The Indian Contract Act 1872: Nature and Kind of ContractsLearning ObjectivesIn this chapter, students will come to know What is an agreement and a contract? What are the essential elements of a contract? Types of contracts.1.1 SCOPE OF THE ACTThe Indian Contract Act was passed and implemented to control various kinds of commercial and business contracts. The preamble of the Contract Act states where it is expedient to define and amend certain parts of the law relating to contracts. Therefore, this act is not a complete code of contracts. It deals with general principles of the Law of Contract and Special Contract. The Contract Act is divided into 10 chapters.The Contract Act came into force on 1 September 1872. The act is applicable to the whole of India except for the state of Jammu and Kashmir. The law of contract createsjus in personam and notjus in rem. Jus in personammeans personal rightsthe rights against a person or a party with whom you have entered into a contract. Therefore, it can be said thatjus in personam provides the right to a contracting party to claim against another.The Contract Act only provides rules and regulations for the purpose of contract. It does not list any rights and liabilities between parties to the contract. Rights and liabilities and their manner of performance are decided by the parties themselves under the contract but it is within the purview of the act.Examples1. A sells his car to B for1 lakh. A has a right to recover the price of the car from B. The right of A is a right in personam, i.e., against a particular person B. This isjus in personam.2. B buys a car and becomes the owner of the car. He has a right to have a quiet possession of the car and enjoy it against the whole world. Nobody in the world can disturb him in his right. The right of B isjus in rem, i.e., the right against the whole world.Case StudyA and B of Srinagar entered into a contract on 1 September 2006 as per the provisions of the Indian Contract Act. Can they enforce the contract?1.2 WHAT IS A CONTRACT?1.2.1 ContractIn the words of Pollock, every agreement and promises enforceable by law is contract. Section 2(h) of the Indian Contract Act, 1872 states that an agreement enforceable by law is contract. This definition gives us two ingredientsan agreement and enforceable by law. We can summarize it as under.

1.2.2 AgreementAn agreement means a promise and a reciprocal set of promises forming consideration for each otherSection 2(e). This definition gives us three ingredientspromise and a consideration. We can summarize it as under.

