The Great War

Causes, Course, and Consequences of the First World War

1900 – Europe’s Oyster

Victoria’s grandchildren

In 1910, the grandchildren of Queen Victoria occupied the thrones of Denmark, Greece, Norway, Germany, Romania, Russia, Spain and the United Kingdom. (photograph from 1880).

Modern Ideas• Concepts like “anomie” (Durkheim, 1897), id and super-ego (Freud,

post-1900) began to change ideas of human behavior• In 1897 physicist JJ Thompson announced his discovery of the

electron while working with cathods. The discovery of sub-atomic particles changes all concepts of the composition of matter

• In 1905 Einstein published his paper on “special relativity” which concerns the relationship of energy and matter, demonstrating that what is seen is not always was “is”

• Expressionism in painting, literature, theater, dance and architecture continued to grow after 1890

• Music without a tonal center grows in performances (if not popularity), due to works by Arnold Schoenberg and others

• Flight (firmly achieved in 1903) will change economics, military strategy, and leisure activities

Class issuesThe growing gap between rich and poor within industrial countries gave rise to more aggressive trade unions, to syndicalist movements and to socialist movements.Most confined themselves to strikes and demonstrations, but some resort to violence (right -- a bomb thrown into the French Parliament in 1893 killed no one but led to government actions against workers).

Propaganda of the deed

Anarchists engaged in campaigns of assassination, in hopes of triggering revolutions (above: funeral procession of Russian Premier Stolypin, murdered in 1911).

Causes of the Great war Alliances call for quick mobilization Mobilization plans based on

timetables for assembly of troops and use of railroads

Germany must avoid a “two-front” war

An unforeseen event can trigger an unwanted conflict

Unrest in Southeast Europe Turkish empire is weakening Austria worried about Serbia and

‘terrorism’ on its southern borders, annexes Bosnia in 1908

War in 1912-13 enlarges Serbia, drives Turkey toward Germany

Russia promotes “pan-Slavism” to offset its defeat in Russo-Japanese war

Serbia seeks to increase its influence at cost of Austria, promotes unrest in Bosnia

Kaiser Bill Extremely insecure and aggressive, Wilhelm nearly started a war in 1911, with a speech in Morocco.

He worried about the “rise of Asia” as a threat to Europe. His generals pressed for a “preventive war” against Russia’s growing forces.

Spark in July 1914SarajevoSerbian nationalists, angry at Austrian annexation of Bosnia, murdered Austrian Prince Franz Josef in Sarajevo. Serbia’s government was implicated in this “act of terror”

Reaction to Sarajevo Austria (encouraged by Germany) gives

ultimatum to Serbia Serbia appeals to Russia for help Russia, with slower mobilization facilities moves

its troops after Austria mobilizes Germany, fearing a two front war with both

Russia and France, mobilizes its troops Italy drops out of Triple Alliance

TimelineJuly 31 -- As an ally of Serbia, Russia announces full mobilization of her armed forces.

Aug 1 -- Germany mobilizes her armed forces and declares war Russia.

Aug 3 – Germany declares war on France.

Aug 4 – Germany declares war on Belgium and invades immediately. Britain declares war of Germany.

 Aug 6 -- Austria declares war on Russia.

German plan of attack

The Marne

After British troops delayed the advancing Germans, French reinforcements pushed back the threat to Paris. A “race to the channel’ ensued and trench warfare began.

Russian army falters

German victory at Tannenberg offset the defeat before Paris.

A stalemate set in on the western front.

Popular appeal of “war”

Newfoundland, Autumn 1914

Trench warfare

Miserable conditions, constant danger from artillery fire, heavy casualties in attacks over “no man’s land.”

Gas warfare

French use of tear gas in 1914 prompted Germany to begin poison gas attacks, in order to break the stalemate on western front.

Advent of air warfare

The airplane’s value as a reconnaissance tool grew until both sides deployed large numbers of aircraft.

Bombing techniques were primitive

Bombing

Pilot’s as celebrities

British naval blockade of Germany meant slow starvation

Serbia vs. Austria

Heavily outnumbered, the Serbians relied on “irregular warfare” – partisans, whose style of fighting was viewed by regular soldiers as terrorism.

