The implementation of ICT in

UK secondary schools

Final Report: February 2004

Dr Penni Tearle

2

Table of Contents Executive Summary 3

Introduction 4

Policy Framework 5

Aims, Objectives and Background to the Study 5

Research Design and Procedure 6 Literature review 6 Selection of case study schools 6 Data collection, analysis and interpretation 6 Data management and analysis 7 Interpretation and reporting of findings 8

Literature Review/Knowledge Base 8 Change management 8 ICT implementation in schools 10

The case studies 11 Data collected 11 Results 11

Discussion 20 Whole school culture and ethos 20 Whole school attitude to ICT 21 Individual attitudes, beliefs and practice. 22 Characteristics of ICT use 22 The ICT implementation process 23 Access and availability of resources 23 ICT training and support infrastructure 24

Recommendations, practical guidance and the need for further research 24 Whole school characteristics, ethos and culture and the collective and individual attitude to ICT 25 The process and infrastructure for ICT implementation. 25 The need for further research 26

Acknowledgements 26

References/Bibliography 26

Appendices

Appendix 1: Framework for ICT implementation: Cues for action.

3

Implementation of ICT in UK secondary schools

Executive Summary This study focuses on the implementation of ICT in UK secondary schools. The work was undertaken in recognition of the complexities a school faces when implementing ICT. There are challenges associated with the introduction of any widespread change to working practices in an organisation, with ICT implementation this is coupled with the additional need for access to technology and associated support and training requirements. The research approach was to undertake a critical review of the literature followed by case studies in three Government maintained mixed secondary schools. Literature was drawn from two fields; the management of change in an organisation and the field of ICT in schools, as both offer insight relevant to this research. The case studies were of schools who had a record of using ICT in most areas of the curriculum. Data were collected in each case study school via questionnaires to all staff and interviews with between 10 and 12 teachers. Documentary evidence and contextual observation were also used. The findings uncovered a range of issues, some of which specifically related to ICT and others were with regard to features of the whole school culture and characteristics which were influential in supporting or encouraging the widespread use of ICT for teaching and learning across the curriculum. The findings showed some small but significant changes in what it is that influences teachers to use ICT since a similar study was undertaken two years ago.

Key findings: Whole school and individual attitude to ICT and the characteristics of its use. ��The need for a whole school vision and a strategy for ICT. The implementation of ICT is best

undertaken in the context of a vision for how it will be used to enhance and extend teaching and learning with an associated commitment and flexible strategy to achieve this.

��The visible and practically demonstrable actions of the Headteacher. The way the Headteacher demonstrates her/his belief in ICT through action and example is influential.

��The visibility of ICT use in the school. Seeing ICT in everyday use is particularly influential. Certain ICT applications, such as interactive whiteboards have shown themselves particularly persuasive and furthermore can act as a ‘gateway’ to wider use of ICT.

��The parallel need for expectation to use ICT and support in doing so. The importance of clarity of expectation of ICT use was evident, but must be accompanied by the presence of formal and informal support; the latter embedded in the culture of the school.

Key findings: Access and availability of resources ��Ease and flexibility of computer access. In order to embed ICT use into working practices,

teachers need to be able to access the resources they need, when they need them, without additional organisation requirements.

��Resources which are robust and best support the purpose for which they are to be used. Reliability of equipment is essential to promote confidence in using ICT. Equally important is access to both software and peripherals which best meet the proposed use of ICT.

��A programme for resources to be updated and replaced. Replacement and updating of both hardware and software must be built into the financial planning from the outset.

Key findings: Support and training ��Infrastructure of technical support. Teachers need to be aware of what technical support is

available and how to access it. ��Training and the identification of needs. Teachers need support in identifying their training

needs in terms of both level and context (often subject specific). A way of meeting those needs must then be found.

Key findings: The process through which ICT is implemented ��A planned and visible process by which ICT is to be implemented. Such a process must exist

and needs to be coherent, flexible and structured to provide strategic and operational viewpoints that take into account all aspects of ICT implementation. The articulation and dissemination of

4

the process to all involved is also a key issue. ��Recognition of the need for time to learn and develop meaningful practice. Dedicated time is

needed to fully understand and appreciate what ICT can offer, and to undertake the necessary steps to be able to put this into practice.

��A staged implementation process. Any new development passes through a series of stages and the characteristics of these stages, and the period of time required to move through them, must be recognised.

��Recognition of the changing needs and practices of teachers. The staged process must consider the needs of those who will be expected to adopt use of ICT and recognise that these needs change over time, as people’s use of ICT develops. Similarly it must recognise that different practices may be associated with the different stages of use, some of which may be transitional and need support to develop.

Key findings: The whole school characteristics, culture and ethos A number of factors emerged as being common to situations where ICT has been embedded in the practices of high proportions of teachers in a school. These include: ��An outward and forward looking approach. Schools who look on themselves as part of a wider

community from whom they can learn and benefit from collaboration, were advantaged in comparison with those who treated external influences as unnecessary disturbances.

��Positive approach to external mandates. Much is imposed on a school, but some have developed the all-important ability to interpret such mandates to their own advantage.

��A collaborative culture and one which promotes learning. Such schools will have existing informal support structures in place, and a well-established recognition of the importance of continually learning and developing new practices.

��Visibility of management and high expectations of staff and students. Schools which are open, set themselves high standards (relative to their context) and where there is a sense of pride are better placed to handle the complexities of ICT implementation than others.

Introduction The implementation of ICT to enhance and extend teaching and learning across a wide range of subject areas has proved challenging to many schools, and understanding the issues regarding encouragement, support and infrastructures required to achieve this has proved to be complex. However, there are some schools where almost all staff have adopted ICT use into their working practices, adapting existing approaches to teaching and learning and developing new ones. In other schools with apparently similar desire for ICT to be used, and similar resourcing, only pockets of limited ICT use has been achieved. This research is underpinned by the desire to understand ‘what made the difference’? Once this question can be better understood, appropriate help and support can be provided for schools trying to implement ICT effectively. The research endeavours to learn from a range of interpretations of ‘good practice’ and examines all aspects of these contexts and the processes deployed. By doing this it aims to gain a better understanding of the features which prove to be influential, and hence determine and report on factors which may contribute to facilitating or encouraging teachers to use ICT for teaching and learning. This will improve understanding and enable appropriate guidance and support to be offered. The research stems from previous work (Tearle, 2002 reported in Tearle, 2003) which centred on a single case study, and focused on issues of whole school implementation of ICT viewed from a management of change perspective. The current study builds on the research design, theoretical framework and instruments set up for this earlier research. The research is characterised by its whole school approach based on the premise that the adoption of ICT for teaching and learning is a special case of implementing and managing change rather than a series of technical hurdles which need to be overcome. In taking such an approach it seeks to learn from the research and literature in the field of change management. The importance of the whole school context also guides the research design. The need to understand the attitudes and practice of teachers in relation to the context in which they are

5

working, lends itself to a case study approach. This differs from a good proportion of the published research in this area which frequently considered the views of a number of teachers across different schools, ie independent of their working contexts. Another distinction is that this study focuses particularly (but not exclusively) on ‘enabling’ features, characteristics and strategies which can be more difficult to identify than the more frequently reported ‘barriers’ approach. The focus here is on a broad view of the whole school context, culture and ethos and considering the process through which ICT use is implemented in the light of this. A mixed methods case study strategy is used, developing case studies of schools which have enjoyed some success in terms of ICT implementation. The focus of the case studies is to understand particular features of the school context, ethos or culture which may have been influential, as well as the specific processes through which ICT use was developed across the school. By bringing together the findings from the individual case studies, common features and differences can be identified in order to encapsulate the findings across the schools to provide practical guidance to schools and policy makers from a sound evidence base as well as to inform further research. It is emphasised that this research is to do with the use of ICT to extend and enhance teaching and learning by those working in a whole range of curriculum areas, and does not focus on ICT as a subject, or ‘discrete’ ICT. Similarly the delivery of the ICT National Curriculum is not central to the study.

Policy Framework The importance of the role of ICT for teaching and learning is now well accepted and yet, as noted above, ICT is still not deployed regularly, effectively or comfortably by a relatively large proportion of teachers in UK schools. The need to improve our understanding of this situation is therefore crucial if progress in terms of ICT use is to be made. There is a growing body of evidence which suggests that use of ICT can indeed help raise standards and enhance learning, particularly in some settings (eg DfES, 2002), but until its use is more commonplace, further research regarding benefits to learning will be restricted. The need for further research on factors which enable or encourage people to use ICT was noted in the BECTa ICT research summary: What the research says about barriers to the use of ICT in teaching (BECTa, 2003). This research contributes to some of the needs identified.

Aims, Objectives and Background to the Study This research aims to establish and disseminate findings regarding the conditions and factors which encourage and support effective ICT implementation. This will be achieved by ‘unlocking’ previous research by extending and updating the evidence base and then interpreting it in a practical way to support schools who are working to establish use of ICT in different curriculum areas. The specific objectives are: • To provide a summary of the most relevant recent literature in the field of ICT implementation

in schools, and also in aspects of change management. • To develop a suitable research strategy and the associated instruments, by reassessing and

revising those used for previous research to reflect current understanding. • To deploy the revised research strategy to undertake a further three case studies which provide

different examples of situations where some effective ICT implementation has been achieved. • To bring together the findings across all case studies to identify factors which encourage and

support effective ICT implementation in schools, and to interpret these in order to make the outcomes accessible to schools, teachers, policy makers and researchers.

• To provide a report of the research, including summary reports of the individual case studies. The particular research questions are: • What characteristics of a school may be associated with ‘successful’ implementation of ICT

across the whole school for teaching and learning? • What characteristics of the process through which ICT was implemented may have had

particular influences on its success?

6

Research Design and Procedure The research was undertaken in the interpretive paradigm and based on case study research design with mixed methods. The methods deployed were semi-structured interview, questionnaire, observation and use of documentary evidence. Full detail of the research design and methodology is written up in Tearle (2002). The main stages of the research were: 1. Literature review and update of the existing theoretical framework. 2. Selection of case study schools. 3. Data collection, analysis and interpretation. 4. Application of the findings to the current education setting and addressing future needs. 5. Reporting.

Literature review Literature from two main fields of study was reviewed; that directly addressing ICT implementation in schools and that which focused on change management, both from within and outside education. Across these two fields of literature, 438 potentially relevant documents were identified from an existing extensive research database, updated with summary information for recent publications. This process, essentially one of data reduction, generated a structure which could be interrogated in order to facilitate the development of a synthesis of the literature, and hence a theoretical framework for the research.