1.2.3 PromiseAs per Section 2(b) of the Contract Act, a proposal when accepted becomes a promise.

1.2.4 ProposalSection 2(a) states that when one person signifies another person his willingness to do or abstain from doing anything with a view to obtaining the assent of that other to such an act or abstinence, he is said to make a proposal. A Proposal is also known as an offer.1.2.5 Parties to an Agreement/a ContractPromisor:A person making the proposal (offer) is known as a promisor. He is also known as an offeror. We can also recognize him as a proposor.Promisee:A person accepting the proposal (offer) is known as a promisee. He is also known as an offeree. We can also recognize him as an acceptor.1.2.6 Enforceability of an AgreementIt means an agreement which creates some legal obligation; if this agreement is not followed by any party to contract, he can be sued.Case StudyA promises to deliver his watch to B and, in return, B promises to pay a sum of2000. Is it an agreement or a contract?1.3 ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS OF VALID CONTRACTSSECTION 10In order to determine whether an agreement is a contract or not, one has to see whether all the essentials, as required under the Indian Contract Act, are present in the agreement. The essentials required to be satisfied for a valid contract are as under.1.3.1 Offer and AcceptanceThere must be an offer and its acceptance. An offer is a starting point for any contract. No valid contract can come into existence without an offer. The offer is considered as the first step in the contract. The offer should be accepted to form a valid contract.1.3.2 Intention to Create Legal RelationThere must be an intention to create a legal relation. In all social, domestic, moral, religious or political agreements, the usual presumption is that the parties do not intend to create the legal obligations. However, in business agreements, the usual presumption is that the parties intend to create the legal obligations.ExampleA invites B to a dinner and B accepts it. If A fails to serve the dinner, B cannot go to court. The invitation for dinner is a social agreement.1.3.3 Lawful ConsiderationThe lawful consideration means something in return. As a contract contains the reciprocal set of promises, a consideration is necessary. The consideration must be lawful and should have a commercial value.ExampleA promises to pay50,000 on a certain date to B without any promise in exchange. This is not a valid contract.1.3.4 Free ConsentA contract is made when one person makes an offer while another person accepts the offer. This acceptance of the offer should be made without any force or threat. It means that a consent given should be free and genuine.ExampleA has two carsone black and the other white. He offers to sell one of his cars to B. A intends to sell the black one while B accepts the offer believing that it is for the white car. Here, A and B are not thinking in the same sense of a particular thing. In this situation, there is a mistake, so it cannot be said to be a free consent.1.3.5 Lawful ObjectEvery agreement has some objects or purposes. The object of an agreement should not be illegal, immoral or opposed to the public policy. In simple words, we can say that the object of an agreement must be lawful.ExampleA promised to pay1 lakh to B to kill C. The killing of a person is punishable under the IPC. Therefore, the promise is unlawful and void.1.3.6 Capacity of PartiesEvery person is not competent to enter into a contract. Person who has attained the age of majority with a sound mind and not disqualified under any act is competent to enter into a contract.1.3.7 Agreement Must Not Be Expressly Declared Void or IllegalIf a certain agreement is expressly declared to be void by the law of country then such an agreement, if entered into, shall not be enforceable by the court.1.3.8 Certainty of MeaningAn agreement contains terms as decided by the parties. The terms of agreement must be certain and unambiguous. If the terms of an agreement are uncertain, it is not a valid contract.ExampleA agreed to pay5 lakh to B for an ultra-modern decoration of his drawing room. The agreement is void because the meaning of the term ultra-modern is not certain.1.3.9 Possibility to PerformEvery agreement contains reciprocal promises. The promises under the contract must be possible to perform. If the parties have agreed on the contract which contains any promise not possible to perform in real life, the contract will not be considered as a valid contract.ExampleA agrees to discover treasure by magic for B. The agreement is void because the act in itself is impossible to be performed from the very beginning.1.3.10 Legal FormalitiesIn some cases, the document in which the contract is incorporated has to be stamped. In some other cases, a contract, besides being a written one, has to be registered. Thus, where there is a statutory requirement that the contract should either be made in writing or registered, the required formalities must be complied with.Therefore, we can say that an agreement will become a contract when it satisfies all the essentials of a valid contract. If any one of the elements of a valid contract is missing, it is treated as an invalid contract. All the agreements may or may not be a contract but all the contracts are basically agreements. All agreements are contracts if they are made by the free consent of the parties competent to contract, for a lawful consideration and with a lawful object, and are not hereby expressly declared to be void. Nothing herein contained shall affect any law in force in India and not hereby expressly repealed, by which any contract is required to be made in writing or in the presence of witnesses, or any law relating to the registration of the documents.Case StudyA promised to pay his son B a sum of1 lakh if B passed CA exams in the first attempt. B passed the examination on his first attempt but A failed to pay the amount as promised. B filed a suit for the recovery of the amount. State whether B can recover the amount under the Indian Contract Act, 1872.Case StudySalman promises Katrina to give a real pearl necklace at the time of his marriage. Salman fails to give it at the time of marriage. Can Katrina complain about the non-fulfillment of the promise against Salman at any court?Case StudyState with reason, in brief, whether any contract is made in the following cases.1. You have invited your business partner for a lunch.2. When you eat meals at a restaurant.3. When you board a public bus.4. When you call a taxi on telephone.5. When you put a coin in the slot of a weighing machine.1.4 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN AN AGREEMENT AND A CONTRACTMatterAgreementContract

MeaningEvery promise or a set of promises forming consideration for each other is an agreement.Agreement enforceable by law is a contract.

One in anotherAll agreements are not contracts.All contracts are agreements.

Enforceable at lawMay or may not be enforceable.Always enforceable by law.

Rights to partiesIt does not always grant right.It always grants rights.

