppes of Eastern Europe cover 10,000 kms from the centre of Mongolia into Hungary. ''Central Asia'' is the core region of the Asian continent and stretches from the Caspian Sea in the west to China in the east and from Russia in the north to Afghanistan in the south. It is also sometimes referred to as "the Stans", as the six countries generally considered to be within the region all have names ending with the Persian suffix "-stan", meaning "land of". Around 600 BC Zoroaster was born in Persia and a few decades later the Buddha was born in Nepal, and Confucius in China.

Zoroaster, Confucius and Buddha

Slide 6, 3 prophets Later, the Empire of Alexander the Great expanded further East, bringing Greek culture into Central Asia. For several centuries the Scythians were supreme in Central Asia from Mongolia in the East to the Black Sea in the West, though they are thought to have originated in Siberia. Their kurgans, or burial chambers were rich in grave goods which were largely collected for Peter the Great, and many found their way to the Hermitage Museum.

Gold comb from Scythian Pazyryk

kurgan, early 4thc BC

Slide 7 gold comb

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The exhibition at the British Museum, largely based on borrowed treasures from the Hermitage, has only just closed, so I hope some of you were able to see them. The Roman expansion began a century later, around 300 BC. During the Roman Empire, the Silk Roads became central to trade between Rome and China. The most important commodity was, of course, silk. This was the most profitable product of Chinese export and was actually used as a form of currency, just as the Romans used salt to pay soldiers, giving us the word, “salary”. Silk was widely used by the Roman elite as a statement of power and prestige.

Slide 8 Romans in silk From the Ist c AD merchants from the Arabian coast had been trading with India, heading for the Malabar coast and then cruising down to Ceylon to meet the China trade. Silk and other commodities were then carried back up the Red Sea to Egypt, and thence overland to Alexandria and thereafter shipped to Rome. The merchants would stop off at Yemen on the way. They traded with Africa, too, and controlled trade in most areas.

Silk routes by land and sea

Slide 9 silk routes again By the third century, Silk from China was being woven into cloth across Asia.

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Silk from China is woven into cloth across Asia.

Slide 10 Silk from China found across Asia During the following centuries, empires rose and fell, religions spread: Buddhism from India into Central Asia, and later, Afghanistan, to become the most popular religion in Central Asia, replacing Zoroastrianism. In the 500 s, Nestorian Christianity was introduced to Central Asia by missionaries from the West.

Slide 11 Nestorians at Bezeklik And Nestorian monks from Samarcand may have brought the secret of sericulture to Constantinople, with silk worms hidden in their bamboo canes. Silkworm farms began to appear in Europe.

Justinian, Emperor of Byzantium, and his court

Slide 12 Justinian Justinian, Emperor of Byzantium, established workshops in his palace to produce home-grown silks for his court and as diplomatic gifts.

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Theodora, Empress of Byzantium, and her court

Slide 13 Theodora During the 7th century the Silk Road reached its golden age under the Tang dynasty in China. With the spread of the Islamic religion, Persia fell to the Arabs and Muslims controlled Mesopotamia and Iran, along with the Silk and Spice routes. The two main routes were North and South of the Taklamakan Desert. Sogdians from around Bukhara and Samarcand were trading along the Silk Routes, like these men on camels on a fresco in Afrosiab, now known as Samarcand.

Sogdian mural, White & red-

skinned men on a camel from a Zoroastrian procession,

Afrosiab, 7thc

Slide 14 Sogdian camels These rare frescoes show the influence of Hellenic, Byzantine and Persian art.

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Slide 15 Sogdian ambassadors All this information and more was covered in the first talk. We then considered some of the famous scholars, poets and scientists associated with the Silk Routes during the Islamic Golden Age from Uzbekistan: Al-Khwarizmi:

The most brilliantmathematician,

Al-Khwarizmi wrote on

Algebra, Arithmetic, Astronomy,

Trigonometry and Geography, and gave his name to

Algorithms

Do not read aloud Slide 16 Al-Khwarizmi Al-Biruni:

Al-Biruni, b. 973 in Khwarezm, Uzbekistand. 1048 (aged 75) in Afghanistan

Main interests: Geology, physics, anthropology, comparative sociology, astronomy, astrology, chemistry, history, geography, mathematics, medicine, psychology, Islamic philosophy

Do not read aloud Slide 17 Al-Biruni: Avicenna:

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Avicenna (Ibn Sīnā), b. 980 near Bukharad.1037 (aged 57) Persia