Selection of case study schools Case study schools were selected based primarily on their reported practice of using ICT widely across the curriculum. This enabled learning from practice which had met its objectives. There was also an interest in the different interpretations of use of ICT for teaching and learning across a school and of different processes which had been adopted to achieve this. Two other specific criteria were imposed: • Case study schools had to be mixed Government maintained secondary schools. The target

audience for the findings was primarily within this context, so it was seen as important to base the work in a similar setting.

• Schools which had any particularly unique set of circumstances with regard to their use of ICT, to which other schools could not easily relate or aspire, were not considered.

The selection of appropriate cases was seen as a key part of the process and one which required careful consideration and background research. The main sources of information used were Ofsted reports and comments from known ‘experts’ in particular ICT advisors and university education lecturers involved in school-based partnership work. Despite careful preparation it was recognised that it was not until time had been spent in the school that there could be real clarity as to whether or not the case matched all the expectations. It was accepted that this was a potential risk and limitation of the study. However, there was confidence that any school ‘selected’ through the process described above, would offer a sufficiently positive experience from which to learn and contribute to current understanding.

Data collection, analysis and interpretation Instruments used, processes and purpose The data collection instruments (questionnaire and semi-structured interview) were based on those used in prior research, but updated to reflect lessons learned from the previous work. This adaptation of tools between case studies is an acceptable way of approaching case study research (Robson, 1993), enabling emerging evidence to be considered in other settings. Given the purpose of any case study is to ‘open the mind’, so in further cases there is improved sensitivity to findings from previous ones, and it becomes possible to establish what else can be learnt from subsequent cases to inform a more general understanding (Strauss & Corbin, 1988), this adaptation of tools was considered important.

7

Questionnaire Chronologically, the questionnaire was the first tool to be implemented in each study, and was issued to every member of staff at each of the three schools. It was designed to provide an overview of the school and its approach to use of ICT, to get an insight into the attitudes, confidence and practice of individual teachers in terms of ICT use and to highlight specific issues which may be interesting to follow-up when carrying out the interviews. The questionnaires were designed to take account of previous findings, and the same structure was used, as this had been successfully piloted and trialled. Some questions required simple ‘tick box’ response, some sought to provide depth to the understanding by asking for single statement text responses and two questions offered a series of suggestions to be ranked in order of perceived importance. Questionnaire data generated descriptive statistics regarding the current use staff made of ICT in relation to teaching and learning and it also gave rise to data on the attitudes of staff to ICT, and to what extent they believed ICT could offer learning benefits for students. Some questions invited free text comment, designed to add some interpretation of ‘tick box’ responses, Interviews A number of staff including Headteacher, a member of the senior management team and ICT co-ordinator were interviewed within each case study, using a semi-structured interview approach. Selection of the staff members for interviewing was based on the person’s role within the school and their use of, and attitude to, ICT as perceived by the headteacher or ICT coordinator. It was intended that those interviewed should cover a range of different levels of enthusiasm for ICT use, as well as a mix of subject specialisms, age, length of time in teaching and gender. The use of semi-structured interview approach provided flexibility; ensuring that the process was informed but not restricted by prior research. All interviews were taped, subject to the agreement of those involved. Opportunistic informal individual discussions were also undertaken with other staff members. Observation and documentary evidence Contextual observation and documentary evidence were used as a supportive and exploratory means of collecting and interpreting data. Data from observation and documentary evidence were used to identify issues to follow up in interview, to help build up a whole school overview and for triangulation with questionnaire and interview data.

Data management and analysis The data collected were first organised and then reduced in preparation for analysis. Questionnaires Questionnaire data were entered on a spreadsheet to provide basic statistical measures. The text comments were entered exactly as provided, and each was coded according to the particular point being made. This provided a coding structure grounded in the data (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). The coded statements in response to each question were then grouped in terms of their main focus, in order to provide a summary table. Interviews The data reduction and analysis was undertaken by using a two stage approach, essentially one of pattern spotting and grounded coding (Miles & Huberman, 1994). First, from the tape-recordings of the interviews, a summary statement of each remark made by every person interviewed was generated. Each of these statements was then coded according to the main point being made. Undertaking this process with constant review and reflection resulted in the generation of grounded coding categories for the data set, in the same way as was done for the text-based responses in the questionnaire. Further detail of this approach, essentially one of breaking down raw text into manageable units to aid the pattern spotting process is provided in Tearle (2002).

8

Interpretation and reporting of findings Summary descriptive reports of each case study were developed and taken back into the school for discussion with the headteacher and/or ICT coordinator. These case study outcomes were then considered both individually and alongside each other, in order to identify common themes, enablers and barriers; common features of different implementation processes; and aspects of whole school ethos and culture which may have relevance for successful ICT implementation

Literature Review/Knowledge Base The literature from the field of change management sets the scene in general terms and addresses matters such as the culture and ethos of an organisation which is likely to be able to implement change. It also offers insight into the process by which change is introduced, considering the characteristics of this process and the stages through which it passes. The second field of literature focuses directly on the implementation of ICT in a school; a much more recent and tightly focused body of literature.

Change management This is a rich and diverse field of literature, and two aspects emerge as of particular interest to this study: 1. the characteristics of an organisation which is ‘ready for change’ 2. the characteristics of the change process itself. Characteristics of an organisation ‘ready for change’ Although the ‘organisations’ in this study are schools, and as such have attributes and purpose which differ from organisations in commerce or industry (Handy & Aitken, 1986) understanding the characteristics associated with managing change effectively within other organisations is helpful. A common feature emerging from the literature is the need for the organisation to be able to adapt to changing circumstances. This adaptive culture is associated with learning rather than control (Senge, 1992), with the emphasis firmly on the process of being able to generate new ideas, ie generative learning (Caley & Hendry, 1998). Organisations ‘capable of change’ also emphasise collaboration rather than competition, and recognise whether things are achieved by collective or individual effort (Blackler, 1995; Burgoyne, 1994). Such organisations take an ‘outward looking’ approach and recognise the value of external links and influences. This has been noted within (Fullan, 2000) as well as outside education (Pascale, 1990). How culture is established goes beyond the scope of this summary literature review, however the culture of an organisation is moulded by the collective attitude, values and beliefs of those within it (Eraut et al, 1998; Ribbins,1985). Fullan (1992) suggests the links are circular: while people influence the culture, an existing culture will influence individuals. Individuals either provide the impetus for change or effectively prevent it (Robbins, 2000). In an educational setting Dawes and Selwyn (1999) considered individual teachers displaying resistance to change, suggesting this may not be wilful, but perhaps practical wisdom, or, as Mumatz (2000) puts it: ‘selectively welcoming suitable change’. It has been noted that different schools have different proportions of teachers who are ‘change orientated’, and this affects the school’s ‘readiness’ for change (Rosenholtz, 1989). This, and other aspects of a school’s capacity to change are closely linked with whole school culture (MacGilchrist et al, 1997). Bennett (1994) made the direct and specific link between whole school environment and a teacher’s take-up of ICT. A teacher’s actual and intended behaviour is central to this study, and the theories of reasoned action (Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980) and controlled behaviour (Ajzen, 1985) suggest this is determined largely by individual attitude, control beliefs and response to social norms. An important derivative of this comes from Marcinkiewicz (1993), more recently extended by van Braak (2001), who refers to an individual’s ‘technical innovativeness’ as being significant in influencing how likely a person

9

is to make changes to her/his practice in terms of use of technology. Kim (2000, cited in Preston et al , 2000) however speaks of ‘social obligation’, noting the importance of the collective attitude and linking it back into the ethos and culture of an organisation. The magnitude of the task of persuading individuals to change their working practice is noted throughout the literature. For example, an individual’s teaching styles have been described as part of their personality (Goodson & Magnum, 1995) and the need for intrinsic motivation is then evident. These factors help explain the findings which suggest that if/when teachers do take up use of ICT, they tend to make only very minor changes to their current practice (Cuban, 2001). Fullan sums this up by noting: ‘current visions of the potential for new educational technologies vastly underestimate how difficult it will be for teachers to implement the changes which will be required in practices, beliefs and skills’ (Fullan, 1992b); an observation as relevant today as when it was made over a decade ago. Characteristics of the change process itself. The characteristics of the process through which change is being managed must also be considered. Rogers’ work (1992), over a period in excess of 35 years, has been applied in many settings. He cites five characteristics significant in the speed and ease of adoption of change: relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability and observability. Consideration of ‘resistance to change’ gave rise to the identification of barriers: cultural, social, organisational and psychological (Zaltman & Duncan, 1977). Some of these barriers can be reconciled with the facilitating factors noted by Rogers (1995); for example, cultural barriers (traditions and values conflicting with the innovation) correspond with the need for compatibility. Psychological barriers however, cannot be matched in this way and have been described as interference factors (Ellsworth, 2000). These are often the hardest to address, being typically less predictable and therefore harder to accommodate in planning. Ellsworth (2000) notes there is sometimes a reason for resistance which is important and can alert change managers to the need to re-assess their strategy. Of particular relevance to this study is the Concerns Based Adoption Model (CBAM) (Hord et al., 1987) which was designed for education and has been applied in situations where implementing ICT was the focus of change (Persichitte & Bauer, 1996; Hope, 1995; Wesley & Franks, 1996, cited in Ellsworth, 2000; Gunn & Tucker, 1996). This model has two parallel strands focusing on the changing ‘concerns’ of users as the process progresses, and the changing nature and level of ICT use. The particular complexities of ICT as a focus of change are catered for in this model, with the need for flexibility emphasised. Features a model for change should possess emerge from the literature. It should: • be flexible and reviewed regularly throughout the process (Fullan, 2000; Brown & Eisenhardt,

1998; Somekh et al, 1997), • comprise a staged process which takes place over a period of time (Hall & Hord, 1987;

Havelock & Zlotolow, 1973), • be led and managed; processes which are seen as different but complementary (Elliot-Kemp &

Elliot-Kemp, 1992), • be undertaken at whole organisation/school level (Ridgeway & Passey, 1995; McCormick,

1992; Kennewell et al, 2000), • be devised for the particular context and not ‘imported’ from elsewhere (Fullan, 2000; Handy &

Aitken, 1986), • focus on the needs of the individuals as well as simply addressing organisational change

(Bennett et al, 1992), • incorporate ways of supporting individuals to develop strategies in order to respond to and

influence the impact of structural and cultural change (Kirk & MacDonald, 2001). The consensus is that although the literature provides guidance, there is no set recipe for change. Educational change is ‘technically simple and socially complex’ (Fullan, 1992b, p.109 ) and to develop a definitive theory of change is, by definition, not possible: ‘it is a theoretical and empirical impossibility to generate a theory that applies to all situations.’ (Fullan, 2000, p.21).