1.5 TYPES OF CONTRACT OR CLASSIFICATION OF CONTRACTOn the Basis of the Mode of FormationOn the Basis of PerformanceOn the Basis of Validity or Enforceability

Express contractExecuted contractValid contract

Implied contractExecutory contractVoid contract

Quasi-contractPartly executed and partly executoryVoidable contract

E-contractUnilateral contractIllegal agreement

Bilateral contractUnenforceable contract Certain contract in writing

1.5.1 Express ContractAn express contract is a contract made by the use of words spoken or written.ExampleA says to B Will you purchase my bike for20,000? B says Yes to A.1.5.2 Implied ContractAn implied contract is a contract which is made otherwise than by the words spoken or written. It came into existence on account of an act or conduct of the parties.Examples1. A stops a taxi by waving his hand and boards it. There is an implied contract that A will pay the prescribed fare on reaching his destination.2. Withdrawal of cash from the ATM of a bank.1.5.3 Quasi-contractThe quasi-contract is explained in detail inChapter 8.1.5.4 E-contractAn e-contract is a contract made through the electronic mode.1.5.5 Executed ContractIn an executed contract both the parties have performed their promises under a contract. It is a contract where, under the terms of contract, nothing remains to be done by the parties.ExampleA sells his car to B for1 lakh. A delivered the car and B paid the price. This is an executed contract.1.5.6 Executory ContractIn an executory contract both the parties are yet to perform their promises. In other words, it is a contract where parties have to still perform their obligation in the future.ExampleA sells his car to B for1 lakh. If A is still to deliver the car and B is yet to pay the price, it is an executory contract.1.5.7 Partly Executed and Partly Executory ContractIn a partly executed and partly executory contract, one party has already performed his promise and the other party has yet to execute his promise.ExampleA sells his car to B. Though A has delivered the car, B has yet to pay the price. For A it is an executed contract, whereas it is an executory contract on the part of B since the price has yet to be paid.1.5.8 Unilateral ContractA unilateral contract is also known as a one-sided contract. It is a contract where only one party has to perform his promise. In such a contract, the promise on one side is exchanged for an act on the other side. Aft er the formation of a unilateral contract, only one party remains liable to perform his obligation because the other party has already performed his obligation.ExampleAlap promises to pay1000 to anyone who finds his lost cellphone. Bansi finds and returns it to Alap. From the time Bansi found the cell phone, the contract came into existence. Now Alap has to perform his promise, i.e., the payment of1000.1.5.9 Bilateral ContractIn a bilateral contract both the parties have to perform their respective promises. It is also known as a two-sided contract. Here, the obligation is outstanding on the part of both the parties.ExampleA promises to sell his car to B for1 lakh and agrees to deliver the car on the receipt of the payment by the end of the week. The contract is bilateral as both the parties have exchanged a promise to be performed within a stipulated time.1.5.10 Valid ContractIf the contract entered into by the parties and satisfies all the elements of a valid contract as per the act, it is said to be a valid contract.1.5.11 Void ContractA contract which ceases to be enforceable by law is known as a void contract. A void contract is not enforceable by the court. Generally, a valid contract ceases to be enforceable on the change in circumstances or on the change of provisions of an act.1.5.12 Voidable ContractWhen the contract is entered into without the free consent of party, it is considerate as a voidable contract. The definition of the act states that a voidable contract is enforceable by law at the option of one or more parties but not at option of the other parties. Voidable contract will be considered as valid if it is not cancelled by the aggrieved party within a reasonable time.1.5.13 Illegal AgreementAn illegal agreement is one which is forbidden by law. All illegal agreements are voidab initio. It cannot be enforced by any court. Not only that any associated or collateral transaction to an illegal agreement is also void. No action is allowed on an illegal agreement. No action can be taken for the recovery of the money paid under illegal agreement or for the breach of the illegal agreement. The parties to an illegal agreement cannot get help from the court. No suit can be filled or any action taken in respect of the illegal agreement.1.5.14 Unenforceable ContractA contract which satisfies all the requirements of the contract but has technical defects is called an unenforceable contract. A contract is said to have a technical defect when it does not fulfil the legal formalities required by some other act. When such legal formalities are complied with later on, the act becomes enforceable.1.5.15 Certain Contracts in WritingThe Contract Act never specifies that the contract to be valid should be in writing. It means an oral contract or a contract without any kind of writing is also valid. However, it is difficult to prove before the courtroom when the dispute arises.The contracts are required to be in writing only if any other act specifically requires it to be so. Like the hire-purchase act requires that the hire-purchase agreement should be in writing.Case StudyA, a tradesman, left certain goods at B's house by mistake. B treated and used the goods as his own. Can the tradesman recover the money of the goods used by B?Case StudyMohan agrees to pay Sohandada50,000 to kill a business competitor. Mohan has borrowed this money from his friend but now refuses to pay him back. Can his friend claim it by approaching the court? Would your answer be different in any manner if his friend does not have the knowledge about the purpose of borrowing?Case StudyA agrees to sell his DVD player to B promising to deliver it on the date of payment. B promises to pay the amount within one month. What kind of contract is it?1.6 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VOID AND VOIDABLE CONTRACTMatterVoid ContractVoidable Contract

DefinitionIt means contract which ceases to be enforceable.It means an agreement enforceable by law, by one or more parties.