Main interests: Medicine, Aromatherapy, Philosophy and logic, Islamic theology, Science, Poetryinfluences: Hippocrates, Aristotle, Galen, Neoplatonism, al-Kindi, Al-Biruniinfluenced: Al-Biruni, Omar Khayyám, Averroes, Albertus Magnus, Maimonides, Aquinas, William of Ockham, Age of Enlightenment philosophers

Do not read aloud Slide 18 Avicenna And Omar Khayyam, to name but four: Omar Khayyam b. 1048 in Nishapur, Khorasand. 1131 (aged 83) in the place of his birth.

main interests: Mathematics, Astronomy, Philosophy, Persian literature|Poetryinfluences: al-Khwārizmī, al-Bīrūnī, Avicennainfluenced: Attar of Nishapur, Ahmad Khani

Do not read aloud Slide 19 Omar Khayyam You may have heard the programme about Uzbek men of learning on BBC 4’s “In our Time” with Melvyn Bragg. During the 1200s Genghiz Khan united the Mongols and began the expansion of the Mongol Empire. His hordes threatened to devastate Europe. Russia, Poland and Hungary bore the brunt of his invasions

Slide 20 Genghiz Khan Empire map until his death in 1227.

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Around the time of the 7th and last Crusade, Kublai Khan, grandson of Genghiz Khan, and even more terrifying to the West, reigned supreme. He was, however, an able administrator. The first part of my talk ended with the birth of Marco Polo; this second part, taking us into relatively modern times will concentrate on the lives of some of the merchants, rulers, writers and explorers who travelled the Silk Roads.

Marco Polo, 1254-1324

Slide 21 Marco Polo Marco was one of the first great travellers from West to East. (His travels are shown in red on this map):

Marco Polo leaves for the East.

Slide 22 Marco Polo & Ibn map Or was he? There is much controversy on this subject. As with “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville” to which I referred in Part One, Sir John Mandeville travels published c.1356

Slide 23 Sir John Mandeville

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not everyone was convinced of the veracity of these travellers’ tales. Suggestions that he had never travelled further than Constantinople surfaced as soon as Marco published his book which was known as “Il Millione” – a million lies? However, modern research favours the authenticity of his account.

Slide 24 Travels of Marco Polo Born into a family of Venetian merchants of Croatian origin, Marco joined the business of his father and uncle, Niccolo and Maffeo, as a teenager. They had already travelled to China and met Kublai Khan, and were away so long that Marco was already 15 when he met them for the first time. Marco’s mother had died young, and he was brought up by another uncle and aunt where he received a good education. Only two years later the three men set off for Asia, for trade and adventure which lasted 24 years.

Marco Polo in Tartare costume

Slide 25 Marco Polo in Tartar costume Marco alleged that he worked for Kublai Khan as Governor (one among thousands) for 17 years, and that they covered 15,000 miles. His story relates that they returned in 1295, their fortunes carried in the form of gem stones. Venice was at war with Genoa at the time, and Marco equipped a galleon and set off to fight, but was captured off the coast of Anatolia the following year, and spent several months of 1298 in prison. It was here that he dictated his story to a fellow-prisoner, Rustichello, from Pisa.

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Marco Polo in prison

Slide 26 Marco in prison Rustichello was already the author of the first Romance of King Arthur in Italian, so he was known to be a story teller, but actually his first edition of Marco Polo’s Travels was in French. Marco married Donata in 1300 and they had three daughters. He died after an illness in 1324, aged 70. Marco Polo is credited with having introduced to Italy:

The compassGunpowderFireworksPaperPrintingPaper moneyCoal

His book resulted in further exploration of the Silk Routes by Western travellers and the expansion of trade.

Slide 27 Marco Polo’s discoveries and achievements Do not read aloud For most people in the West, Marco’s book was an eye-opener to what had been the secret and largely unknown world of the East, of the Silk Routes and of Central Asia. Whether it was entirely believed or not, “Il Milione” became a best-seller well before the era of printing. Just a year after the death of Marco Polo, an even greater traveller set off on his 75,000 mile journey along the Silk Routes, three times the length of Marco’s travels.

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1325, Ibn Battuta, the first known Arab traveller to China, sets off on a 750,000 mile journey via the Silk routes.

Slide 28 Ibn Battuta from Morocco This was Ibn Battuta from Morocco. All that is known about Ibn Battuta's life comes from his autobiography. Born in Morocco in 1304, of Berber descent, he studied jurisprudence at a Sunni Islamic school. At the age of twenty-one, Ibn Battuta set off on a haj, or pilgrimage, to Mecca, a journey that would take about sixteen months. He would not see his home again for twenty-four years, an exact parallel with the time Marco was away. "I set out alone, having neither fellow-traveller in whose companionship I might find cheer, nor caravan I might join, but having a great desire to visit these famous sanctuaries. So I quit my dear ones, and forsook my home as birds forsake their nests. My parents and I were afflicted with sorrow at this separation."

