the history of electronic and computer music in japan: significant composers and their works

The History of Electronic and Computer Music in Japan: Significant Composers and TheirWorksAuthor(s): Takehito ShimazuSource: Leonardo Music Journal, Vol. 4 (1994), pp. 102-106Published by: The MIT PressStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1513190 .

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Takehito Shimazu I have not yet met anyone who can speak of music without expressing his or her opinion about the positive results that can be gained through technology. Composers have adopted various aspects of scientific methods to further enhance their works. Computer music is a concrete and symbolic result of combining the fields of science and

. . . muslc. owever, In t ze envlronment around us, an overwhelming number of musicians are not able to effectively and creatively utilize what has been gained through this research.

Takehito Shimazu, c/o S5-28 Toneri, Adachi-Ku, Tokyo, 121 Japan. E-mail: <tshimazula tansei.cc.u-tokyo.ac jp>.

Takehito Shimazu I have not yet met anyone who can speak of music without expressing his or her opinion about the positive results that can be gained through technology. Composers have adopted various aspects of scientific methods to further enhance their works. Computer music is a concrete and symbolic result of combining the fields of science and

. . . muslc. owever, In t ze envlronment around us, an overwhelming number of musicians are not able to effectively and creatively utilize what has been gained through this research.

Takehito Shimazu, c/o S5-28 Toneri, Adachi-Ku, Tokyo, 121 Japan. E-mail: <tshimazula tansei.cc.u-tokyo.ac jp>.

recent times. Proposals to do so have encountered severe financial problems.

Conceptual questions are no less important than practical ones. In fact, these elements are intrinsically related. In art that uses different media in com- bination, resolving the problem of cre- ation and organization depends on the artist's ability to evaluate the balance between the media. A work that relates different artistic domains has to be conceived on the basis of a cognition and comprehension of each domain: that is, a collaboration between them. Synaesthetics do not arise from an in- nocent and irresponsible relationship between different fields of perception.

The question of relations between the artists, their works and the environ- ment is similar. In the case of performance, a work takes place in a particular space in front of a particular audience and will have specific relations with them. The work will be conceived according to these relations, unless it remains incoherent. The project of a festival should be conceived in the same way that a musical composition, a painting or any kind of (art)work is conceived. However, it must deal not only with the medium of sound, but also with the artists, their works, the technical staff, the architec- ture of the concert hall, the audience, the weather, the economic and social

recent times. Proposals to do so have encountered severe financial problems.

Conceptual questions are no less important than practical ones. In fact, these elements are intrinsically related. In art that uses different media in com- bination, resolving the problem of cre- ation and organization depends on the artist's ability to evaluate the balance between the media. A work that relates different artistic domains has to be conceived on the basis of a cognition and comprehension of each domain: that is, a collaboration between them. Synaesthetics do not arise from an in- nocent and irresponsible relationship between different fields of perception.

The question of relations between the artists, their works and the environ- ment is similar. In the case of performance, a work takes place in a particular space in front of a particular audience and will have specific relations with them. The work will be conceived according to these relations, unless it remains incoherent. The project of a festival should be conceived in the same way that a musical composition, a painting or any kind of (art)work is conceived. However, it must deal not only with the medium of sound, but also with the artists, their works, the technical staff, the architec- ture of the concert hall, the audience, the weather, the economic and social

situation, and so on. The reverse is also true: if we think of a composition as a social model, it has to function with the same (in)efficiency.

These are the main ideas that gov- erned the conception of the Megalopo- lis Aborigines Tour. The European audience showed a great interest in the program we presented and some of the artists, such as Opera, have been invited to other festivals as a conse- quence. I hope that such enthusiasm will have some influence on the "execu- tive" personalities who patronize Japa- nese contemporary art and will help bring recognition to this kind of activ- ity. I also hope that these events can happen sooner in Europe and America, so that Western audiences can develop more precise ideas ofJapanese contemporary culture.

References

1. Daniel Charles, gThe Aesthetic of Non-Dualism," in Megalopolis Aborigines, exh. cat. (Tokyo: Galerie Surge, 1993) p. 32.