NatureValid when made but subsequently becomes unenforceable.It remains as voidable until cancelled by the party.

Rights or remedyNo legal remedy is available for the void contract.Aggrieved party has a remedy to cancel the contract.

Performance of contractParty cannot demand the performance of contract.If aggrieved party does not cancel it within a reasonable time, performance can be demanded.

ReasonContract becomes void due to change in law or circumstances.If consent is not obtained freely then it is regarded as a voidable contract.

DamagesParty cannot claim damages.Party can demand damages in certain cases.

1.7 DISTINGUISH BETWEEN VOID AND ILLEGAL AGREEMENTMatterVoid AgreementIllegal Agreement

WhatVoid agreement is not prohibited by law.It is prohibited by law.

Effect on collateral transactionAny agreement which is collateral to the void agreement is enforceable.Any agreement or transaction which is collateral to illegal agreement is not enforceable.

PunishmentIt is not punishable.It is punishable.

Voidab initioMay not voidab initio.Always voidab initio.

1.8 SIMILARITIES BETWEEN VOID AND ILLEGAL AGREEMENTSBoth the void and the illegal agreements are unenforceable agreements, hence void. Restitution (restoration of benefits) is not possible in either of the two agreements.LIST OF LANDMARK JUDGEMENTS1. Balfour vs. Balfour (1919)A husband agreed to pay 30 pound to his wife every month while he was abroad. As he failed to pay the promised amount, his wife sued him for the recovery of the amount. Here she could not recover it as it was a social agreement and the parties did not intend to create legal relations.2. Rose and Frank vs. J. R. Cromption&Bros (1923)When an agreement states that it is not a formal agreement, it shall not be subject to legal jurisdiction of any court. It was held that it is not a binding contract as there is no intention to create a legal relation.3. Punjab National Bank vs. Arura Lal Durga Das (1960)The Contract Act applies to all the contracts in India.4. Taylor vs. Porting (1855)An agreement the meaning of which is not capable to being made certain is void.5. Jyoti Brothers vs. Shree Durga Mining Co. (1956)An agreement to agree in future always remains only an agreement not enforceable by law.6. Th awardas Pherumal vs. UOI (1955)No contract is created where an offeree says that he would accept the proposal aft er it is reduced in writing.TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE1.Define agreement.(Ref. Para-1.2)

2.Define contract and distinguish between agreement and contract.(Ref. Para-1.2,1.4)

3.Enumerate the essentials of a valid contract.(Ref. Para-1.3)

4.All contracts are agreements but all agreements are not contract. Comment on the statement.(Ref. Para-1.4)

5.What is an express contract? Give a suitable example.(Ref. Para-1.5)

6.Explain in brief the implied contract with an example.(Ref. Para-1.5)

7.Explain in brief the executor and the executed contract.(Ref. Para-1.5)

8.Define void contract.(Ref. Para-1.5)

9.Define voidable contract.(Ref. Para-1.5)

10.What is the main difference between void and voidable contract?(Ref. Para-1.6)

11.What is an illegal agreement? Is illegal agreement always void?(Ref. Para-1.5)

12.Distinguish between void and illegal agreements.(Ref. Para-1.7)

13.What are similarities between void and illegal agreements?(Ref. Para-1.8)