Slide 29 Ibn set out alone Ibn travelled to Mecca overland, following the North African coast, usually joining a caravan for safety. He took a bride in the town of Sfax, the first in a series of marriages during his travels. In 1326, in Alexandria, Ibn met a pious man who foretold his destiny saying, "It seems that you are fond of foreign travel. You will visit my brothers in India, in Sind and in China. Convey my greetings to them". After spending a month in Cairo, Ibn Battuta chose the road least-travelled to Mecca, which involved a journey up the Nile valley, then east to the Red Sea before travelling through Syria. Among the holy places that lay along the way, were Jerusalem and Bethlehem.

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After spending Ramadan in Damascus, Ibn continued to Mecca, where he completed his pilgrimage. Rather than returning home, he decided to continue on to Baghdad and thence to Persia. Ibn Battuta then turned north on the Silk Road to Tabriz,

Slide 30 Tabriz the first major city in the region to open its gates to the Mongols, and then on to Yemen.

Slide 31, Yemen Ibn left for East Africa in 1330, visiting Somalia, Cape Guardafui, the Horn of Africa and Mogadishu. Sailing South to the Swahili Coast, Ibn arrived in present-day Tanzania. With a change in the monsoon winds, he then sailed back to Arabia by way of Oman and the Straits of Hormuz, and then to Mecca again, for another hajj.

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Slide 32, Golden map After his third pilgrimage to Mecca, in about 1330, Ibn set off for India via Central Asia. A Genoese ship carried him to the Crimean Peninsula, the realm of the Golden Horde, and on to Siberia. "The land is snow-covered throughout Winter", he wrote, "and the only means of transport is dog-drawn sledge. There lived a mysterious people who were reluctant to show themselves. They traded with Southern people in a peculiar way.

Slide 33, Southern merchants brought various goods Southern merchants brought various goods and placed them in an open area on the snow in the night, and then returned to their tents. Next morning they came to the place again and found their merchandise taken by the mysterious people, but in exchange they found fur-skins which could be used for making valuable coats, jackets, and other winter garments. The trade is done between merchants and the mysterious people without seeing each other." When they reached Astrakhan, Öz Beg (or Uzbek) Khan had just given permission for one of his pregnant wives, Princess Bayalun, a daughter of

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the Byzantine Emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos, to return to her home city of Constantinople to give birth. Ibn Battuta talked his way into this expedition, which would be his first beyond the boundaries of the Islamic world. Arriving to Constantinople, he met the Byzantine Emperor,

Slide 34, Byzantine Emperor visited Hagia Sophia and told an Eastern Orthodox priest about his travels to Jerusalem. Then Ibn Battuta travelled past the Caspian and Aral Seas to Bukhara and Samarkand, where he visited the court of the Mongolian king. From there, he journeyed south to Afghanistan, and on to India via the Hindu Kush. Ibn Battuta and his party reached Delhi and met the wealthy sultan, who appointed him qadi, or judge. The Sultan was erratic, and for six years Ibn veered between living the high life and falling under suspicion of treason. The opportunity to leave Delhi finally arose in 1341 when an embassy arrived from the Yuan dynasty in China, asking for permission to rebuild a Himalayan Buddhist temple popular with Chinese pilgrims. Let’s pause for a moment to look at the map showing Marco Polo’s journeys in red and Ibn Battuta’s in green:

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1341, Ibn Battuta leaves for China.

Slide 35, Ibn leaves for China Ibn was given charge of the embassy to China, but he and his retinue were attacked by bandits. He was robbed and nearly lost his life. Despite this setback, he caught up with his group and they sailed to Calicut, where Vasco da Gama would land two centuries later. Although determined to continue his journey to China, Ibn first took a detour to visit the Maldive Islands, where he spent nine months.

Slide 36, Maldives After many more adventures, Ibn reached Chittagong in Bangladesh, before arriving to Sumatra in 1345. He notes that the island was rich in camphor, areca nut, cloves, and tin. The sultan provided him with supplies and one of his own Junks to take him to China. First Battuta sailed to the Malay Peninsula, and then on to Vietnam. Finally, he reached Quanzhou in China, then under the rule of the Mongols. He mentioned local artists and their mastery in making portraits of newly-arrived foreigners; these were for security purposes. Ibn Battuta praised the craftsmen and their silk and porcelain; as well as fruits such as plums and watermelons, and the advantages of paper money. He described the manufacturing process of large ships, and Chinese cuisine with its usage of animals such as frogs, pigs and even dogs.