10

ICT implementation in schools Many studies have focused directly on ICT use in schools, its uptake, integration, the needs and attitudes of teachers and other related matters. Key issues which are introduced in this more focused field of study, are the school setting and the context of technology. It is important to note that teachers are being asked not only have to adopt use of technology themselves, but they have to teach others how to do this. This adds a layer of complexity to that experienced outside of education; in addition to learning new skills, the teacher has to reconceptualise their own teaching and understanding of learning in order to work with the technology. The literature in this field will be considered in two parts: Practical factors The term practical factors is used to cover the ‘tangible’ issues which are considered important in relation to teacher take-up and use of ICT. Brickner (1995, cited in Ertmer et al, 2000) referred to issues such as these as first order barriers. These include: • availability of the technology, • support and training, • leadership, • time. The first continues to receive the most attention and relates to the quantity, type and reliability of computers, access arrangements and location of equipment. The importance of personal computer access is widely recognised both in the workplace and at home (Dawes, 2001; Preston et al, 2000). Computer access for teaching purposes is clearly important (Hoffman, 1996); this relates not just to there being sufficient computers (Pelgrum & Plomp, 2001; Andrews, 1997) but to the location of equipment and access arrangements (eg timetabling) (Kiili, 2003; Tearle, 2002). The age of computers in UK schools has been referenced in a number of reports (Stevenson, 1997; McKinsey, 1997; Research Machines, 2000), now usefully put into context by considering whether or not a computer is ‘fit for purpose’ (DfES, 2002). Computer reliability is also important, referred to by Butler and Sellbom (2002) as the most commonly cited ‘significant problem’ in the adoption of technology. The need for more training in ICT use has received recent attention having been neglected as a focus for Government intervention for a period between the early 1980s and mid 1990s. There is recognition that training needs to have a carefully planned structure and a focus on ‘training outcomes’ (Passey & Ridgeway, 1992; Rhodes & Cox, 1990; Owen, 1992; Bennett, 1994), and now, particularly in the light of the New Opportunities Funded (NOF) training (New Opportunities Fund, 1999) and associated initiatives (eg Intel, 2000) the emphasis is now firmly on the nature of training required and the effectiveness of different training strategies and models (TTA, 2002; Tearle & Dillon, 2002; Myers & Halpin, 2002). In addition, it is recognised that teachers starting to use ICT in their teaching need various modes of support: technical (Leggett & Persichitte, 1998; Ertmer, 1999; DfES, 2002); administration (Hoffman, 1996); the support of senior staff for practical needs such as time or resources, or recognition of new practices (Fullan, 1992; Kennewell et al., 2000); and that of peers for collaboration (Dawes, 2001). Issues around the need for time have featured regularly over the years (eg Fabry & Higgs, 1997), but are increasing as pressures on teachers continue to grow and training opportunities, with a lack of associated ‘time’ are introduced (Tearle & Dillon, 2002). Without undermining the requirement for additional ‘time’, time management is also a factor in this climate of new initiatives (Dawes, 2001). Both leadership and management were noted when reviewing the change management literature. Here the emphasis is often more practical, and the need for co-ordination is often referenced (DfES, 2002; Kennewell et al, 2000), with the term leadership most commonly used in a management rather than visionary context. Whole school and individual attitude to ICT Both collective and individual attitude were noted when reviewing the change management literature, including some examples in the context of ICT in schools.

11

With specific reference to use of ICT in schools, the collective viewpoint, such as whole school culture and ethos is referenced as influential (Kennewell et al, 2000; Ridgeway & Passey, 1995; McCormick, 1992). The nature of the comments made are in keeping with those noted when considering change management, though more tightly and specifically focused. There is a view that aspects of individual attitude and belief are the main factors influencing a teacher’s use of ICT (Zhao & Cziko, 2001; Veen, 1993). A key general point is the need for a teacher to be motivated to use the technology (Preston et al, 2000). Zhao & Cziko (2001) note: • They [teachers] must believe that use of the technology can more effectively meet learning

objectives or reach a higher level goal than could otherwise have been achieved • by using the technology other goals perceived as more important are not dislodged • the teacher must feel s/he has the confidence, ability and access to necessary resources to apply

the technology to her/his teaching situation Each of these points is a specific examples of one of those made in a general context by Rogers (1995) or Ajzen & Fishbein (1985).

The case studies Three schools were identified as case study locations. All were mixed, Government maintained schools catering for the 11-18 age range. One was in the north and two in the south west, with one in an urban setting, one rural and one semi-urban. All three schools had strong reputations in their locality, and valued this highly. Two of the three had put a strong emphasis on the use of ICT, and there were some similarities in their interpretation of this, with use of interactive whiteboards a central strand. The third school had built up a pattern of regular ICT resourcing over recent years, and whilst they took its use seriously, had not chosen to make this a particular whole school priority. Each of the schools had achieved different marks of recognition, with one having Artsmark and Sportsmark status and the other two both being Beacon schools and Specialist Sport Colleges. The schools will be referred to Schools A, B and C throughout the report.

Data collected Return rates for questionnaires ranged from 44% to 53% from the 80 to 90 staff they were issued to in each school. The number of free text comments made were between 420 and 440 in each of the three schools. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with 12 members of staff in each school. In all cases this included the staff member responsible for ICT, an additional member of the senior management team, between 2 and 4 heads of department and a range of other staff members so as to include specialists from as many areas of the curriculum as possible. In two of the three schools an interview was also undertaken with the headteacher. The semi-structured interviews gave rise to the generation of between 238 and 250 summary statements in each school. Opportunity to get contextual information and a better understanding of the ethos of the school and the way it operated was made available during the visits to the school through observation and informal discussion with staff. This was recorded in the form of field notes. Various publicly available documentation on each of the schools was accessed, in particular the school Website, the prospectus and the most recent Ofsted report.

Results The results presented here provide an overview of the way each school responded to the matters addressed; there is no intention or purpose in making comparisons for any other reason, in particular that of making ‘judgements’. Questionnaire data The respondents to the questionnaire in each case represented a balanced range of subject areas and experience. Overall almost 50% of respondents had taught for more than 10 years and 9% were in their first year of teaching. Use of ICT and staff confidence The questionnaire data showed that at least 90% of staff in each school had good access to a

12

computer at home. Regular1 personal use of ICT was reported by most respondents with figures of between 60% and 73% for each school, whilst regular use of ICT for lesson preparation varied between 49% and 53% across the schools. Use of the Internet for professional purposes was reported with very similar figures, but less use was made of ICT in classes, and here the results were more varied. In school A 28% of staff used ICT in lessons either regularly or quite often, whilst in School B and C the figures were 48% and 58% respectively. The parallel figures for use of ICT in classes by students was 40% in School A, and 34% and 35% in schools B and C respectively. A likely interpretation of these figures will be given in the discussion, and relates to the use of an interactive whiteboard for teaching, which accounts for a significant proportion of ICT use by teachers in schools B and C. In relation to the main ways staff used computers, between 109 and 122 comments were recorded in each school. The main categories covered were in relation to lesson preparation, which recorded the highest number of comments in each case; class use, the second most common activity and then administration. The bar chart in

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

LessonPreparation

In class Administration Other

Use of ICT

Num

ber

of r

espo

nses

(sca

led)

School A

School B

School C

Figure 1 shows the results, scaled as percentages to allow for comparison across the three datasets. The category labelled ‘other’ accounts for the respondents who referenced specific software packages rather than the purpose of use.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

LessonPreparation

In class Administration Other

Use of ICT

Num

ber

of r

espo

nses

(sca

led)

School A

School B

School C

Figure 1: Main purposes for which staff used ICT

Staff were also asked to comment as to why they used ICT in their teaching. Across the three schools, each of which provided between 71 and 94 comments on the subject, the two main reasons were in relation to providing benefits to teaching, and to direct student benefit, in particular increased motivation. The coding of text comments during the analysis was done separately for

1 For the purpose of this study the term ‘regularly’ refers to use 3 to 4 times a week, ‘quite often’ to once or twice a week, ‘sometimes’ to once in most weeks and ‘not very often’ to about once a month.

13

Agree: 32%

Disagree: 17%

Neutral: 24%

Strongly agree: 12% Strongly disagree:

15%

each dataset, so the categories are not identical, being driven purely by the comments made in each case. The similarities are such however that comparison across schools is both possible and meaningful. Other reasons given for using ICT included benefits to learning, and efficient use of time. In each case a few comments specifically noted the ‘expectation’ to use ICT, either from within the school, or from a statutory requirement such as the National Curriculum. Fewer comments were made as to why staff did not use ICT for teaching, with reference to access and to lack of time being the main reasons given. Other comments referenced technical difficulties, a lack of confidence in ICT use, and in school A, a lack of expectation for people to use ICT. Staff confidence in the use of ICT was high in all three schools. There was between 93% and 97% agreement or strong agreement that respondents could use a computer for their own personal needs as well as in their professional role. In relation to having the confidence to teach a class using ICT in a computer room, the figures ranged between 78% and 83%. Within each school there were generally strong patterns to the views expressed by staff regarding their ICT confidence and knowledge. In just a few areas questions resulted in some differences of staff views within the same school. Four questions in particular fell into this category: I find it easy to think of ways of using ICT in my teaching. Views in all schools were mixed, particularly in school A with the staff split quite equally across the four categories of responses ‘strongly agree’, ‘agree’, ‘neutral’ and ‘disagree’. I can usually find out quite easily what I want to do on a computer, led to a mixed response in schools A and C, with about two thirds of staff in some kind of agreement and the rest either neutral or disagreeing. When the issue of time was added, all three schools showed mixed responses. These are illustrated in Figure 2

‘I could easily learn to do what I want on a computer but haven’t had the time.’

School A School B School C

Figure 2: Staff responses in relation to being able to learn to use ICT if they had the time.

I need some training to be able to do what I want on a computer also resulted in a difference of staff opinion within each school. Furthermore, it was one of the only areas to show any real difference in responses between the schools. These results are illustrated in Figure 3.