2. Charles [1] p. 33.

3. Charles [ 1 ] p. 30.

4. Opera, untitled, in MegalopolisAbongines [1] p. 40.

5. David Moss, untitled, in Megalopolis Abongznes [ 1 ] p. 10.

6. Takeda Kenichi, Taishokoto ni yoru, sohokoteki pafomansu" (Double-Oriented Performances with the Taisho-koto), Nikutai Gengo (Body Language) 12 (1985) pp. 57-58.

situation, and so on. The reverse is also true: if we think of a composition as a social model, it has to function with the same (in)efficiency.

These are the main ideas that gov- erned the conception of the Megalopo- lis Aborigines Tour. The European audience showed a great interest in the program we presented and some of the artists, such as Opera, have been invited to other festivals as a conse- quence. I hope that such enthusiasm will have some influence on the "execu- tive" personalities who patronize Japa- nese contemporary art and will help bring recognition to this kind of activ- ity. I also hope that these events can happen sooner in Europe and America, so that Western audiences can develop more precise ideas ofJapanese contemporary culture.

References

1. Daniel Charles, gThe Aesthetic of Non-Dualism," in Megalopolis Aborigines, exh. cat. (Tokyo: Galerie Surge, 1993) p. 32.

2. Charles [1] p. 33.

3. Charles [ 1 ] p. 30.

4. Opera, untitled, in MegalopolisAbongines [1] p. 40.

5. David Moss, untitled, in Megalopolis Abongznes [ 1 ] p. 10.

6. Takeda Kenichi, Taishokoto ni yoru, sohokoteki pafomansu" (Double-Oriented Performances with the Taisho-koto), Nikutai Gengo (Body Language) 12 (1985) pp. 57-58.

Fig. 4. Mukai Chie in performance at the Podewil concert hall in Berlin during the Megalopolis Aborigines tour, 20 October 1992. (Photo: Johannes Zappe)

Fig. 4. Mukai Chie in performance at the Podewil concert hall in Berlin during the Megalopolis Aborigines tour, 20 October 1992. (Photo: Johannes Zappe)

cide together what they wanted and needed, rather than merely participat- ing as guests of organizations that often misunderstand the qualities of the artists they solicit. Because of the energy demanded by such a project and the lack of interest on the part of large in- stitutions in this domain of artistic cre- ation, there have been only a few attempts to conduct this kind of tour in

cide together what they wanted and needed, rather than merely participat- ing as guests of organizations that often misunderstand the qualities of the artists they solicit. Because of the energy demanded by such a project and the lack of interest on the part of large in- stitutions in this domain of artistic cre- ation, there have been only a few attempts to conduct this kind of tour in

People themselves are the main rea- son for this failure. Scientists and engineers have little interest in integrating the arts with science. Similarly, artists have little interest in adopting science into their art. But, even worse, no social system exists to bring artists and scientists together, even if one party has great interest in the other. In particular, relationships between the arts and sci- ences are not strong inJapan.

At the turn of this century, scientists and engineers in several European countries were developing various electronic devices. Japan was making its own contribution through artists such as Michio Miyagi, a great koto master

People themselves are the main rea- son for this failure. Scientists and engineers have little interest in integrating the arts with science. Similarly, artists have little interest in adopting science into their art. But, even worse, no social system exists to bring artists and scientists together, even if one party has great interest in the other. In particular, relationships between the arts and sci- ences are not strong inJapan.

At the turn of this century, scientists and engineers in several European countries were developing various electronic devices. Japan was making its own contribution through artists such as Michio Miyagi, a great koto master

and composer who built an 80-string koto outfitted with an electronic ampli- fier, and Kazuharu Ishida, an instrument maker who invented an electronic shamisen, a traditional Japa- nese instrument with three strings. Be- sides these artists, only a handful of Japanese composers, performers and instrument manufacturers have con- tributed to the development of elec-

. .

tronlc muslc InJapan.