Stalemate in France – attempts to open other ‘fronts’ to help Russia

Britain and Middle east

War with Turkey

Seeking new fronts

After Turkey entered the war alongside Germany, the British navy sought to use Australian troops to seize Constantinople – but another deadlock began in the Gallipoli peninsula, with heavy losses for both sides.

Slaughter at Gallipoli

Churchill and Gallipoli

Winston Churchill at the time of the Boer War, 1900

Massacres

While suffering further losses in battles against Russia, Turkish forces killed hundreds of thousands of Armenian civilians in 1915-16.

Disaster on the road to Bagdad

Forces from India, attempting to seize Bagdad, suffered disaster in 1915-16

At the Somme (1916), the British army lost 60,000 men in five hours

War weariness

An entire generation of talent and leadership was being destroyed in the war.

The Great War and culture

Writers, poets, painters, etc. began to question if the war would completely destroy western civilization.

Mutiny

France held off the German attempt to take Verdun in 1916, but suffered such heavy casualties that units mutinied soon after. Germany hoped to win in 1917, if they could force Russia out of the war.

Doubts about Europe’s “supremacy”

As European nationals continued to kill one another, the “colonials” in Europe began to doubt the wisdom of the “white rulers.” Mohandas Gandhi (above) served in a medical unit in France, and began to plan for the freedom of India.

New Weapons – The Tank

Technology and death

Submarine warfare

Sinking of Lusitania

US sympathy for victims

U.S. groups organized aid for Serbia, Belgium, other smaller nations caught up in the Great War

US Navy prepares for war

Disaster in RussiaDefeats in battle, poor management by Tsar Nicholas, and distrust of Nicholas’ “German wife” Alexandra, led to a collapse of the Russian war effort. Soldiers deserted and workers rioted. Unable to keep order, Nicholas abdicated his throne in 1917.

Revolution in Russia

Factions fight for control, independenceU.S., Britain, and Japan, sent troops to Russia to oppose Lenin’s government. Russian and American soldiers fought a pitched battle outside the post of Archangel.

The Soviet Union termed this the beginning of the “cold war.”

StalinExtremely ruthless, very cunning, Stalin was merciless in forcing non-Russians to accept the authority of the Bolsheviks. To save ammunition, he held thousands of rebels and prisoners in Volga boats – then sunk them in the river.

Civil war in Russia

War and propaganda

Every nation had secret treaties for obtaining territory from the losers

Every nation sought to convince world opinion that the war was the fault of someone else

US neutrality (until 1917) based on the view that all were at fault

US businesses were selling arms to Britain and France

American entry into war U.S. public increasingly angry over

German atrocities in Belgium, France Zimmerman telegram proposes

German alliance with Mexico against U.S.

German’s decide to unleash “unrestricted” submarine warfare in late 1916

The Fourteen Points

When US entered war, President Wilson made the US war aim a “world safe for democracy”

The Fourteen Points No secret treaties Freedom of the seas Free trade Armament reductions Self determination of peoples, based on cultural values of

nationality (including an independent Poland, breakup of Turkish empire, adjustment of Austrian empire, restoration of Belgium, and replacement of European colonies by “territories” to be given independence).

An international organization for maintaining peace and preventing future wars by negotiations – Wilson called it a “League of nations”

U.S. in France

Allied successes after the Spring of 1918 open the way for an advance into Germany.

German collapse

Exhaustion, starvation and influenza brings collapse

The hero in Paris

Hurrying to Paris, Wilson was hailed as the “savior of Europe” – but France’s Clemenceau (left) and Britain’s Lloyd George (right) already claimed that they had “won the battle” before the Americans arrived in force.

Re-mapping Europe

Treaty RejectedWilson conceded point after point to get the treaty finished and after he returned to the U.S., the Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles. The U.S. never joined the League of Nations as Wilson had intended.

U.S. Regrets Role in War

In 1920, American voters elected Warren Harding as President. Because Harding had opposed the Treaty of Versailles, this vote was taken as a rejection of America’s role in the Great War. By the mid-1920s, U.S. history books called American entry in the war “a mistake.”

The new Europe

France and Britain bankrupt, Russia ostracized, Italy alienated and Germany is filled with resentment. Europe’s light has dimmed.