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Slide 37, Ibn the storyteller Ibn then sailed to the great city of Hangzhou, and noted its charm, writing that the city was on a beautiful lake surrounded by gentle, green hills. In the city's Muslim quarter he stayed with a family of Egyptian origin. Ibn was particularly impressed by the large number of well-crafted and well-painted Chinese wooden ships, with coloured sails and silk awnings, assembling in the canals. At a banquet of the administrator, he described floating through the Grand Canal watching crop fields and orchids; and priests, merchants and women all wearing silk.

Slide 38, Great Wall Ibn Battuta believed that the Great Wall of China was built to contain Gog and Magog as mentioned in the Koran. However, he could find no one who had seen it themselves. In 1346, Ibn began his journey back to Morocco via Mecca, arriving to Damascus after nearly two more years of adventures. There he learned that his father had died 15 years earlier. The Black Death had struck, and spread through Syria, Palestine and Arabia, and throughout Europe. On the way home he made one last detour, to Sardinia; then in 1349, returned to Tangier by way of Fez, only to discover that his mother had also died, a few months before. Although Ibn had been away nearly a quarter of a century, he was unable to settle. In 1350, King Alfonso XI of Castile and León threatened to

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attack Gibraltar, so Battuta joined a group of Muslims with the intention of defending the port. By the time he arrived, the Black Death had killed Alfonso and the threat of invasion had receded, so he turned the trip into a sight-seeing tour, travelling through Valencia and ending up in Granada. After his departure from al-Andalus Ibn decided to travel to Mali and Timbuktu.

Slide 39, Mali & Timbuktu He set out again with a caravan in February 1352 and after 25 days arrived at the dry salt lake bed of Taghaza. All the local buildings were made from compacted salt by slaves who cut the salt in thick slabs. From there, Battuta travelled by river to the capital of the Mali Empire. It was during this journey that Ibn first encountered a hippopotamus. The animals were feared by the local boatmen and hunted with lances to which strong cords were attached. After a short stay in Timbuktu, Ibn journeyed down the Niger to Gao, an important commercial centre, in a canoe carved from a single tree. There he received a message from the Sultan of Morocco commanding him to return home. He set off in 1353, accompanying a large caravan transporting 600 female slaves, and arrived back in Morocco the next year. Still only middle-aged, Ibn Battuta had plenty of time to write his memoirs, living on in Morocco till his death in 1369 aged 65.

Places visited by Ibn Battuta from 1325-1354

Maghreb, Arab Mashriq, Arabian PeninsulaPersia and Iraq

Nile Valley, Horn of Africa, Swahili CoastAnatolia, Central Asia,

South Asia, Southeast AsiaChina

Al-AndalusMali Empire and West Africa

Do not read aloud

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Slide 40, Places visited by Ibn B Like Marco Polo’s book for Europeans, Ibn’s was tremendously influential in the Moslem world for spreading knowledge of geography and culture, resulting in greatly increased trade and travel between the hemispheres. Throughout this period the Turkish Ottoman Empire was in power, from their base in Anatolia whence the early Turkic tribes had migrated from Central Asia. In 1354, the year that Ibn Battuta returned to Morocco, they crossed into Europe and conquered the Balkans. In Europe, the Renaissance period was in full swing. Whether or not this was due to Marco Polo, paper was being made, and the Spinning wheel used, throughout Europe. Cannons were first used at the Battle of Crécy, in 1346, and this would lead to the end of the Hundred Years’ War. The Chinese began to emerge from their secret cities and began to explore the Spice Routes as far as Africa. In 1368, The Mongol Yuan Dynasty had collapsed, and the Ming Dynasty began.

Ming dynasty porcelain, 14thc

Slide 41, Ming dynasty porcelain Meanwhile, Timur, also known as Tamerlane, b. 1336, with his capital in Samarcand, conquered Persia, parts of Southern Russia, and Northern India.

The Turco-Mongol Conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) 1336-1405

Slide 42, The Turco-Mongol Conqueror Timur (Tamerlane) 1336-1405

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Timur was not a descendant of Genghis Khan but acquired the status of family member by marrying two of them among his many wives. He was a military genius, and a brilliant tactician with the ability to win and maintain a loyal following of nomads during his rule in Central Asia. He was also very intelligent and renowned as a chess-player. Under the guidance of distinguished scholars, Timur was able to learn Persian, Mongolian, and Turkic languages. More importantly, he was an opportunist. Taking advantage of his Turco-Mongolian heritage, Timur frequently used either the Islamic religion or the law and traditions of the Mongol Empire to achieve his military goals or political aims. Mostly considered a barbarian, Timur was, in fact, a learnèd king, who enjoyed the company of scholars. He turned his favourite city, Samarcand, into a garden city, constructing irrigation canals to water the gardens. He was also cruel and ruthless.