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS1. The Law of Contract is nothing buti. a child of commercial dealing.ii. a child of religion.iii. a child of day-to-day politics.iv. a child of economics.2. The Contract Act came into forcei. from 1 September 1972.ii. before 1 September 1882.iii. from 1 September 1872.iv. after 1 September 1872.3. An agreement consists of reciprocal promises between at leasti. four parties.ii. six parties.iii. three parties.iv. two parties.4. Contractual rights and duties are created byi. state.ii. statute.iii. parties.iv. custom or usage.5. In India, the express provisions of the Contract Act applies toi. Hindus.ii. female.iii. businessman.iv. all of the above.6. Every promise and every set of promise forming the consideration for each other is a/ani. contract.ii. agreement.iii. offer.iv. acceptance.7. A promises to deliver his watch to B and, in return, B promises to pay a sum of2000. This is a/ani. agreement.ii. proposal.iii. acceptance.iv. offer.8. Contract is defined as an agreement enforceable by law, vide Section of the Indian Contract Act.i. 2(e)ii. 2(f)iii. 2(h)iv. 2(i)9. A sells his car to B. A has a right to recover the price of the car from B. This right is ai. right is rem.ii. right is personam.iii. right in rem as well as right in personam.iv. moral right.10. A owns a residential flat. He is entitled to a quiet possession and enjoyment of his property. This is calledi. rights in personam.ii. rights in rem.iii. moral right.iv. there is no right at all.11. A owes1 lakh to B. B is entitled to recover this amount from A. This is calledi. rights in personam.ii. rights in rem.iii. constitutional right.iv. there is no right at all.12. A contract createsi. rights in personam.ii. rights in rem.iii. no obligations.iv. only obligations and no rights.13. Valid contractsi. are made by free consent.ii. are made by competent parties.iii. have lawful consideration and lawful object.iv. all of the above.14. A lends10 lakh to B for a year. Aft er one year A's right to recover the money from B is ai. right in rem.ii. right in personam.iii. moral right.iv. civil right.15. A has bought a house for50,000. Which of the following right is available to A aft er the purchase?i. He has a right against the seller to have a quiet possession of the house and enjoy in it.ii. He has a right against the whole world to have a quiet possession of the house and enjoy in it.iii. He has a moral right over the house.iv. He has a right to live in the house but cannot sell.16. Agreement to murder a personi. cannot be enforceable by law.ii. is valid in law.iii. is invalid for want of consideration.iv. has no consensus ad idem.17. A invites B for his son's wedding. B accepts the invitation. In this case, there is an agreement but no contract sincei. there is no consideration.ii. there is no intention to create legal relationship.iii. there is no written document.iv. there is no formal acceptance of the offer.18. A invites B for coffee in Coffe day Restaurant and B accepts the invitation. On the appointed date, B goes there but A is does not come. In this casei. B has no remedy against A.ii. B has to wait for another invitation from A.iii. B can sue A for not honouring his words.iv. A has to invite B again, to keep the promise.19. A promise to give5000 per month pocket money to his son B. If A does not give the pocket moneyi. B can sue his father.ii. B has no remedy against A.iii. B can accept a lower pocket money also.iv. B has to give5000 to his father.20. A contract createsi. rights and obligations of the parties to it.ii. obligations of the parties to it.iii. mutual understanding between the parties to it.iv. mutual lawful rights and obligations of the parties to it.21. In agreements of a purely domestic nature, the intention of the parties to create legal relationship isi. to be proved to the satisfaction of the court.ii. presumed to exist.iii. required to the extent of consideration.iv. not relevant at all.22. An agreement is validi. which creates legal and social obligations of the parties.ii. which creates rights of a party.iii. which is written on a piece of paper and signed by the parties.iv. which creates legally binding right and obligations of the parties to it.23. Voidable contract is onei. which is lawful.ii. which is invalid.iii. which is valid as long as it is not avoided by the party entitled to do so.iv. which is unlawful.24. When the contract is perfectly valid but cannot be enforced because of certain technical defects. This is calledi. unilateral contract.ii. bilateral contract.iii. unenforceable contract.iv. void contract.25. is without any legal effect and cannot be enforced in a Court of Law.i. Valid contractii. Void contractiii. Voidable contractiv. Unenforceable contract26. According to provisions of the Indian Contract Act, 1872, void agreement and void contract is the same.i. Trueii. Falseiii. Partly trueiv. Partly false27. A void agreement is void ab initio but