the food system during the formative period in west mesoamerica1

18
The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica 1 DANIEL ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL * ,ALONDRA FLORES-SILVA, AND PATRICIA COLUNGA-GARCÍAMARÍN Unidad de Recursos Naturales, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C., Mérida, México *Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected] The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica. How was the food system structured in West Mesoamerica during the Formative Period (2400 B.C.E.100 C.E.)? The answer is important to understanding the high cultural development accomplished by the Mesoamerican civilizations throughout the Early Classic Period (100400 C.E.). In the same native communities of Náhuatl origins for which we previously reconstructed their putative preceramic food system, we investigated the ancient dishes that could have been developed in the Formative Period; we cooked using wild, cultivated, and domesticated native plants; and we employed ceramic technologies from that time. We also recorded the ceramic objects from the Formative Period and Early Classic Period exhibited in local museums that had representations of plants, animals, and foods. We found that the Formative Period food system could have included more than 66 dishes and drinks with 29 cultivated and domesticated native plants. Compared with the putative Archaic Period food system, its nucleus continued to be composed by Zea mays, Phaseolus spp., Cucurbita argyrosperma, Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme, Physalis philadelphica, Capsicum annum, Hyptis suaveolens, and Spondias purpurea. These plants probably had more variants than in the preceramic period, and maize gained greater relevance. The most important innovations were cooking in water and vapor, nixtamalization (soaking and cooking with water that contains lime), and possibly distillation. The elaboration of food using ceramics could have facilitated the transformation of the ingredients, raised their quality and the number of dishes, and introduced new selective pressures on the cultivated plants, all of which probably had an impact on their diversification, domestication and productivity, and on the complexity of the agrofood system. El Sistema alimentario durante el Período Formativo en el Oeste de Mesoamérica. ¿Cómo se estructuró el sistema alimentario durante el Periodo Formativo en el Occidente de Mesoamérica (2400 a.C.100 d.C.)? La respuesta es importante para entender el alto desarrollo cultural que alcanzaron las civilizaciones Mesoamericanas en el Periodo Clásico temprano (100 d.C.400 d.C.). En las mismas comunidades nativas de origen Náhuatl para las cuales previamente reconstruimos su sistema alimentario precerámico putativo, investigamos los platillos antiguos que pudieron haberse desarrollado en el Periodo Formativo usando plantas nativas silvestres, cultivadas y domesticadas, y empleando tecnología cerámica de ese periodo. Registramos además, objetos de cerámica de los periodos Formativo y Clásico Temprano exhibidos en museos y catálogos que representan plantas, animales y alimentos. Encontramos que el sistema alimentario pudo incluir más de 66 platillos y bebidas elaborados con 29 plantas nativas cultivadas y domesticadas. Su núcleo siguió conformado por Zea mays, Phaseolus spp., Cucurbita argyrosperma, Solanum 1 Received 29 April 2013; accepted 11 February 2014; published online 5 March 2014. Electronic supplementary material The online ver- sion of this article (doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9262-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. Economic Botany, 68(1), 2014, pp. 6784 © 2014, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

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Page 1: The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica1

The Food System during the Formative Period in WestMesoamerica1

DANIEL ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL*, ALONDRA FLORES-SILVA,AND PATRICIA COLUNGA-GARCÍAMARÍN

Unidad de Recursos Naturales, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán A.C., Mérida, México*Corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected]