Slide 43, Timur the cruel In defeating the Ottoman Turks, Timur caused the deaths of seventeen million people. For half his lifetime, Timur waged war on a huge scale. His aim was to restore the empire of Genghiz and he conquered Persia and the Christian Caucasus before defeating the Ottomans just as they were poised to take Constantinople. A century later they would defeat the Christians in Constantinople, putting an end to the Byzantine Empire, but for now Timur the Lame – or Tamerlane as he was known in the West, became something of a hero. He shrewdly exchanged letters and diplomatic gifts with rulers in France, Spain and other Christian countries. From his power-base in Samarcand, Timur then followed in the footsteps of Alexander the Great, to cross the Hindu Kush and conquer Northern India, where he established the Timurid dynasty.

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Slide 44, Timur’s Empire map Here is the same area with modern names and boundaries:

Slide 45, Timur’s Empire map Timur’s empire would last less than a century. His wish to extend the empire of Genghiz lead him to plan the invasion of China, but he sickened and died in 1405, aged 69. Timur had built an enormous mausoleum and with his dying breath he warned that if anyone meddled with his bones a scourge greater than him would be unleashed. His bones were respected until Russian archaeologists examined them in 1941. Three days later the Nazis invaded Russia leading to the deaths of 20 million Russians. This reconstruction of Timur’s head was made following the Russian examination:

Slide 46, Timur’s head reconstruction The death of Timur in 1405 lead to the decline of Mongol power and the power of the Ottomans to rise again in Central Asia.

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Timur’s grandson, Ulugh Beg, was known for his expertise in Astronomy, Mathematics, Trigonometry and Spherical Geometry. He ruled Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan, southern Kazakhstan and most of Afghanistan from 1411 to 1449. And he built the Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarcand Sultan Ulugh Beg (1394-1449) grandson of the

great conqueror, Timur

Slide 47, Ulugh Beg Observatory in Samarcand then, one of the finest observatories in the Islamic world, and the largest in Central Asia. He also built the Registans and Ulugh Beg Madrasahs in Samarcand and Bukhara, transforming these cities into cultural centres of learning in Central Asia. To complete our triumvirate of Travellers of the Silk Routes during the period of the Islamic Renaissance, Here is Zeng-He, (1371-1433), a Chinese eunuch, courtier, diplomat, mariner and Admiral. He may be the inspiration for Sinbad the Sailor, with his journal of Seven Voyages.

Slide 48, Adventurers of the Seas These stories were not part of the oldest version of the Arabian Nights, but came in later, after Zeng-He performed his deeds and gained fame. Almost a century before Columbus, at a time when China was the richest and most advanced country in the world, Zeng sailed further than anyone before him, at the head of an armada bigger than the combined fleets of all Europe.

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Slide 49, Zeng-he Zeng's family were poor Muslims from Central Asia. Zeng was just 10 when he was captured and castrated, but he was sent to work for the crown prince of China, a young man who helped Zeng's education and career. Here is an extract from Zeng's journal:

“We have traversed more than a million li of water and beheld huge waves like mountains rising in the sky. We have seen barbarian regions far away hidden in a blue transparency of vapours, while our sails, loftily unfurled like clouds, day and night, continued their course as rapidly as a star, traversing those savage waves as if they were treading a public thoroughfare.”

Do not read aloud Slide 50, “We have traversed more than a million li of water” His giant treasure ships packed with the finest goods and weapons of the time went to 37 countries over 28 years, exacting tribute for the Emperor and extending China's influence across much of the globe.

Slide 51, Giant treasure ship But by Zeng’s death a new Chinese ruler, suspicious of the outside world, banned all further expeditions, resulting in 500 years of isolation and

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leaving the way open for Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and later Britain and America to rule the waves. Here is a model of one of Zeng's ships compared to one belonging to Columbus:

Slide 52, Zeng’s ship & Columbus’ ship models After his death Zeng was largely forgotten, but recently the Chinese have revived his memory.

Advantages of trade and travel by seaMarco Polo was the first to draw the attention of Europe to the advantages of large-scale trade with the East. In his time commerce was a private enterprise; from the 14thc it became a state activity.

Two centuries later, Columbus read Polo’s book avidly and made notes in the margins of his copy, in the hope of finding the places described, where gold was so abundant.

Vasco da Gama had help from Arabs to find his passage to India, starting a mass of navigation by other European powers.