‘I need some training to be able to do what I want to on a computer.’

School A School B School C Figure 3: The need for further training.

Attitudes to ICT Attitudes to ICT use were generally positive, and again in most cases the pattern of staff responses within each school gave quite a clear indication where the ‘majority’ view lay. For example in all three schools most staff agreed that ICT had an important role for teaching and learning, with

Agree:34%

Neutral:37%

Strongly disagree:

7%

Strongly Agree: 12%

Disagree:10%

Disagree:23%

Strongly disagree:

13%

Strongly agree:13%

Neutral:20%

Agree:31%

Neutral:20%

Agree:36%

Strongly agree:27%

Disagree:10%

Strongly disagree:7%

Neutral:25%

Disagree:15%

Strongly disagree:8%

Agree:27%

Strongly agree:25%

Strongly agree:5%

Agree:23%

Neutral:23%

Disagree:23%

Strongly disagree:28%

14

Disagree: 8%

Neutral: 30%

Agree: 34%

Strongly agree: 28%

Neutral: 5%

Agree: 52%

Strongly agree: 43%

between 83% and 93% agreeing or strongly agreeing with this statement in all cases. The figures for using ICT for record keeping and administration were similarly high. Across most categories in this section there was a strong similarity between the responses in Schools B and C. Responses in School A followed a similar pattern within the school, but overall staff tended to be a little less convinced with regard to several aspects of ICT. For example in school A 68% of staff believed that ICT saved time with the remainder neutral or disagreeing. In schools B and C 87% and 75% (respectively) believed this to be the case with no-one in school B disagreeing, and only 5% in school C. Similarly the suggestion that ICT may help career prospects received different responses across schools. In school A only 8% of staff agreed, but there was 38% agreement in the other two schools. Most responses suggest staff have a positive belief in the role ICT can play in teaching and learning. In each school there was noticeably more support for the suggestion that ICT made lessons more interesting, than its role in helping to address learning outcomes. The responses from school B to these two questions is given in Figure 4. Recognition of the use of ICT in administration was high in all cases, with between 80% and 93% agreement that it had an important role to play in this area.

Using ICT can make my lessons more interesting.

Using ICT can help to address learning outcome requirements in my subject area

Figure 4: ICT for added interest and to address learning outcomes in school B.

The importance of email was less well recognised, but in each school there was over 50% agreement that it had a useful role to play. Use of the Internet for professional development, or as a means of sharing ideas with colleagues was met with some ambivalence in all cases, with 43% being neutral on the subject in each school. When negative suggestions regarding ICT were put to staff, such as the idea that too much money was spent on it, there was clear disagreement in school B (73%), and progressively less disagreement in Schools C (65%) and A (40%). Across the cases there was a similar pattern and range of responses for the suggestion that too much emphasis was put on ICT use. Barriers and enabling features to ICT When given a list of suggested enabling features in terms of ICT use, the highest scoring issue in all three schools by quite a large margin, was having good access to computers for teaching. This was followed by the availability of subject specific software or peripherals and after this was good school-based access to computers for professional use outside lessons. These access issues were all regarded as of more importance than technical support, the support of colleagues, the need for training, and finally matters regarding whole school view of ICT and the support of senior management. The questionnaires also gathered comments regarding things which had been most positively influential in terms of encouraging staff to use ICT. The categories did not match exactly across the three datasets, but strong similarities were evident. In each case the most positive influence had been the availability of resources; both hardware and software. Next was that of the support of others, in particular that of colleagues, but also with reference to management support. The final main category was with regard to the response ICT had elicited from students; the added motivation or interest shown. Figure 5 shows a diagrammatic representation of the responses. Actual number of responses (out of the 109 received in each case) are shown for schools B and C, with figures in school A scaled up to allow them to be presented on the same chart. Although slight differences in wording had to be made to obtain identical category labels, the changes were few and minor.

15

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

School A

School B

School C

Ava

ilabi

lity

of

reso

urce

s

Sup

port

& e

nthu

sias

m

of c

olle

ague

s

Qua

lity

of r

esou

rces

&

pre

sent

atio

n

Stu

dent

res

pons

e

Rea

lisat

ion

of

bene

fits

of u

sing

ICT

Trai

ning

rec

eive

d/

oppo

rtun

ities

Ava

ilabi

lity

of

tech

nica

l sup

port

Enj

oym

ent/

pers

onal

inte

rest

Hav

ing

a P

C a

t hom

e

Tim

e

Sup

port

s di

ffer

ent

lear

ning

sty

les

Oth

er

Figure 5: Features which encouraged or supported ICT use

When asked to rank a range of possible hindrances or barriers which were listed, the order of responses right down the list was almost identical in the three schools. Two of the top three factors related to ‘time’. First was that of not having enough time to set up ICT activities, followed by having too many other demands on time. The issue of access to resources were the other two high on the list, the fist being the problem of not being able to access a computer when needed, and the other was access to subject specific ICT requirements. This was mirrored in the comments made in relation to the barriers to ICT use, with access problems being noted most frequently as a barrier to ICT and time coming next on the list. The chart in Figure 6 shows the responses diagrammatically, with similar provisos to those made for in Figure 5.

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

School A

School B

School C

Ava

ilabi

lity

ofre

sour

ces

Lack

of t

ime

Lack

of c

onfid

ence

/kn

owle

dge

Apa

thy/

neg

ativ

eat

titud

e to

ICT

Oth

er

Lack

of t

rain

ing

Tech

nica

l iss

ues

Num

ber

of c

omm

ents

. (S

cale

d)

Figure 6: Barriers to ICT use

16

Whole school context A number of issues regarding the whole school context, many of which did not specifically relate to ICT, were put to staff in the final question. This formally brought out some of the particular features of each school, and the differences between them which was evident throughout the research. In school A the two factors with the most positive responses were with regard to the technical staff, who people felt took a pride in their role, and similarly towards the ICT co-ordinator (senior manager with ICT responsibility) who was well respected and felt to have good interpersonal skills. Other statements with which a good proportion of staff agreed, were that staff were generally positive and forward thinking and that the school gets involved in projects and national competition. There was also support for the suggestion that the school had a good reputation in general, not just ICT. Disagreement was expressed with regard to good provision of subject specific ICT professional development and also in relation to a shared understanding of the process by which ICT had been implemented. Staff also did not feel ICT was an area strongly promoted (as opposed to supported) by the headteacher and the was also some ambivalence to the suggestion that they felt that they were expected to change their working practices regularly in order to keep abreast of current developments.

In school B the factors set out which met with very positive responses were headed by recognition that the school had a good reputation for many things, not just ICT, to which all staff responded positively. The two other factors which also met with almost unanimous agreement were the school’s involvement with external activities and national initiatives (93%), and the reference to technical staff taking pride in their job (92%). It was also noted that the school computers were generally reliable and ‘fit for purpose’. None of the statements met with overall disagreement, though there was little support for the suggestions that Ofsted criticism might have been a catalyst for ICT implementation (only 17% agreement) and less than half the staff agreed that subject specific ICT professional development had been made available. In school C, the factors which met with very positive responses were the demonstrable support from the headteacher (95%), recognition that the school had a good reputation for many things and not just ICT (95%) and the school’s involvement with external activities and national initiatives (95%). Other factors which had no disagreement (though some staff were neutral to these ideas) were the vision of excellence provided by the headteacher which had 82% agreement, that staff are generally positive and forward thinking, that staff have a positive attitude to ICT and the suggestion that the National Curriculum requirements had contributed to the ICT development across the school. The two factors which did not have agreement from more than half the staff were the suggestions that Ofsted criticism might have been a catalyst for ICT implementation and that the ICT development had been carefully planned; a suggestion which only 37% of staff agreed with. Interview data The interviews enabled a richer understanding of some of the issues raised in the questionnaire. The structure allowed staff to raise points which they felt most important, before being specifically asked about other matters. The headings under which the outcomes are reported were generated by a combination of the questions posed, and comments made unprompted. Whole school attitude, ethos and characteristics All three schools had a different ‘feel’ about them, and staff in each school were asked to try and describe this. School A was referred to as a caring school, with a philosophy of support and encouragement rather than directives. It was seen as a pleasant environment in which to work, and well resourced. Professional development and self improvement for staff were strongly encouraged and supported, and a range of positive links into the community were referenced. School B was referred to as very ‘open’ in terms of discussing and trying out ideas, and there was clear agreement that staff were dedicated, hard-working and prepared to respond positively to requests to review and adapt working practices on a regular basis. The importance of the high reputation the school holds locally comes over strongly, with clear indication that high standards are expected of pupils and staff with little room for complacency. Any measures identified as helping to maintain this status were supported. The atmosphere was described as collaborative

17

(albeit with something of a competitive edge), and staff reported feeling ‘valued’ and well supported by management. The school’s specialist Sports College status is influential, having been set up primarily to help raise standards through the increased self-esteem and improved behaviour associated with promoting widespread participation in sport. With a new headteacher in post, there was an awareness of fresh thinking and specific ways of meeting newly clarified targets being on the agenda. School C had a ‘warm and busy’ feel to it with a strong sense of working together in order to provide a caring environment offering good learning opportunities for the students. Terms such as ‘progressive’, ‘forward thinking’, ‘modern’ and ‘dynamic’ were used to describe the school, also referred to as a ‘happy’ place, where ‘people mattered’, and where there was a good sense of community spirit. The proactive and highly ‘visible’ leadership style of the recently appointed headteacher was noted positively, unprompted, by all staff. They felt the school would continue to make progress, but now there was a much clearer vision of where this would lead and how it would be achieved. There were reports of increased staff motivation, and a more inclusive style of leadership and senior management emerging. External links Local or national external activities were noted by staff in each school. In school A strong community links, particularly in relation to well-being, health and social inclusion were described as well as formal arrangements with some local businesses. School B also described local links, particularly associated with sport, and they had regularly taken advantage of Government initiatives and forged national links; plans to link into European networks were also emerging. In school C, there were close links into the local community and with other schools in the area through the affiliation with the local City Learning Centre (CLC), through which much of the professional development was organised. Opportunities available through Government initiatives had been utilised fully, and specific links had also been successfully developed with commercial companies where there were benefits to the school. Attitude to ICT use: who le school and individual The attitude to ICT in the three schools was very different. In school A it was generally positive, carefully considered and quite relaxed, whilst in School B use of ICT was much more ‘critical’, having high priority and status. Here its use was seen as a life-skill as well as an aid to teaching and learning, and resolving difficulties some students had regarding ICT was high on the agenda, both in terms of finding ways to provide better access for students for whom this was a problem, and providing support and encouragement for those who were less enthusiastic. In school C the proactive attitude to ICT was accompanied by a strong sense of proportion as to when ICT may and may not be of benefit. Individual use of ICT in school A, in keeping with the whole school ethos, was driven almost entirely by the beliefs of staff in terms of when they felt that using ICT could help address learning objectives, either directly or through increased student motivation; coupled with some practical issues of resource access. There was little, if any, feel of ICT use being ‘imposed’; indeed some felt this should be the case. Despite the strong collaborative ethos of the school, there was little evidence of ‘social obligation’ as a motivating factor for staff use of ICT. In schools B and C the whole school view of ICT, and personal allocation of laptops with interactive whiteboards and data projectors (most clearly evident in school B) underpinned individual decisions regarding ICT use, but this was rarely referred to as the reason why staff chose to use it. In both schools staff focused on the teaching rather than learning, with views that ICT use enhanced different aspects of this. Some also noted possible improved efficiency and time-saving in the medium/long term. Factors which had influenced staff attitude towards ICT use were similar in the three schools. The positive student response was frequently referred to, leading staff to believe that ICT made lessons more interesting and would therefore engage students better in the learning process. Several people also noted that increased student motivation made classes ‘easier’ to teach, and reduced behaviour problems. Whole school ‘training’ days (in schools B and C) were reported as influential, and the emphasis on ICT use in Initial Teacher Training courses was noted as having a strong impact on more