The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica. How was the foodsystem structured in West Mesoamerica during the Formative Period (2400 B.C.E.–100 C.E.)?The answer is important to understanding the high cultural development accomplished bythe Mesoamerican civilizations throughout the Early Classic Period (100–400 C.E.). In thesame native communities of Náhuatl origins for which we previously reconstructed theirputative pre–ceramic food system, we investigated the ancient dishes that could have beendeveloped in the Formative Period; we cooked using wild, cultivated, and domesticatednative plants; and we employed ceramic technologies from that time. We also recorded theceramic objects from the Formative Period and Early Classic Period exhibited in localmuseums that had representations of plants, animals, and foods. We found that theFormative Period food system could have included more than 66 dishes and drinks with 29cultivated and domesticated native plants. Compared with the putative Archaic Period foodsystem, its nucleus continued to be composed by Zea mays, Phaseolus spp., Cucurbitaargyrosperma, Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme, Physalis philadelphica, Capsicumannum, Hyptis suaveolens, and Spondias purpurea. These plants probably had more variantsthan in the pre–ceramic period, and maize gained greater relevance. The most importantinnovations were cooking in water and vapor, nixtamalization (soaking and cooking withwater that contains lime), and possibly distillation. The elaboration of food using ceramicscould have facilitated the transformation of the ingredients, raised their quality and thenumber of dishes, and introduced new selective pressures on the cultivated plants, all ofwhich probably had an impact on their diversification, domestication and productivity, and onthe complexity of the agro–food system.

El Sistema alimentario durante el Período Formativo en el Oeste de Mesoamérica. ¿Cómo seestructuró el sistema alimentario durante el Periodo Formativo en el Occidente deMesoamérica (2400 a.C.– 100 d.C.)? La respuesta es importante para entender el altodesarrollo cultural que alcanzaron las civilizaciones Mesoamericanas en el Periodo Clásicotemprano (100 d.C.–400 d.C.). En las mismas comunidades nativas de origen Náhuatl paralas cuales previamente reconstruimos su sistema alimentario pre–cerámico putativo,investigamos los platillos antiguos que pudieron haberse desarrollado en el PeriodoFormativo usando plantas nativas silvestres, cultivadas y domesticadas, y empleandotecnología cerámica de ese periodo. Registramos además, objetos de cerámica de losperiodos Formativo y Clásico Temprano exhibidos en museos y catálogos que representanplantas, animales y alimentos. Encontramos que el sistema alimentario pudo incluir más de 66platillos y bebidas elaborados con 29 plantas nativas cultivadas y domesticadas. Su núcleosiguió conformado por Zea mays, Phaseolus spp., Cucurbita argyrosperma, Solanum

1 Received 29 April 2013; accepted 11 February2014; published online 5 March 2014.

Electronic supplementary material The online ver-sion of this article (doi:10.1007/s12231-014-9262-y)contains supplementary material, which is available toauthorized users.

Economic Botany, 68(1), 2014, pp. 67–84© 2014, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.

Page 2: The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica1

lycopersicum var. cerasiforme, Physalis philadelphica, Capsicum annum, Hyptis suaveolens,and Spondias purpurea. Estas plantas probablemente tuvieron más variantes que en elperiodo pre–cerámico, y el maíz adquirió mayor relevancia. El cocimiento en agua y vapor, elremojo y cocimiento en agua con cal (nixtamalización) y, posiblemente, la destilación, fueronlas innovaciones más importantes. La elaboración de alimentos usando cerámica pudofacilitar la transformación de los ingredientes, incrementar su calidad y el número de platillos,e introducir nuevas presiones selectivas sobre las plantas cultivadas, todo lo cualprobablemente impactó en su diversificación, domesticación y productividad, así como enla complejidad del sistema agro–alimentario.

Key Words: Agro–food system, foodways, Formative Period, Milpa, Zea, Phaseolus,Cucurbita, Capsicum, Solanum, ethnobotany, West Mesoamerica.

IntroductionWest Mesoamerica has been pinpointed as an

important plant domestication center in the NewWorld (Piperno et al. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009;Zizumbo-Villarreal and Colunga-GarcíaMarín2010). Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. (2012) proposedthat its food system could have been shaped sincethe Archaic Period (7000–2400 B.C.E.), based onat least 68 plant species, as agaves (Agave spp.), corn(Zea mays L.), beans (Phaseolus spp.), squash(Cucurbita argyrosperma Huber), chili (Capsicumannuum L.), fleshy chía (Hyptis suaveolens (L.)Poit., and hog plum (Spondias purpurea L.), eatenin dishes prepared using the following examples ofpre–ceramic techniques: wet grinding on stone,roasting directly on fire or ash, pit cooking, soakinggrains in water with ash, and fermentation. Theyalso proposed that the nutritional complementarityof these species accomplished in the Archaic dietcould be one of the incentives for their domestica-tion, and for the development of the complextraditional system of the area (the milpa).But what happened to the food system in the