Do not read aloud Slide 53, Advantages of trade and travel by sea Here are some more key facts of events during the 1400s:

1440 The Gutenberg printing press is in use.

1453 The Ottomans conquer Constantinople.

1492 Columbus reaches America.

1497 Vasco da Gama discovers the sea route from Europe to the East via the Cape of Good Hope to Calcutta. Do not read aloud Slide 54 More key facts from the 1400s

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Fearing the power of the Uighurs, Ming China reduced trade and traffic dramatically, along the Silkroads, and closed the door to foreigners. Thus, the Silkroads declined for the purposes of the silk industry, and Lyons became the new centre of the silk trade in Europe. Meanwhile, in the land we now call Uzbekistan,

The Emperor Babur

1483-1530

Born in Uzbekistan

Founder of the Moghul Empire

Buried in Kabul

Slide 55, Babur Babur was born, with two silver spoons in his mouth, as he descended from Timur on his father’s side and Genghis Khan on his mother’s. Timur had brought this about by marrying into Genghis’ family, achieving for his descendants a status that HE had only acquired by a lifetime of struggle and mass destruction. Unlike his terrible forebears, Babur was a man of refinement, a keen gardener

Slide 56, Babur watching men altering the course of the stream and a good writer. His autobiography is still read with pleasure by many today. It has been compared to the “Confessions” of St Augustine and of Jean-Jacques Rousseau. However, he was also a man of action, strong and brave, a tireless warrior. Born in the Ferghana Valley, Babur received a Persian-style education which is reflected in the murals that adorn the shrine in his birth place:

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Slide 57, Babur’s shrine in his birthplace I will say no more about Babur as you are to have a lecture on him later,

Slide 58, fighting with neighbouring cousins never ceased. save to mention that Babur’s conquest of the Sultanate of Delhi and eventually the whole of Hindustan, resulted in massive building projects, and his architectural legacy - a fushion of Hindu and Persian styles - can be seen in many parts of India. Babur died of an illness aged only 47, in Agra, and was succeeded by his eldest son. His body was moved to Kabul, where it lies in the Babur Gardens.

Slide 59, Babur and his heir

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1842 sketch of Babur’s Tomb by Charles Masson

Slide 60, 1842 sketch of Tomb of Babur As the last ruler of the Turco-Mongol Timurids, Babur styled himself “Emperor”. His descendants, the Mughals (Persian for Mongols) of India, ruled for over three centuries, but his empire was eventually taken over by the British, as part of the Raj. Babur is considered a national hero in Uzbekistan. Here are two quotations from his autobiography:

"The essence of my testimony is this, do nothing against your brothers even

though they may deserve it."

also,

"The new year, the spring, the wine and the beloved are joyful. Babur make

merry, for the world will not be there for you a second time."

Do not read aloud Slide 61, quotations from his autobiography Also of interest to gardeners as well as historians is the story of the tulip, which was probably introduced to the West by nomads and merchants along the Silk Roads from the 1500s. They were cultivated in the Turkish Empire from around the first millennium from their wild ancestors which grew in the Ferghana Valley and on the Tian Shan mountains.

Slide 62, Wild tulips in the mountains From here tulip bulbs were carried by land and sea throughout the Persian and Ottoman Empires, as well as the Caucasus, where they soon became naturalised.

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Slide 63, Wild Tulips map As you all know, the trade in tulip bulbs reached its height in 17thc Holland until the bubble burst in 1637 and fortunes were made and lost. This is just one example of the results of trade along the Silk Routes. During the two centuries following Babur, the Manchus were on the rise. Originally from Eastern Siberia, they were not related to the Mongols. They invaded China and established the Qing Dynasty in 1644.

Slide 64, They invaded China map By now, Porcelain was being produced in Europe, which was also a big importer of Chinese tea. This lead to an imbalance in trade as China did not need much from Europe, and the British were causing a huge problem to China by flooding the people with illegal Opium. This would bring about two Opium Wars during the 19th century, and eventually the collapse of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. Many of you will have heard Alan Richardson’s fascinating talk on the subject last year.

Slide 65 Opium Wars

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So now we come to nearly modern times, and a period of exploration along the Silk Roads connected with the so-called “Great Game”. The Russians were anxious to control the trade routes by establishing their supremacy in India. The British were equally determined to prevent this. “The Great Game” is the background to Kipling’s novel, “Kim”.