18

recently qualified staff in all three schools. In school C, and to some extent in school B, the visibility of colleagues’ use of ICT was also particularly influential; one teacher commented that they were “hearing about it all the time” (staff member in school C). In school C the headteacher’s innovative and ‘public’ use of ICT was one of the most frequently referenced factors. In relation to individual feelings about ICT use, phrases such as a “huge learning curve” (staff member in school B) were common, and a feeling of “not wanting to be left behind” (staff member in school B) were also voiced. Only one member of staff interviewed offered a negative overall view of ICT, the rest expressed positive beliefs and attitudes, some being a little more questioning than others, and some more tolerant of technical hitches and imperfections. Use of ICT for teaching and learning What was understood by ‘using ICT for teaching and learning’ had different interpretations in each of the three schools, and this was clearly visible in each school. In schools B and C the emphasis was strongly on teachers’ use of a laptop and interactive whiteboard (or in some cases data projector and whiteboard). This was particularly true in school B where several staff described innovative ways of using the technology which had required them to adopt different teaching styles. Reports of increased student motivation were accompanied in some cases by ‘improved learning’ but more frequently ‘improved teaching’. Several staff provided ‘evidence’ that this new mode of working had either necessitated or inspired more student use of ICT (mainly but not exclusively outside class time), and the new structures in place and improved resourcing had facilitated this. School C provided similar feedback but with less frequency and intensity. In both schools staff noted that interactive whiteboards had replaced the existing whiteboard, and most were critical of this suggesting the ‘old’ style whiteboard should be reinstated to ensure that teachers could select the most appropriate way of working. They also described the need to learn how to use the technology very quickly and often referred to some anxiety at that stage. Despite this, access to this facility was popular and much sought after. In school B the range of benefits described included more interesting lessons, better organisation, time saving (medium and long term), access to a much wider range of resources and use of another style of teaching which may suit some learners better. Staff in school C said it was easier to explain things, that resources could be shared and adapted for re-use, and that better use was made of lesson time with the sharing of notes and resources electronically. Several staff in school B, and one in school C, reported that the initial anxiety towards use of the whiteboard had switched to reliance, and the importance of retaining a breadth of teaching styles was noted. When teaching in locations without an interactive whiteboard, two staff reported feeling “exposed” or “a little lost”. Staff in school B, and to a lesser extent school C, viewed positively the ability to share resources and in school B there was a shared area accessible to students and staff from school and home containing material presented in lessons. There was currently relatively little evidence of resource sharing between staff, but remote access was well utilised. In school A ICT use most commonly comprised whole class use, either with laptops or in a computer suite. All staff interviewed used ICT in their teaching, but often this was not on a regular basis. The intention of increasing their use of ICT was expressed my most of the teachers interviewed and all gave quite detailed descriptions of their plans to do this, but it was unclear if/when the plans would be implemented. There was also much reference to the recently introduced administration system and, although this was not the main focus of this research, several suggested it was proving to be a ‘way in’ to using ICT and may be influential in terms of take-up of ICT in other aspects of teachers’ professional roles. Access to resources Access to resources was noted in some context by all those interviewed, though each school was described as being well resourced. In school A there was frequent reference to recent improvements, which it was felt would reduce, but not remove, the tension between increased demand on computers from specialist courses (in particular the GCSE short course which all Y10 students followed), and access for other subject areas. Although computers (or a class set of laptops) were often available for use, staff reported this required extra time/energy to arrange, and most admitted rarely doing this.

19

In schools B and C the focus was on having access to ‘personal’ laptops and an interactive whiteboard or data projector. The responses varied between the ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’, as in both cases significant additional facilities were to be made available the following term. Some staff gave students access to their laptop in lessons when this was needed. In school B most staff did not refer to whole class use of computers until the point was specifically raised and then it was reported this was not always easy to arrange. One teacher however referred to a set of 10 laptops for student use which run subject specific software, and explained that this made a real contribution to meeting subject specific learning objectives. In school C whole class use of ICT was currently problematic in some areas, though three people noted the option of booking one of four class sets of laptops available. Several staff linked the access issues with the increased demand for discrete ICT lessons or GCSE work, noting the reduced facilities available for use in other subject areas. Technical issues were raised only in school C, where there was a well documented problem regarding the wireless networked laptops. It is understood that a solution had been identified which was to be implemented at the end of the current academic year. In all three schools physical space was an issue. To create more computer rooms, or even to put more computers in existing classes was no longer possible. In school A this lack of space was felt to be as much or more of an issue than finding the finance for purchasing equipment, and in school B had been a strong trigger for a building programme now almost complete. School B had made student access to ICT out of class a high priority, and the positive response to this was raised by several staff. ICT training and support infrastructure In all three schools comments supported the view that ICT use was encouraged and had management support, although this was visible in different ways. In schools A and B the technical support and reliability of the system was seen as very positive and it was noted that the technical support infrastructure had been a priority for investment when the ICT planning and purchasing was underway in both cases. In school C this aspect had been more problematic and there was a sense of always playing ‘catch up’. Despite the recent appointment of an extra technician, several staff felt that the support infrastructure was struggling to handle the rapidly expanded ICT resources in the school over the last three years, and that it was operating in reactive and not proactive mode. The quality of support, when available, was referred to positively, the challenge at present being the reliability of equipment. The schools had addressed professional development and ICT training in different ways. In School A an ICT link person is identified in each department. This is not generally someone who has shown a desire to learn more about ICT use rather than the most ICT literate person in the department. This system was frequently referred to and generally considered useful. In school B there is an ICT users group, on which each subject area is represented, and all staff have completed NOF training and also been offered free on line courses with Learn Direct. Non contact days have been widely used for departments to share examples of good practice in their use of ICT and an ICT training package has been purchased and made are available on the school network. In school C professional development was high on the agenda in all areas and ICT was no exception. All staff had followed NOF training, and the emphasis was currently on a funded programme to take all staff through the European Computer Driving Licence (ECDL). Ten staff are currently being trained as trainers in the use of interactive whiteboards, in order to embed ‘good’ use of the technology into the school. Staff also often have the opportunity to attend subject specific ICT courses at the local CLC. Implementation process An understanding of the way ICT for subject teaching and learning had been implemented was sought from the ICT coordinator, senior manger with ICT responsibility and/or headteacher in each school, supported by comment from other staff. In school A ICT implementation had been carefully planned and built up slowly over many years. The member of the senior management team with responsibility for ICT led the process as there was no formal post of ICT coordinator in the school. An early decision had been taken to network the whole school and put one computer into each teaching room to encourage all teachers to begin

20

to make use of ICT. Resources were built up giving priority to subject areas who were seen to be making most use of ICT. Support measures were implemented and a specialist ICT teacher was timetabled to work with some subject teachers for 6 months to help teachers integrate ICT into their subject teaching. There was no evidence regarding the impact of this strategy except that ICT use during the period of team teaching had been high, but had fallen back when the support ended. Another structure in place to help support staff and encourage cross-fertilisation of ideas, is through the ‘ICT link people’ as noted previously. The technical team have been built up over the period, appointing new staff as resource levels increased. In school B, ICT has been part of a major programme of whole school improvement, and has mainly taken place in the last 4 years. This coincided with, and was facilitated by, money and associated measures released under various Government initiatives including the NOF training, which in itself was not felt to have been particularly helpful but served to raise the profile of ICT and clarify what needs staff did have. The laptop scheme and e-learning credits were viewed very positively and reported as particularly helpful. The process of implementing ICT in the school was largely facilitated by a member of the senior management team whose areas of responsibilities were adjusted to include the development of ICT and e-learning in the school. A key aspect of the plan was to equip as many staff as possible with a laptop and either data projector or interactive whiteboard in their teaching room. The support infrastructure for both hardware maintenance and staff support was considered alongside the hardware purchasing and the implementation of the strategy was monitored closely. In school C the process through which ICT had been implemented was more difficult to uncover. A rapid increase in resourcing had taken place over the last three years, but there was little evidence of a coherent plan to explain purchasing, resource location and allocation or the availability of training and technical support. This has now been addressed and a plan is in place to take the process forward and address some key issues of networking problems and technical maintenance as well as to build a stronger framework for staff support. In parallel, moves to provide all staff with laptops and further ICT training referred to previously are also being progressed. The issues of ICT implementation noted here are those specifically linked to ICT use in different curriculum areas, not the approach adopted for ICT as a key skill and a subject in its own right, though many aspects of resourcing and technical issues are relevant for all aspects of ICT use. Where considerable emphasis is put onto discrete ICT, it should also be noted that it could be expected that students have good skills, and are able to apply those skills independently in different contexts. This has an impact on the needs to be addressed in the implementation process.