ELECTRONIC MUSIC IN JAPAN The development of electronic music in Japan can be divided into four periods:

* The 1950s: the introduction and imi-

and composer who built an 80-string koto outfitted with an electronic ampli- fier, and Kazuharu Ishida, an instrument maker who invented an electronic shamisen, a traditional Japa- nese instrument with three strings. Be- sides these artists, only a handful of Japanese composers, performers and instrument manufacturers have con- tributed to the development of elec-

. .

tronlc muslc InJapan.

ELECTRONIC MUSIC IN JAPAN The development of electronic music in Japan can be divided into four periods:

* The 1950s: the introduction and imi-

102 Music/Science Forum 102 Music/Science Forum

The History of Electronic and Computer Music inJapan: Significant Composers and Their Works

The History of Electronic and Computer Music inJapan: Significant Composers and Their Works



tation of European musique concrete and electronic music [ 1 ]

* The 1960s: the development of special compositional techniques for and the growing popularity of elec-

. .

tronlc muslc

* The 1970s: the rise of live electronics and the decline of electronic music

* The 1980s: the era of synthesizers in popular music and personal computer, or pasFcon, music.

BROADCASTING The first experimental music was broadcast from the commercial radio stationJOQR, or Bunka-Houso, in 1953. The piece was named "Les Oeuvres pour musique concrete x,y,z" and was composed by Toshio Mayuzumi (born 1929). It was his first composition following his studies in France and the first musique concrete piece composed by aJapanese composer.

The first electronic music studio in Japan was established at Nippon Houso Kyokai (NHK) (Society of Japanese Broadcasting) and was modeled after the Westdeutschen Rundfunk electronic music studio in Cologne. The NHK studio in Tokyo became a center for electronic music inJapan, and many compositions were produced and broadcast there. The first composition produced at this studio was also composed by Mayuzumi; it was entitled Etude I and consisted of three movements: "Music for Sine Wave by Propor- tion of Prime Number," "Music for Modulated Wave by Proportion of Prime Number" and "Invention for Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave" (1955). That same year Minao Shibata (born 1916) composed "Musique Concrete for Stereophonic Broadcast" at NHK This piece was broadcast in an innovative way-it was simulcast on the first and second monaural programs of NHK's AM band to create a stereophonic effect.

In February 1956, the concert "Audi- tion for Musique Concrete and Elec- tronic Music" was presented with the participation of members ofJikken- Kobo (Experimental Workshop). In the same year, Tory Takemitsu (born 1939) composed a tape music piece [2], 'iVo- calism A.I.," commissioned by Shin- Nippon Houso (NewJapan Broadcasting). Mayuzumi also composed 'Variations on the Numerical Principle of 7" at NHK's electronic music studio in 1956. This significant piece became a model for and a precursor of

subsequent generations of electronic music inJapan. It was at this time that YasushiAkutagawa (1925-1989), Makoto Moroi (born 1930), Akira Miyoshi (born 1933) and others began to compose electronic music works. Electronic music was now recognized by theJapanese people as a new field or style of music, aided by broadcasting and the mass media. Further developments in broadcasting techniques con- tributed to the advancement of electronic music, which resulted in the development of film music and sound effects. Successive technological break- throughs-such as the invention of the transistor radio, tape recorder, long- playing (LP) record player and various other types of electric and electronic equipment-encouraged electronic music's popularity with the general public. Several active and leading composers employed new scientific techniques gained from experimentation in

. . e ectronlc muslc. In 1957, Mayuzumi experimented

with integrating traditional music and electronic music in "A-o-i-no U-e," a style of composition that introduced new possibilities for electronic music in Japan. He also applied the techniques learned from electronic music to the sound structures of his orchestral music, in the same way that Ligeti, Stockhausen, Boulez and others did.