Capt Sir Alexander Burnes, 1805-1841

Slide 66, Sir Alexander Burnes Capt Sir Alexander Burnes, published his memoir, “Travels into Bokhara” in 1835. It became an instant best-seller. A few years later, Lt-Col Charles Stoddart and

Lt-Col Charles Stoddart, 1806-1842

Capt Arthur Conolly,1807-1842 Slide 67, Stoddart and Conolly Capt Arthur Conolly, who coined the phrase “The Great Game” were imprisoned by the sadistic Emir of Bukhara in his fortress, where they suffered horrible tortures and were eventually murdered. The following year an eccentric missionary of Jewish origin set off to find them. Rev Joseph Wolff

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Slide 68, Rev Joseph Wolff The story is told by Peter Hopkirk in “The Great Game”.

Slide 69, Peter Hopkirk, “The Great Game”. He believes the only reason the Emir did not treat Wolff in the same way as Stoddart and Conolly was because he found him so ridiculous. So Wolff lived to tell the tale and write his book.

Armin Vambery, 1832-1913

Slide 70, Armin Vambery Armin Vambery, Hungarian linguist, writer, traveller and spy made two great journeys through Central Asia and especially Uzbekistan, disguised as a Moslem pilgrim. He began life poor, Jewish, and physically handicapped, and finished well-appreciated and rewarded by Edward VII, the Emperor Franz Josef and the establishments of several countries. Another Hungarian, Sir Aurel Stein,

Sir Aurel Stein 1862-1943

Slide 71, Sir Aurel Stein

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made extensive archaeological investigations of central Asia, including the Taklamakan desert, accompanied by his terrier, Dash. Thirty years younger than Vambéry, he would certainly have been familiar with his books. Possibly his greatest discoveries were among the Mogao caves in Dunhuang. Most of his finds and acquisitions are in the British Museum. The Pamir Mountains are among the highest mountain ranges in the world. Since Victorian times, they have been known as the "Roof of the World", a translation from Persian. The lapis lazuli found in Egyptian tombs is thought to come from the Pamir area in Afghanistan. Historically, the Pamir Mountains were considered a strategic trade route on the Northern Silk Road connecting the ancient Chinese capital of Xian over the Pamir Mountains towards the West.

Slide 72, The Pamir mountains in ancient times From about 600 AD, Buddhist pilgrims travelled on both sides of the Pamirs to reach India from China. In 747 a Tang army was on the Wakhan River. There are various Arab and Chinese reports of early users of the “Pamir Highway”. Marco Polo may have travelled along the Panj River. From 1871 to around 1893 several Russian military-scientific expeditions mapped out most of the Pamirs. The Russians were followed by a number of courageous Englishmen who explored the mountainous regions of the Silk Routes during the 19th and early 20th centuries. All had extraordinary tales to tell, and most of them lectured to the Royal Geographical Society, and wrote books on their findings. Ney Elias Ney Elias, 1844-1897

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Slide 73, Ney Elias was among the first to reach the Wakhan source of the Oxus River. Explorer, geographer, diplomat and (probably) spy for Britain during the Great Game, he travelled extensively in Central and High Asia, becoming a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society. In 1872, accompanied by one Chinese servant, Elias started on an arduous journey across the Gobi desert, travelling nearly 2,500 miles from the great wall to the Russian frontier, and thence another 2,300 miles to Nizhny Novgorod. In his paper for the Royal Geographical Society, he said little about its hardships. For many weeks Elias travelled in constant apprehension of attack; he had scarcely any sleep; and when he reached the Siberian frontier, the Russian officers stared at him as if he had dropped from the sky. Not a robust man, his indomitable will and silent courage carried him through all the perils of the way. The accuracy of his observation and the scientific value of his records earned Elias the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society. The following year, his services were retained by the government of India. Elias wrote numerous articles for learned journals but died young, back in London. Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore,

Charles AdolphusMurray

7th Earl of Dunmore 1841-1907

Slide 74, Charles Murray, 7th Earl of Dunmore was the grandson of a Russian Countess, daughter of the Russian ambassador to St James's. From 1874 he was Lord-in-Waiting in Disraeli's government for 6 years. In 1882 he was appointed Lieutenant-Colonel of the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders. During 1892–93 he travelled through the Eastern Pamirs to Kashgar and published his book, "The Pamirs: Being a Narrative of a Year's Expedition on Horseback and on Foot Through Kashmir, Western Tibet, Chinese Tartary, and Russian Central Asia". Like Ney, he was engaged in some form of diplomacy or espionage but the details remain a secret. Lord Curzon was such a giant among men, loved and hated in equal measure from childhood to grave, that he deserves an entire talk. However, time allows only brief details of his career.