Discussion This study on the implementation of ICT for teaching and learning, built on previous work, and has enabled some further exploration of issues raised previously, as well as broadening the base for the research by looking at ICT use in different settings. Patterns continue to emerge, but are showing observable differences with the passage of time. This may be influenced by a number of factors such as advances in technology making their mark, the increased availability of ICT in both school and home settings, the stabilising of ICT’s profile within education generally and the visibility of its use which is now never far from the daily routine of any teacher. The framework within which to report the emerging issues is informed by the outcomes of the case studies and by previous work.

Whole school culture and ethos Government maintained schools are bound by uniform national frameworks and legislation, but each school is unique in its interpretation and response to these. Similarly each teacher is exposed to, and may exert influence on, very different expectations, requirements and facilities in their everyday practice; use of ICT is just one aspect of this. The studies reveal the different approaches, expectations, resourcing, and support structures in each school before overlaying each individual teacher’s own beliefs, attitudes and practice. It is clear that the overarching view of where ICT fits in with and supports whole school priorities as well as the specific process and systems put in place for ICT implementation, is a major influence on its subsequent take-up and use. Rogers (1995) suggestion that to be successful, change must be in keeping with the school culture, is demonstrated clearly, but equally evident is the observation that a school’s approach to change is a

21

factor in determining its culture. The importance of a positive and proactive approach to external links and influences has been noted in previous research (Tearle, 2003) and is also strongly evident here. The issue is the attitude of the school to external events. Are they seen as impositions or opportunity? Similarly, are links with local or national communities, agencies, business and industry seen as helpful and supportive, or does the school seek some kind of internal self-sufficiency and always look within itself in order to fulfil its needs? The three schools in this study had all benefited from having an ‘outward looking’ attitude to external events and influences and there was some evidence of recognition of the importance of ‘listening and learning’ from influences outside the immediate school and its community. External mandates are often ‘imposed’ on a school, and the school’s willingness and capacity to interpret the statutory requirement in such a way as to bring some positive benefit is also an important factor. In order to adopt a change to current practice such as ICT implementation, a well-motivated staff and positive ethos have been shown to be important (Rosenholtz, 1989); and this was evident in the case studies. It was also noted that a highly visible and open management structure and high expectations of staff, as long as these were set in a supportive and collaborative ethos and accompanied by the necessary practical context and support structures, were influential in achieving this. Key whole school issues which have emerged as being influential are: ��A collaborative culture which promotes learning. ��A forward looking approach where there is an expectation of change and a recognition of its

importance. ��An outward looking approach where external links are actively sought and influences seen as

opportunity. ��Visibility of management and high expectations of staff.

Whole school attitude to ICT The whole school view of ICT is visible in a range of ways, and three were highlighted in this study as particularly influential. First, and of overarching importance, was the need for the Headteacher to have an overall vision of how ICT was going to be used across the whole school to enhance and extend teaching and learning, and a strong belief and commitment to achieve this. A piecemeal approach of reacting to specific requests and purchasing resources when funding opportunities arose was shown to be more likely to achieve patchy response, partly due to the reliance ICT has on a well-planned but flexible infrastructure of resourcing. This single factor may be the most influential in ultimately embedding use of ICT across a school. Almost inseparable from this is the way the Headteacher makes her/his own belief in, understanding of, and commitment to ICT use evident. Actions which demonstrate this have been shown in this study to be very influential. ‘Senior management support and leadership’ is well recognised through the literature (eg Kennewell et al, 2000), but this is more specific. It is the strength and nature of influence of the Headteacher’s actions which came over strongly in this study. The way its use is genuinely embedded in his/her practice, and the extent to which the Headteacher was really leading by example. The third finding is the parallel need for an explicit expectation for use of ICT coupled with informal support embedded in the culture of the school. This is quite distinct from the formal technical support and resourcing which is discussed separately. Typically it relates to collaborative working, particularly within a subject area. The mechanism for achieving and operating this were markedly different in each case study school, but it was evident that the existence of this community of users with shared objective and concerns, was influential; particularly when there was a clear expectation for use of ICT. Key issues relating to whole school attitude to ICT are: ��The Headteacher’s vision, belief and commitment for ICT use across the school. ��The importance of the visible and practically demonstrable actions of the Headteacher. ��The parallel need for expectation of ICT use and informal structures to support this.

22

Individual attitudes, beliefs and practice. Literature from both change management and school-based ICT research frequently commented on issues regarding individual attitudes being a negative influence on a person’s own use of ICT, and in some cases affecting that of others. In this study the reverse was evident, individual attitude to ICT was almost entirely positive, and there was no indication of this as a hindering factor. When this was raised with colleagues in the case study schools, the view was recognised, but considered dated. As one member of staff noted: “that was true of me and many colleagues a couple of years ago, but now it is all around me, and I can see the opportunities and benefits, it is different”. There was a strong suggestion that now ICT had ‘arrived’ and was more visible, not only was the negative attitude not evident, but a very positive one was in its place. In this study ICT had had been adopted by people who readily admitted to having been “less than keen” in the recent past. This supports another of Roger’s findings (1995) of the importance of what he described as ‘observability’, and also the view of Dawes, that teachers are not deliberately negative, but need to clearly see the value of a new initiative. From the interviews it was evident that some ICT applications lent themselves to this high profile visibility more than others, and the interactive whiteboard was one of these; it was also evident that this acted as a gateway into wider use of ICT. This finding with regard to individual attitudes to ICT would not necessarily emerge at the present time from all schools, but it is encouraging to note this particular barrier to ICT use may decrease as the nature of ICT use changes, and its presence is more common place. Key issues with regard to individual attitude are: ��The visibility of ICT use in the school.

Characteristics of ICT use A prevailing feature in two of the three schools was the ‘freshness’ of making use of ICT, usually accompanied with a welcome air of enthusiasm. A parallel situation might be one of having just moved into a new house, with the associated new understanding of how initial thoughts and ideas might play out. This builds on the ideas in the previous section, as it was evident that a vision which might have only been initially fully understood by its instigator, was now in a more tangible form, and could be shared and interpreted by individuals. This is a different feel from even two years ago, when there was much less sense of individual ownership and vision; two factors influential in determining whether or not people adopt and fully integrate ICT into working practices. This study highlighted extensive teacher use of ICT in two schools, and many positive outcomes of this were reported. Specific examples of increased student use of ICT as a direct result of initiating news ways of working and new infrastructure which use of this technology had both facilitated and demanded was also reported. The interactive whiteboard showed itself to be persuasive and appealing, and to provide a very useful show-case of how ICT can be used, making it a useful catalyst in the ICT implementation process. The data exposed an interesting distinction teachers made in terms of the whiteboard being a positive aid to teaching, but there was less certainty regarding the benefits to learning, despite reports of increased motivation. This is in line with the emerging reports and observations of current use of interactive whiteboards and may be due to the teacher’s own perspective, or to the difficulty of ‘measuring’ learning gains, but it is a matter which would benefit from further research. It was evident there was a wide range of ‘stages’ teachers had reached with their use of ICT. In some cases there was clearly some hesitancy with an associated lack of initiative, and even a recognition by some teachers that they “did it better before”. It is clearly important to accept this as a stage in the development of ICT use, and help teachers move forward, and where possible provide guidance to the contexts and processes teacher may find easier to work in during the early stages. It was evident that teachers need time and guidance in order to move beyond simply using ICT devices, and deploying them in such a way, and in certain contexts, so as to have a real impact on learning and teaching. Key issues regarding the characteristics of ICT use are: ��The role which certain aspects of ICT use play in ‘promoting’ its adoption. ��Recognition of the different stages an individual teacher’s use of ICT may pass through.

23

��The need for ongoing support and professional development to use ICT effectively and move beyond the ‘comfort zone’.

The ICT implementation process There is evidence that where ICT is being implemented according to a carefully planned process, a good proportion of potential problems are likely to be eliminated; a situation which may save time, money and provide a more positive and supportive environment for those staff who are being encouraged to adopt use of the technology. For example, the need to coordinate the timing of introducing new equipment and resources with training and technical support can be identified and planned for in advance, which saves wasting time and money, or causing additional pressure on teachers when the help needed was not available at the right moment. The planned process needs to be flexible, and structured to encompass both strategic and operational issues. It was also evident from this study that it needs to be articulated and disseminated in such a way as to be accessible and visible to all staff members, as ultimately it is assumed all will be involved in some way as ‘participants’. The management of change literature sets out clear stages for implementing change (Hall & Hord, 1987, Havelock & Zlotolow, 1973), and the importance of not expecting ‘too much too quickly’ is also made (Ridgeway & Passey, 1995). There may be ways of speeding up take-up of ICT, or of making it more likely to occur in a meaningful way, but whether at whole school or individual level, the process of ICT adoption will take place across a period of time. It is also noted that people’s needs and expectations change as use of the technology becomes more familiar, and this too needs to be recognised and built into the process (Hall & Hord, 1987). Examples of ICT use in the study show that it is important to put in place processes of review, reflection and collaboration to ensure that ICT use develops in quality and nature not just ‘more of the same’; this has been referenced previously, as the need to move out of the comfort zone. Various mechanisms such as collaboration with others of shared interest in different contexts, peer review or action research may be helpful. Key points regarding the implementation process are: ��The existence of a coherent and flexible strategic and operational plan which takes into account

all aspects of ICT implementation ��Respect of the need for the passage of time. ��The articulation and dissemination of such a plan so as to be visible to all involved. ��Recognition of the needs and changing needs of those who will be expected to adopt use of ICT. ��The need for review, reflection and collaboration in order to improve the effectiveness of ICT

use.

Access and availability of resources Access to resources continues to dominate discussions, but the situation is continually shifting. There is now a real sense that it is the nature and flexibility of access, the issue being deployment and use of resources, and not simply a shortage. As teachers begin to use ICT themselves, and to see its use around them, their understanding of resource needs is clearer, and they can articulate this with more clarity. In order to embed ICT effectively into working practices, teachers need flexibility and ease of access to the relevant equipment, including software and peripherals. There is now a sense of having a ‘right’, or ‘entitlement’ to this, and recognition that use of technology should be governed by the needs of learners, and not externally imposed or led by the technology, which many reported had happened in the past (and some examples of this still remain). A key issue and influence is the teaching of discrete ICT at KS3 and 4. The current increase in popularity of accredited courses in ICT, such as GCSE short courses, has led to some tensions in terms of demands for access to equipment. Comments such as: “we now have more machines but less good access” were common. There is some indication from this study (and informal discussions in a number of schools in the South West), that there will soon be a reduction in the amount of discrete ICT lessons at KS3in in favour of a cross curriculum approach, which may alleviate things a little. The situation will continue to change, and it is difficult to predict the outcome, particularly as there is currently little understanding of how the need to update ICT equipment, now it has such a firm footing in schools, will be handled.