a void contract is not voidab initio.i. Trueii. Falseiii. Partly trueiv. Partly false28. A contract needs to be written, registered and signed by the parties and witnessedi. if any party wishes so.ii. if the Contract Act directs so.iii. if any other act provides so.iv. if the consideration large amount.29. A and B enter into a contract to marry each other. Before the time fixed for the marriage, A goes mad. The contract becomesi. void.ii. illegal.iii. valid.iv. voidable.30. . is forbidden by law.i. Valid contractii. Illegal agreementiii. Voidable contractiv. Unenforceable contract31. A makes a contract with B to beat his business competitor. This is an example ofi. valid contract.ii. illegal agreement.iii. voidable contract.iv. unenforceable contract.32. is made by words spoken.i. Express contractii. Implied contractiii. Tacit contractiv. Unlawful contract33. is made by words written.i. Express contractii. Implied contractiii. Tacit contractiv. Unlawful contract34. A appoints B as his agent, by way of a power of attorney. This is an example ofi. express contract.ii. implied contract.iii. tacit contract.iv. unlawful contract.35. .. implies a contract though the parties never expressed their intention to enter into a contract.i. Express contractii. Implied contractiii. Electronic contractiv. Unlawful contract36. Where a contract has to be inferred from the conduct of parties, it is calledi. express contract.ii. implied contract.iii. tacit contract.iv. unlawful contract.37. Drawing cash from ATM, sale by fall of hammer at an auction sale, etc., are example ofi. express contract.ii. implied contract.iii. tacit contract.iv. unlawful contract.38. .. is a one-sided contract in which only one party has to perform his promise or obligation.i. Void contractii. Illegal agreementiii. Unilateral contractiv. Bilateral contract39. An agreement isi. enforceable by law if it meets the requirements of the law of the land.ii. enforceable by law if any one party to it wants.iii. enforceable against the law.iv. enforceable by law if it is made by competent parties.40. Where the obligation in a contract is outstanding on the part of both parties, it is calledi. void contract.ii. illegal agreement.iii. unilateral contract.iv. bilateral contract.41. Where a particular type of contract is required by law to be in writing and registered, it must comply with the necessary formalities as to writing, registration and attestation. Otherwise, such a contract isi. void contract.ii. illegal agreement.iii. valid contract.iv. unenforceable contract.42. All illegal agreements are void; but all void agreements are not illegal.i. Trueii. Partly trueiii. Falseiv. None of the above43. An offer and its acceptance is the basic requirement of an agreement and as per this requirement an offer by one partyi. should be made to the other who is related to him.ii. may also be made to himself.iii. should be made to another who may or may not be related to him.iv. should be made to another before the Registrar.44. According to enforceability, the contracts may be classified asi. valid contracts.ii. void contracts.iii. voidable contracts.iv. all of the above.45. In social agreements usual presumption isi. that parties do not intend to create social relations.ii. that parties intend to perform them.iii. that parties do not intend to make legal and social relations.iv. that the parties do not intend to create legal relations between them.46. A promised to marry B. Later on B died. This contract of marriagei. becomes void.ii. is void from very beginning.iii. is valid.iv. is illegal now.47. An implied contract is one which comes into existence on account ofi. conduct of the parties.ii. non-availability of a paper for writing.iii. inability of the parties to write or speak.iv. directions given by a court.48. A contract in which, under the terms of a contract, nothing remains to be done by either party is known asi. executed contract.ii. executory contract.iii. unilateral contract.iv. none of the above.49. A contract in which, under the terms of a contract, one or both the parties have still to perform their obligations in future is known asi. executed contract.ii. executory contract.iii. unilateral contract.iv. none of the above.50. Contracts classified on the basis of performance arei. executed contracts.ii. executory contracts.iii. partly executed or partly executory contracts.iv. all of the above.51. Express contract means a contract made byi. words either spoken or written.ii. documents.iii. both words and documents.iv. all of the above.ANSWERSMULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS1 (i)2 (iii)3 (iv)4 (iii)5 (iv)

6 (ii)7 (i)8 (iii)9 (ii)10 (ii)

11 (i)12 (i)13 (iv)14 (ii)15 (ii)

16 (i)17 (ii)18 (i)19 (ii)20 (iv)

21 (i)22 (iv)23 (iii)24 (iii)25 (ii)

26 (ii)27 (i)28 (iii)29 (i)30 (ii)

31 (ii)32 (i)33 (i)34 (i)35 (ii)

36 (ii)37 (ii)38 (iii)39 (i)40 (iv)

41 (iv)42 (i)43 (iii)44 (iv)45 (iv)

46 (i)47 (i)48 (i)49 (ii)50 (iv)

51 (iv)