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Lord George Nathaniel Curzon 1859-1925

Slide 75, Lord George Nathaniel Curzon A riding accident during his teens left Curzon in lifelong pain, but he nevertheless travelled around Russian and Central Asia, Persia, French Indochina and Korea, and made a daring foray into Afghanistan and the Pamirs in 1894. He published several books describing Central and Eastern Asia and related policy issues. A bold and compulsive traveller, he was awarded the Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society for his exploration of the source of the Amu Darya (the Oxus river). His journeys allowed him to study the problems of Asia and their implications for British India. Curzon believed Russia to be the most likely threat to India, Britain's most valuable colony during the 19th century. In 1879 Russia had begun construction of the Transcaspian Railroad along the Silk Road. This railway connected Russia with the most wealthy and influential cities in Central Asia at the time, and Curzon saw this encroachment as a threat to Britain’s interests.

Viceroy of India, 1899

Slide 76, Viceroy of India As you all know, Curzon was appointed Viceroy of India, and while he was there he was responsible for the restoration of the Taj Mahal, among other more famous achievements. At the end of 1903, Curzon sent a British expedition to Tibet under Francis Younghusband, ostensibly to forestall a Russian advance. The mission penetrated to Lhasa, where a treaty was signed in September 1904. As there is no time to recount Curzon’s great deeds I offer a little gossip instead. Curzon’s first wife was an American of German descent whose father was a rich store-owner. She died young after having given him three daughters.

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Slide 77, Grace and children After a long affair with the romantic novelist Elinor Glyn, Curzon married another American, Grace Elvina Hinds, the wealthy widow of an Irish Argentinian. Elinor Glyn was staying with Curzon at the time of the engagement, and read about it in the morning newspapers. Grace had three children from her first marriage: a daughter and two sons, of whom the elder, Alfred Duggan, became the well-known historical novelist; and they all lived together at Kedleston Hall, which Curzon inherited from his father. I have mentioned that Curzon sent Lt-Col Sir Francis Younghusband on a British expedition to Tibet to forestall the Russians. Younghusband had already crossed the dreaded Taklamakan Desert,

Slide 78, Younghusband and Great Game pioneering a new route from Peking to Kashgar. Still only 24, he was elected the youngest member of the Royal Geographical Society and received the society's 1890 Gold Medal. Later, he would be the President. Francis Younghusband and companions

Slide 79, Younghusband and companions

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Francis Younghusband dropped in on Russian military camps on several occasions,

Siberian Cossak rider

Slide 80, Siberian Cossak rider dining with them, and exchanging information. He wrote 26 books about his travels and his beliefs. Younghusband's religious beliefs veered from the Evangelical Christian faith of his youth through Tolstoyan simplicity, until he experienced a revelatory vision in the mountains of Tibet. Ultimately he became a spiritualist and "premature hippie" who had great faith in the power of cosmic rays, and free love. One of Younghusband's maids, Gladys Aylward, became a Christian missionary in China in the ’30s. In the film, ''The Inn of the Sixth Happiness'', she is played by Ingrid Bergman, with Ronald Squire portraying Younghusband.

Slide 81, “The Inn of the Sixth Happiness'' In the 20th century, the Pamirs have been the setting for border disputes between China and the Soviet Union, leading to the establishment of US, Russian, and Indian military bases, and renewed interest in trade development and resource exploration. Sir William Martin Conway MP in the KarakoramMountains.

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Slide 82, Sir William Martin Conway MP The polymath climber, engineer and art historian, Sir William Martin Conway MP, was active in the Karakoram Mountains in the 1890s, when he published an account of his discoveries.

Sven Hedin, 1865-1952

Slide 83, Sven Hedin, explorer The Swedish geographer, explorer, photographer and writer, Sven Hedin, explored the Taklamakan desert, unearthing buried Buddhist cities along the old Silkroads. He was honoured in ceremonies by kings, the Tsar, the Austro-Hungarian Emperor, the President of the USA, and many other rulers including Hitler.

Slide 84, The Chinese revolution In 1911, The Chinese revolution brought about the end to Chinese dynasties. Europeans begin to travel along the Silkroads in greater numbers, and Tibet came under China's control.

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The KarakoramHighway

Slide 85, The Karakoram highway In 1979, The Karakoram highway from Islamabad to Kashgar, built by China and Pakistan, was opened after 20 years of construction. Today, the Silk Roads have acquired huge importance for tourism. With so much to offer travellers from natural to historical marvels, fascinating culture, history and craftsmanship, it is no wonder that programmes on the subject appear on the televisions of many countries to delight and fascinate viewers, and boost the tourist industry of the “Stans”. That’s all I have time for, but to get more details and updates including information about the Chinese and other “New Silk Roads” initiatives, the bibliography of great books about the Silk Roads is endless. My favourite is the recent tome by Peter Frankopan, which traces aspects of the subject from the most ancient period to modern times.

THE END

Slide 86, Frankopan