In the 1960s, many young, active composers, such asJoju Yasa (born 1929), Yuji Takahashi (born 1938), Toshi Ichiyanagi (born 1933) and Yori- aki Matsudaira (born 1931), composed electronic works that were innovative, both in terms of new compositional techniques for instrumental pieces and the development of techniques specific to electronic music. These composers composed their pieces in various styles, using techniques gained from the results of musique concrete and electronic music. This came at a time when the differences between musique concrete and electronic music had become less distinctive. Musique concrete has always been closely related to electronic music, because both have similar processes and the most important aspect of music is whether the original sound materials are natural or artificial.

ToKYo OLYMPIC GAMES AND OSAKA EXPO '70 "Olympic Campanology," composed by Mayuzumi, was played before more than 60,000 people at the opening cer-

emony of the Olympic Games in Tokyo in 1964. The composer used the re- corded sound of huge temple bells, or bonsho, and also electronic sounds, sur- rounding the audience with five-chan- nel speakers. "Campanology" had been previously realized on audiotape.

In the middle of the 1960s, when the experimental period was over, Stockhausen visitedJapan for the first time (in 1966), bringing with him many new techniques and methods. He composed two pieces, "Solo" and "Telemusic," at the NHK studio. Build- ing on this groundwork,Joju Yasa composed "Icon on the Source of White Noise," using only filtered white noise as source material. At the same time, a new trend was growing called "live electronics," which referred to the way that real sounds caused by performers or players were controlled or modified acoustically through microphones or electronic devices during real-time performance. Ichiyanagi, Matsudaira and Maki Ishii (born 1936) composed in this style.

The Osaka Expo '70 was a big, symbolic event that opened doors for composers active in this field; it also highlighted the development and direction of electronic music. In 1985, the Tsukuba Expo, with its theme of Science and Culture, brought little of significance to the development of electronic music. Its main thrust was the development of computer hardware and software.

PRIVATE LABORATORIES AND UNIVERSITIES During the late 1960s, there was little difference in electronic music in Eu- rope, America andJapan. But after the success of Expo ' 70, Japan gradually dropped away from what Europe and America were doing. In Europe and America, electronic music studios or in- stitutes for electroacoustics became established at various universities, with several of the universities becoming important centers. Such universities had laboratories that were staffed with creative researchers-musicians, engineers and scientists working together. They were equipped with professional equipment and systems, which enabled them to control the exact parameters of electronic music. InJapan, on the contrary, composers had to continue their work at private studios or small university laboratories with commercial equipment.

The late 1 960s and early 1 970s were

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nevertheless considered to be the peak of electronic music inJapan. During this time, several studios and laboratories were set up at various universities inJapan: the Electronic Studio at the Tokyo University of Fine Art and Music (1966), the College of Art and Technol- ogy of Kyushu (1967), Osaka Art Uni- versity (1969), Aichi Prefectural Art University (1971), Tokyo Gakugei Uni- versity (1972), Kunitachi College of Music (1974) and others.

Also during this time, with the excep- tion of Makoto Shinohara (born 1931), who composed at the studios of Colum- bia University and Princeton University, a handful ofJapanese composers formed small groups that organized concerts and invited composers to bring ideas and techniques from various countries. Although several groups were organized, the Group Sound-De- signer-to which Kenjiro Ezaki (born 1926), Komei Hayama, Norihiko Wada (born 1932) and Satoshi Sumitani (born 1932) belonged-was particu- larly active. Sumitani also organized the group Topological Arts of Tokyo Asso- ciation (TATA) along with other composers, mostly from Tokyo Gakugei University (although member Hiroaki Minami is based at the electronic music studio of Tokyo Art University). During the early 1970s, I began to study and compose electronic music.

After electronic music's peak, a large number of composers who played an important part in electronic music began to give up to composing in this field, because they felt that the creative possibilities of electronic music had been exhausted. Electronic composers inJapan were continuing with no vision of the future. One composer said, "I cannot continue composing electronic music without virtuosity or enthusiasm in this field."