24

Not only must resources be readily available, but they must be robust and well suited for their planned use. There are currently few reports of computers which are not ‘fit for purpose’, as was prevalent a few years ago, and problems with reliability of computers are in many schools recent history; a very positive sign that the technology is now more reliable if the school can put in place the necessary maintenance structures. However, where such issues have not been resolved, and there are frequent reports of equipment failure, it has a devastating effect on use and the confidence of users. Key points regarding resource access and availability are: ��Ease and flexibility of access to resources. ��Resources which are robust and best support their planned use. ��A programme for resources to be updated and replaced.

ICT training and support infrastructure There is an undisputed need for teachers to be able to ask for technical support in order to ensure the equipment needed is in the right location at the right time and ready for use, to solve technical problems, to be available when things go wrong and to provide basic support for teachers trying to improve their own knowledge, understanding and practical skills. These matters were generally only noted unprompted when there were problems, and it was evident the issue wasn’t always a lack of availability of technical support, but a lack of awareness of what was available and how such help could be accessed. Formal and informal peer support were both referenced positively in different examples offered in all three schools in terms of contributing to ICT use. There was less evidence of references to team teaching leading to sustainable use of ICT, and this was paralleled in a previous study (Tearle, 2002). It seems probable that in these cases there was either a lack of clarity of expectations, or of a lack of sense of ownership of the ICT component in the lessons taught by the teacher who was being encouraged to use ICT. The need for ‘time’ was regularly referenced and has been noted as a necessary feature to build into an implementation plan. In so far as senior management can have a direct influence in allocating teachers with ‘time’, it is also relevant to this discussion of support structures. The final aspect of the support infrastructure is the less visible role of maintaining and updating a robust network; essential if there is an intention to encourage staff to use ICT. Again, this matter was raised only when such a situation was not in place. In terms of training, it was evident that staff needed help in understanding and identifying training needs. Without a certain amount of knowledge and understanding teachers reported wrongly identifying their needs. The importance for subsequent training to be identified which met the needs, both in terms of focus and level, was also evident. The difficulties associated with the introduction of ‘new’ equipment, even for those who were experienced ICT users, highlighted the importance of recognising ongoing training needs. Key points regarding ICT training and infrastructure are: ��The availability of technical support and a clear structure for how to access this. ��A programme for maintenance of equipment ��Access to ICT training relevant to needs ��Recognition of the need for time to learn and develop meaningful practice.

Recommendations, practical guidance and the need for further research The broad areas which are influential when ICT is being implemented in a school have been reported in the previous section. These are now summarised and some are highlighted for special consideration, particularly in cases where it is possible to suggest a specific course of action, or approach which might be of value. These are offered as challenge factors and as such they can be of value in setting up a plan for development, or further development of ICT use in a school, or as a basis for ‘trouble-shooting’ an existing position. Additionally, a framework for action, developed from the findings and the literature is provided in appendix 1. This sets out a set of questions to support a school in its preparation and development of ICT implementation. It comprises a

25

‘checklist’ of closed questions together with some broader open questions for discussion and consideration. This should not be taken as a blueprint for success, but may be useful for identifying particular areas to address or to highlight areas of strength, which can be equally important in strategic and action planning.

Whole school characteristics, ethos and culture and the collective and individual attitude to ICT It is clear that the whole school culture and characteristics and the attitude and approach of staff to their work are very influential. To provide comprehensive guidance or recommended courses of action on these issues of culture so heavily embedded within the school is beyond the scope of this small-scale study, and is usually addressed through a series of changes to the practice of senior staff and alterations to whole school structures and systems. Given the context of why the whole school culture and ethos may need to be shifted, it is appropriate to approach the issue with actions which are aimed directly at raising the collective and individual attitude to ICT. Changes which the Headteacher and senior staff make to their own practice of using ICT, and the way they demonstrate and profile this, are likely to have a strong and almost immediate impact on the climate in terms of ICT implementation and development. This will be further strengthened by reviewing and making practical adaptations to management structures, styles and systems to bring them closer to some of those described in this report. This may mean reviewing and making more explicit the roles of the technical support staff, or the procedures and policy with regard to accessing computer suites for teaching, or re-examining the way curriculum use of ICT is resourced, managed and co-ordinated across the whole school to recognise the need for a cohesive, comprehensive and visible structure and system. Practical changes such as these will in turn gradually impact positively on the whole school culture and staff attitude and hence play a part in much more wide-reaching whole school improvement.

The process and infrastructure for ICT implementation. The introduction and development of ICT in a school is best viewed in a similar way to introducing any other whole school change, recognising the additional complexity. It is misguided to view it as a technical business requiring simply finance for resourcing, technical support and the provision of some training sessions for staff. As such the process needs planning and consideration, with recognition that this whole cycle of development will take time and pass through different stages, some of which may be ‘uncomfortable’. Raising the enthusiasm of staff and keeping them involved in the process is important. It is helpful to consider how best to ‘market’ the idea of using ICT to staff. In the first instance; certain technologies, and their use by key people, can be particularly helpful. Having raised the enthusiasm of staff, this can be built on by clarifying what is required of them. This might be achieved for example by agreeing ‘terms’ of having good access to some ICT equipment (laptop, interactive whiteboard, computer suite for the department etc), conditional on an agreed plan for its use. Expectation of use, as long as it is appropriately supported and does not lead to excess pressure has been noted as important. The need for careful timing of events has been noted as essential; in particular in relation to access to resources, training and support. This can be achieved by consultation, careful planning and co-ordination. If one aspect of a process suffers an unavoidable delay, decisions will need to be made about whether associated activities need to be re-scheduled. Provision of a strong support infrastructure is important, but it needs to be deployed and activated effectively. Clarity about roles and responsibilities within the team, and then ensuring teachers know what support is available and how it can be accessed is essential. A delineation between curriculum support and advice and maintenance of equipment may prove crucial to the parallel needs of supporting staff and running a robust system. This delineation may also allow the different strengths of technical staff to be used effectively. A careful mapping of training needs and training provided is needed to maximise the benefits. Similarly, recognition of additional time, resources and support/encouragement which might help ensure training had an impact on practice, may prove cost-effective.

26

The need for further research In undertaking the study some interesting ideas emerged which were outside the scope of the work to investigate further. Three of these which warrant further research are raised here. The first of these relates to the need to find ways of describing whole school culture and ethos and then to further explore links between this, the collective and individual attitudes of teachers to ICT and the role ICT plays in the school. The second focuses on the context in which teachers might initially try and deploy ICT, the wide range of expected outcomes, and the importance of review and professional development ensure ICT is being used to enhance and extend learning. The study provided further evidence that teachers need to start to use ICT in a setting where they have existing confidence, and that the ultimate aim to develop new ways of working will take time and many teachers will need continued support and encouragement. The ‘dip’ in teaching and learning which may take place in early use of ICT was evident; ie lessons were ‘worse’ not better at the initial stages of ICT use. Better recognition of this and ways of moving forward need investigating. Finally, a range of issues regarding the use of an interactive whiteboard came to light in this study. Some are also addressed in one of the many current reports about the use of this technology, but others, such as suggestions about the impact on teaching and student motivation being more readily identifiable than the impact on learning, are still unclear and need further investigation.

Acknowledgements The input of the many staff in the three schools on which this work centres is acknowledged; without this input the research could not have taken place. Particular thanks are given to the person in each school who co-ordinated the school-based aspects of the research, and with whom I met on several occasions. To name them would sacrifice the anonymity, but Chris, Paul and Allan, thank you. Special thanks to Karan Ogden who supported this research from the outset and undertook extensive work on data entry and analysis as well as in the preparation of this final report. Finally I would like to thank and acknowledge BECTa, who funded this work through the research bursary scheme.

References/Bibliography Ajzen, I. (1985), ‘From intentions to actions: a theory of planned action’, in J. Kuhl and J. Beckman (eds), Action Control: from cognition to behaviour, Springer, New York. Ajzen, I. and Fishbein, M. A. (1980), Understanding Attitudes and Predicting Social Behaviour, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs. Andrews, P. (1997), ‘Secondary teachers perceptions of computer availability: a qualification study’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 6(3), pp. 321-335. BECTa (British Educational Communications and Technology Agency) (2003), What the research says about barriers to the use of ICT in teaching, BECTa, Coventry; also online; viewed March 2004, [http://www.becta.org.uk/research/research.cfm?section=1&id=546]. Bennett, N., Crawford, M. and Riches, C. (1992), Managing Change in Education, London, Paul Chapman Publishing. Bennett, C. (1994), ‘Reconceptualizing staff development for technology diffusion’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 3(2), pp. 147-160. Blackler, F. (1995), ‘Knowledge, knowledge work and organizations: an overview and interpretation’, Organization Studies, 16 (6), pp. 1021-1046. Brickner, D. (1995), The effects of first and second order barriers to change on the degree and nature of computer usage of secondary mathematics teachers: A case study, Unpublished doctoral thesis, Purdue University, West Lafayette. Brown, S. and Eisenhardt, K. (1998), Competing on the Edge, Harvard Business School Press, Boston. Burgoyne, J. (1994), ‘Learning at work and organisational culture’, in J. Machell and F. Frank