SYNTHESIZERS Popular music was flourishing in the late 1960s and early 1970s, due to the recent advent of synthesizers. A number of synthesized works were produced by artists, such as Walter Carlos (now Wendy Carlos), who produced the well- known LP record, Switched on Bach (1968). Isao Tomita developed this idea further and made synthesizers quite popular. He used a Moog synthesizer for his arrangements of classical music. After this, several inexpensive synthesizers became available, enabling young people to buy them. Through the mass

production of commercial synthesizers, the means of creating electronic music came within easy reach of young amateur musicians. A large number of commercial electronic music studios augmented their older equipment with the latest top-of-the-line synthesizers. Traditional electronic music composers were now able to set up their own personal private studios, while NHK's electronic music studio gave priority to composers who had never before composed in the field. Electronic music in Japan was taking a different direction than that of either Europe or America. The time of amateur electronic musicians inJapan was arriving.

COMPUrER MUSIC IN JAPAN

The Beginl[iing of Computer Music While electronic music was at its early stage of development in Europe and America, experimentation was also be- ing conducted in computer music. Electronic and computer music developed in similar environments: university laboratories staffed with composers and engineers.

In 1962, Sekine, an assistant profes- sor at Keio University, and Hayashi, an engineer at Toshiba, experimented with the TOSBAC (3100) computer. The result of their experimentation was a piece entitled "TOSBAC Suite," which was played by the Toshiba company or- chestra and which was inspired by the "Illiac Suite" [3]. Kenjiro Ezaki was one of the first composers who experimented with composition using a computer inJapan. The first public performance of the piece occurred during Osaka Expo '70. Later, in 1974, music critic Akimichi Takeda composed "Panoramique Sonore."

In the 1 970s, a number of aesthetic and technological articles and books on computer music were translated into Japanese. In particular, The Computer and Music, compiled by H.B. Lincoln ( 1970) and translated by Kawai-Gakufu publishers (1972), and Formalized Music by I. Xenakis (1971) and partially translated by Y. Takahashi, were of great interest toJapanese musicians. Articles and compositions byJohn Chowning, such as "Turenas" (1972), and some of J. C. Risset's works played important roles. Articles translated or written by Japanese composers such as Ezaki ap- peared in variousJapanese magazines, such as tranSonic and Ongaka-Geijuta.

One of Ezaki's articles was entitled "Contemporary Music and Computers" (December 1970). While some computer scientists inJapan were beginning to present their music-related research, musicians inJapan had little or no access to computers, and almost all university studios remained equipped only with analog machines.

Research and development of computer hardware and software inJapan was primarily carried out at company laboratories for commercial purposes. One of the results of such experimentation was Roland's digital electronic instrument, the MC-8 digital sequencer, a so-called "hybrid system" that controls an analog synthesizer. Another was Yamaha's well-known DX-7 digital FM synthesizer. I am sad to say that the out- put of such experiments was intended to cater to the needs of pop music. In Japan, there is a strong tendency to develop equipment for pop music, but not for serious music. Creative scientific results are not easily combined with creative artistic purposes in the field of serious music. To date, the situation has not changed. At the end of the 1970s, some musicians began to use large computer music systems such as the Fairlight [4].

PERSONAL COMPUrERS By the 1980s, some digital equipment, such as personal computers and digital synthesizers, had become relatively inexpensive. SomeJapanese university studios installed paso-con (personal computers) such as Macintoshes or the Nippon Electric Company (NEC) PC- 8801 or PC-9801. Composers who used this equipment expressed their disap- pointment with the limitations of the software and hardware controlling what such computers can do. (Computer mu-

. . . . S1C, ln my oplnlon, must be experimental and creative, and composers should construct their own hardware and software systems and do their own program- ming. Commercial products are best for general use.) NEC personal computers are popular inJapan and are installed with an FM sound chip, produced by Yamaha, that is mainly used for computer games. At first, the same system was made available free to some composers. The company also provided a special musical computer language in BASIC to users. An effective MIDI system became popular in 1982.

Some composers who studied with mainframe computers at professional

104 Music/Science Forum



studios or at computer music centers in America or Europe brought new computer music technology and systems to Japan. Japanese composers who have been working with electronic music since its beginnings such as Yuasa, who realized his compositions not only in Japan but also at big centers abroad, or Yuji Takahashi, who introduced Xenakis's computer music system and the compositional theory of stochastic music to Japan have rarely continued to compose using computers.

THE NEW GENERATION Except for a few cases, during the 1990s the activities of young composers, such as Hinoharu Matsumoto (born 1945), Hirokazu Hiraishi (born 1948), Kazuo Uehara (born 1949), Shigenobu Nakamura (born 1950), Mamoru Fujieda (born 1955), Takayki Rai (born 1954), Masahiro Miwa (born 1958) all born after World War II have been introduced gradually to the public. Now many young composers are composing mainly with commercial software and hardware produced by companies such as Roland or Opcode, Digidesign, Came-on Music and so on. There is no difference between popular and contemporary music and computer music regarding the use of commercial software. Computer music is a popular term in the field of pop music inJapan. Pop musicians are using this term to describe all kinds of music that utilize digital instruments. Computer music is suitable for both industrial demands and the serious music of the technological professional.

COMPUrER MUSIC CENTER While the electronic studios at the universities are filled with old machines, the first Computer Music Center was established at Kunitachi College of Music in November 1990. Teachers, scientists and composers from Institut Recherche et Coordination Acoustique/Musique (IRCAM), Center for Computer Re- search in Music and Acoustics (CCRMA) of Stanford University, and University of California at San Diego Computer Audio Research Laboratory (UCSD CARL), as well as individuals such asJohn Chowing, Max Mathews, Cort Lippe, Jean-Baptiste Barriere, David Wessel and Curtis Roads to name a few have been invited to the center. Under the advice of these visi- tors, new computer music systems have

been installed, such as Macintosh and NeXT computers combined with IR(CAM Signal Processing Workstation (ISPW). The center is also active in giv- ing open seminars for the beginner.

In my opinion,Japan needs a na- tional center where young composers, performers and scientists could explore possibilities in music and the other arts. Such a facility should provide not only personal computers, but also computer workstations such as SUN or NeXT and mainframe computers; it should allow for cooperation with engineers and scientists with broader interests and back- grounds, such as information theory, psychology, philosophy and ecology. This center should remain free from the influence and control of private interests and industrial demands.

During the 1980s, a new group calledJapan Music and Computer Sci- ence Society (TMACS) started a semi- nar, gathering young engineers, scientists and musicians who belong to technological companies or universities. This group of young people has been meeting and exchanging fresh ideas and discussing the various aspects

,% . Ot computer muslc.

At-t ICMC '93 In September 1993, the International Computer Music Conference (ICMC) was held in Tokyo a first, not only for Japan, but for all of Asia. Previously, this conference had been hosted by Eu- ropean and American countries. The ICMC presented new works and technological research, and its location in Tokyo was of great significance forJa- pan and Asia. Japan paved the way as a model for Asia and other non-Euro- pean countries. The Tokyo I993 ICMC had the following important results:

* It presented a concrete model and organizational system for an international music festival of contemporary music, which has not yet occurred but has been expected for many years

* It broadened the contemporary music community in Japan, which had been limited before then, by gathering many kinds of people belonging to different fields, such as engineers, scientists, composers, musicians and journalists

* It highlighted the latest compositions and developments in computer music systems.

It might be said that ICMC finally brought us up to date with contempo-

rary music movements in Europe and America.

MY COMPUTER MUSIC SYSTEM It is difficult for me to judge the cur- rent situation of computer music in Ja- pan and estimate the worth of other composers. I can merely report on my experiences, which might be typical for aJapanese composer.

I began to compose electronic music at the beginning of 1970s, after which I began to compose for live electronic music. During a stay in Germany, I studied at the studio of Technical University (TU) in Berlin, where I had my first op- portunity to compose using professional equipment.