27

(eds.), Learning at Work: collected papers, CSET University of Lancaster, Lancaster. Butler, D. and Sellbom, M. (2002), ‘Barriers to adopting technology for teaching and learning’, Educause Quarterly, 25(2) pp. 22-28. Caley, L. and Hendry, E. (1998), ‘Corporate learning: rhetoric and reality’, Innovations in Education and Training International, 35 (3), pp. 241-247. Cuban, L. (2001), Oversold and Underused: Computers in the Classroom, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Dawes, L. (2001), ‘What stops teachers using new technology?’, in M. Leask (ed.), Issues in Teaching using ICT, RoutledgeFalmer, London. Dawes, L. and Selwyn, N. (1999), ‘Teaching with the dream machines: the representation of teachers and computers in information technology advertising’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 8(3), pp. 289-304. DfES (Department for Education and Skills) (2002), ‘Impact2: The Impact of Information and Communication Technologies on Pupil Learning and Attainment’, HMSO, London. Elliot-Kemp, J. and Elliot-Kemp, N. (1992), Managing Change and Development in Schools, Longman Group UK Ltd., Harlow. Ellsworth, J. (2000), Surviving Change: a survey of educational change models, ERIC Clearinghouse on Information and Technology, Syracuse, New York. Eraut, M., Alderton, J., Cole, G. and Senkey, P. (1998), Development of Knowledge and Skills in Employment (5), University of Sussex Institute of Education Research, Sussex. Ertmer, P. (1999), ‘Addressing first and second order barriers to change: Strategies for technology implementation’, Educational Technology Research and Development, 47(4), pp. 47-61. Ertmer, P, Addison, P., Lane, M., Ross, E. and Woods, D. (2000), ‘Examining teachers’ beliefs about the role of technology in the elementary classroom’, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 32(1), pp. 54-71. Fabry, D. and Higgs, J. (1997), ‘Barriers to the effective use of technology in education’ Journal of Educational Computing Research, 17(4), pp. 385-395. Fullan, M. (1992), ‘Causes/processes of implementation and continuation’ in N. Bennett, M. Crawford and C. Riches (eds.), Managing Educational Change, Paul Chapman, London. Fullan, M. (1992), Successful School Improvement, Open University Press, Buckingham, Philadelphia. Fullan, M. (2000), Change Forces: the sequel, The Falmer Press, London. Hall, G., and Hord, M. (1987), Change in Schools: facilitating the process, State University of New York Press, Albany. Goodson, I. and Mangan, J. (1995), ‘Subject cultures and the introduction of classroom computers’, British Educational Research Journal, 21(5), pp. 613-628. Gunn, C. and Tucker, K. (1996), ‘Technology, professional development and innovations: assessor change’, Journal for Information Technology for Teacher Education, 5(3), pp. 239-252. Handy, C. and Aitken, R. (1986), Understanding Schools as Organizations, Penguin Books Ltd., Suffolk. Havelock, R. and Zlotolow, S. (1973), The Change Agent's Guide to Innovation in Education. (1st ed.), Educational Technology Publications, Englewood Cliffs. Hoffman, B. (1996), ‘What drives successful technology planning’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 5 (1/2), pp. 43-55. Hope, W. (1995), ‘Microcomputer technology: its impact on teachers in an elementary school’, Dissertation Abstracts International, 56(03), 779A. Hord, S., Rutherford, W., Huling-Austin, L. and Hall, G. (1987), Taking Charge of Change, Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, Alexandria. Kennewell, S., Parkinson, J. and Tanner, H. (2000), Developing the ICT Capable School, RoutledgeFalmer, London. Kiili, K. (2003), ‘Technology Access: Resources Wasted in Computer Laboratories’, in C.Dowling

28

and K.Lai (eds), Information and Communication Technology and the Teacher of the Future, Kluwer Academic Publishers, London. Kirk, D. and Macdonald, D. (2001), ‘Teacher voice and ownership of curriculum change’, Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33(5), pp. 551-567. Leask, M. (Ed) (2001), Issues in Teaching Using ICT, RoutledgeFalmer, London. Leggett, W. and Persichitte, K. (1998), ‘Blood, sweat and tears: 50 years of technology implementation obstacles’, Technical Trends, 43(3), pp. 33-36. MacGilchrist, B., Myers, K. and Reed, J. (1997), The Intelligent School, Paul Chapman Publishing Ltd., London. Marcinkiewicz, H.R. (1993), ‘Computers and teachers: factors effecting computer use in the classroom’, Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 26(2), pp. 220-237. McCormick, R. (1992), ‘Curriculum development and technology’, Information Technology for Teacher Education, 1, pp. 23-50. McKinsey (1997), The Future of Information Technology in UK Schools, McKinsey & Company, London. Miles, M. B. and Huberman, A. M. (1994), Qualitative Data Analysis: A Sourcebook of New Methods, Sage, Beverly Hills. Mumtaz, S. (2000), ‘Factors affecting teachers' use of information and communication technology: a review of the literature’, Journal for Information Technology for Teacher Education, 9(3), pp. 319-341. Myers, J. and Halpin, R. (2002), ‘Teachers’Attitudes and Use of Multimedia Technology in the Classroom’, Journal of Computing in Teacher Education, 18(4) pp. 133-139. New Opportunities Fund (1999), ICT Training for Teachers and School Librarians, New Opportunities Fund, London. Owen, M. (1992), ‘A Teacher-centred Model of Development in the Educational Use of Computers’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 1(1), pp. 127-137. Pascale, R. (1990), Managing on the Edge, Penguin Books, St. Ives. Passey, D. and Ridgway, J. (1992), Effective In-service Education for Teachers in Information Technology; a resource for INSET providers, HMSO, London. Pelgrum, W., and Plomp, T. (2001), ‘Obstacles to the integration of ICT in education: results from a worldwide educational assessment’, Computers and Education, 37 (2), pp. 163-178. Persichitte, K. and Bauer, J. (1996), ‘Diffusion of computer-based technologies: getting the best start’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 5(1 & 2), pp. 35-41. Preston, C., Cox, M. and Cox, K. (2000), Teachers as innovators: an evaluation of the motivation of teachers to use information and communications technology. Report summary, MirandaNet, South Croydon. Research Machines (2000), RM G7 report, Research Machines, London. Rhodes, V. and Cox, M. (1990), Time for Training, Centre for Educational Studies, Kings College, London. Ribbins, P. (1985), ‘Organisational theory and the study of educational institutions’, in M. Hughes, P. Ribbins and H. Thomas (eds.), Managing Education: the system and the institution, Cassell, London. Ridgeway, J., and Passey, D. (1995), ‘Using evidence about teacher development to plan systemic revolution’, in D. M. Watson and D. Tinsley (eds.), Integrating Information Technology into Education, Chapman and Hall, London. Robbins, P. (2000), Essentials of Organizational Behaviour, Prentice-Hall, Inc., New York. Robson, C. (1993), Real World Research, Blackwell, Oxford. Rosenholtz, S. (1989), Teachers' Workplace: the social organisation of schools, Longman, New York. Senge, P. (1992), The Fifth Discipline, Century Business, Kent.

29

Somekh, B., Witty, G. and Coveney, R. (1997), ‘IT and the politics of institutional change’, in B. Somekh and N. Davis (eds.), Using Information Technology Effectively in Teaching and Learning: studies in pre-service and in-service teacher education, Routledge, London. Stevenson, D. (1997), Information and Communications Technology in UK Schools: an independent inquiry, The Independent ICT in Schools Commission, London. Strauss, A. and Corbin, J. (1998), Basics of qualitative research: techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory, Sage, London. Teacher Training Agency (2002), The New Opportunities Fund Training for teachers and school librarians in the use of ICT: Progress review and lessons learned through the central quality assurance process in England, HMSO, London. Tearle, P. (2002), The Implementation of Information and Communications Technology for Teaching and Learning in Secondary Education in the United Kingdom, Unpublished thesis, University of Exeter, Exeter. Tearle, P. (2003) ‘ICT implementation: What makes the difference?’, British Journal of Educational Technology, 34(5), pp 567-584. Tearle, P. and Dillon, P. (2002), Evaluation of the IntelTeach to the Future programme, viewed March 2004, [http://telematics.ex.ac.uk/intel/]. van Braak, J. (2001), ‘Individual characteristics influencing teachers' class use of computers’, Journal of Educational Computing Research, 25(2), pp.141-157. Veen, W. (1993), ‘The role of beliefs in the use of information technology: implications for teacher education, or teaching the right thing at the right time’, Journal of Information Technology for Teacher Education, 2, pp. 139-154. Wesley, M. and Franks, M. (1996), Advanced adoption of computer technology in the classroom and teachers' participation in voluntary innovation adoption activities, Mid-South Educational Research Association, Tuscaloosa, USA. Zaltman, G. and Duncan, R. (1977), Strategies for Planned Change, Jon Wiley and Sons, New York. Zhao, Y. and Cziko, G. A. (2001), ‘Teacher adoption of technology: a perceptual control theory perspective’, Journal for Technology and Teacher Education 9 (1), pp. 5-30.

30

Appendix 1

Framework for ICT implementation: Cues for action.

The organisation

Characteristics, culture and ethos ��Is the whole school culture one which promotes learning? ��Is the culture collaborative and adaptive? ��Does the school view and address problems as challenges, which may bring with them benefits and opportunities? ��Does the school recognise that contention can be a positive feature, bringing with it an opportunity for debate? ��Is the organisational structure open and flexible? ��Is there visible clarity with regard to the school’s informal decision making processes? ��Is there recognition of the importance of links outside the immediate school, both at local and national level?

Practical/material factors

Resources ��Are there sufficient computers and associated equipment? ��Is it easy for all staff to get access to computers when they need them for teaching? ��Do all departments have computers located in or near their own teaching area? ��Are the ICT facilities reliable and robust? ��Are computers and peripherals suitable for the specific purpose they are to address? ��Do all subject areas have access to both generic and subject specific software and ICT equipment useful for their specialism?

Time ��Has time been set aside for teachers to implement newly developed skills and ideas into their working practice?

Training and support ��Is there a system for helping teachers identify their training needs? ��Is there a programme relating to development of ICT use which incorporates pedagogical and subject specific issues? ��Are support structures in place and visible?

Co-ordination and management ��Can the senior management team be seen to be actively involved and supportive of curriculum use of ICT? ��Is there a clear structure and process for the coordination and management of curriculum use of ICT?

The process ��Have the advantages and benefits of using ICT been clearly demonstrated to teachers? ��Is the process for implementing ICT in keeping with other aspects of the school and its workings? ��Do teachers understand what action and outcomes are expected of them? ��Is the use of ICT integrated into teaching programmes in all subject areas? ��Can people see ICT being used by colleagues, including examples of ‘good practice’? ��Have potential social, cultural, organisational and psychological barriers been anticipated and wherever possible pre-empted? ��Has the need for different stages of the process been recognised and planned for? ��Are there opportunities for staff at all levels to inform and influence the implementation of ICT use in the school?

Individual attitude

��Do people understand how ICT can enhance teaching and learning and see the value in using it? ��Do people believe that ICT can benefit teaching and learning? ��Do people think they have some degree of control and choice over their actions in relation to ICT use?

Open questions for consideration/discussion

��What is the collective and individual attitudes to using ICT for teaching and learning? ��How motivated and committed do people seem to be? ��How do people perceive the way those who use ICT are viewed by their peers. ��What is the current situation with regard to ICT use in the school?