In the early 1980s, after returning to Japan, I began to compose with a personal computer. I installed sound boards and a MIDI interface board, the Roland PC-98. I first created a sequen- tial program using BASIC as the pro- gramming language, then produced automated compositions by means of my own random-selection methods, using C and Macro Assembler. I also realized a computer installation using two computers that simulated human players with central processing units (CPUs) that selected pitch, length and dynamics acting as the players' brains; monitors showing colors that varied according to the sounds created representing the players' faces, and the main bodies of computers representing human bodies. Through this kind of experimentation, I pondered the symbolic meaning of computer music- its characteristics and possibilities, and what it means to me as a composer. I presented one of my compositions for the first time at ICMC '88 in Cologne.

I adapted some ideas from computer music for instrumental music and also created some pieces with computer- aided composition. For a piano solo, for example, I used the result of a computer calculation to obtain a set of intervals simulating micro-tuning systems and artificial harmonics that combine some pitches of the equal-tempered scale.

It was a wonderful experience for me to study at IRCAM and at Les Ateliers Unite Polyagogigue Informatique de Centre d' Etudes de Mathematique et Automatique Musicales (UPIC) in Paris, where I could use a mainframe computer music system and workstation. Throughout the early l990s, I have been strongly concerned with the

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4. The Fairlight computer music instrument (CMI) was manufactured by Fairlight Instrument Pty. Ltd., Sydney, Australia, and was a useful computer for live performance and used a light pen to input data. It was also used for producing commercial music.

5. Noh theater is a type of traditionalJapanese theater piece with dance that began about 1,000 years ago. Butoh dance is a type of modern dance created by Tatsumi Hijikata following World War II, influenced by Isadora Duncan. Butoh stresses the movement of the body (the flesh) itself.

Bibliography

tranSonic 4 (Autumn 1974). Journal published by Zen-on Gakufu.

Herbert Eimert and Hans Ulrich Humpert. Das Lexikon der electronische Musik (Regensburg, Ger- many: Gustav Bosse Verlag, 1973).

Charles Dodge and Thomas A. Jerse. Computer Mu- sic (New York: Schirmer Books, 1985) .

Bit (Tokyo: Kyoritsu Shuppan, 1987), Supplemen- tary Issue of Computer Science (ACM Computing Sur- veys, 1985) .

Bulletin ofJMACS (1985-1993).

Tomoyasu Taguchi, ed., 'The Technical Base of Music Information Processing" (Osaka: Synthetic Research of Scientific Funds byJapanese Culture Ministry, 1993) (printed reports forJMACS members).

The philosophy of my work promotes interaction and communication between computer, performer and composer.

Acknowledgments While I was writing this article, I was shocked and saddened to hear of the death of Sadamu Ohteru, chief organizer of ICMC '93, Tokyo. I would like to press my palms together in prayer for him. I would like to thank Raul M. Sulit,Jr., who patiently edited and checked the English of this article.

References and Notes 1. Musique concrete began in 1947 at the Radio France studio, Paris, with Pierre Schaeffer and engineer Pierre Henry, using natural sounds as sound sources. Electronic music was first produced at the studio of Herbert Eimert in 1950 at the Westdeutscher Rundfunk, Cologne, using sound from oscillators or sound generators as source sound.

2. Tape music is a style of music that combines the techniques of musique concreteand electronic music.

3. Illiac Suite was the name of both a computer program (using the Illiac computer) developed by Lejaren Hiller and Loren Isaacson at the University of Illinois in 1957 and a piece for string quartet composed with it.

. . . . . . . .

pOSSl )1. ltleS Ot composltlon com zlnlng the computer and traditionalJapanese instruments. I produced a theater piece commissioned by ISCM '90 in Oslo that combined Noh theater and Butoh dance [5] and a 17-gen (string) koto and computer. I create compositions with koto or Shakuhachi, a traditional Japanese bamboo flute with five finger holes, and computer.

Recently I have been working on a _lve lnteractlve computer muslc system, which takes in the live sound of an instrument from a microphone through a system of real-time communication between computer and player. In 1994 I plan to compose a commissioned work for a new UPIC system and the shamisen, aJapanese traditional three-string instrument, at Les Ateliers UPIC. I am planning a concert with a biwa, another Japanese traditional plucked string instrument, and live computer music system.

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the history of electronic and computer music in japan: significant composers and their works

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