later period, when pottery was discovered? Theanswer is important to understanding the highcultural development accomplished by theMesoamerican civilizations throughout the EarlyClassic Period (100–400 C.E.). The oldestceramic fragments reported for Mesoamerica werefound on the Pacific coast, near Acapulco, anddate back to 2400 B.C.E. (Brush 1965). Thisdate marks the beginning of the Formative Periodin West Mesoamerica, a period that, according toBeekman (2010), documents the earliest seden-tary populations in the area and the continuingspread of agriculture.The Formative Period in West Mesoamerica

has been subdivided into three periods: EarlyFormative (2400–1100 B.C.E.), Middle

Formative (900–400 B.C.E.), and LateFormative (400 B.C.E.–100 C.E.). By the EarlyFormative Period (2400–1100 B.C.E.), WestMesoamerica already shared ceramic styles, likethe use of resist and red–on–brown decorationand exotic bottle forms, as well as a strong senseof place in the landscape claimed through familytombs and cemeteries (Beekman 2010). Processestoward political centralization and social inequal-ity, according to this author, began in thehighlands during the Late Formative Period(400 B.C.E.–100 C.E.), although membershipin corporate social groups and not individualaccomplishment was the likely vehicle for defin-ing wealth and status. Funeral structures andburial traditions of this area included the offeringof sumptuary and daily life objects, like projectilepoints, grinding stones, pots for food processing,but also decorated vessels with representations ofplants, animals, foods, and people (Kelly 1980;Mountjoy 2012). These remains allow us tounderstand some of their daily lives.Based on the past decade of archaeological

research, Beekman (2010) divides Mesoamericain five subregions that have had different charac-teristics and historical trajectories since theFormative Period: the coast, the far westernhighlands, the eastern slopes of the Sierra MadreOccidental, the Bajío, and the eastern highlands.Our study area belongs to the low–to–middleelevations of Colima and southern Jalisco, in thetransition between the coast and the far westernhighlands subregions. The ceramic characteristicof each period follows.The Early Formative is represented in the

Colima Valley by the ceramic corpus denominatedCapacha (1800–1200 B.C.E.) (Kelly 1980),characterized by its similar deeply engraved orzone–painted ceramics, often using exotic stirrupspout or bottle forms. The complexity of Capacha

68 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 68

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ceramics suggests an accelerated cultural processbetween 2400 B.C.E. and 1800 B.C.E. Itincludes concave plates (cajetes), deep vessels(cántaros), deep pots (ollas), wide–mouth bowls(ollas boca ancha), bottles, stirrup pots, andcompound vessels united by one, two, and threetubes (types: bottle gourd, bifid, and trifid) withincised and punctate decoration, and associatedwith miniature vessels (Kelly 1980; Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2009a, Figs. 3–5).

The Middle Formative Period is represented inthe Mascota Valley, Jalisco, by the ceramic corpusdenominated El Pantano (900 B.C.E.), distin-guished by the presence of reddish–orange jars,and new types of bowls, like pots to cook beans(ollas frijoleras o de tapa de agua), steamers ofvarious shapes, and bottles for liquids (Mountjoy2012).

The Late Formative Period is represented onthe coast of Colima by Los Ortíces (100 B.C.E.)and the Morett ceramic corpuses (300 B.C.E.)(Kelly 1980; Meighan 1972), characteristic ofthem are gadrooned jars, bowls, and new designsof bottles, made with fine workmanship.

The Early Classic Period in the Colima Valleyis represented by the ceramic corpus Comala(100–400 C.E.), which is distinguished by itshigh diversity of shapes and sizes of pots, vessels,and bottles made with delicate workmanship.There are many hollow vessels with representa-tions of plants and animals, which could havebeen used as food sources (Butterwick 2000; Kanet al. 1989; Kelly 1980; Schöndube 2000).

The main objective of the present study was toinvestigate how the food system was structuredduring the Formative Per iod in WestMesoamerica, answering the following questions:(1) What cultivated and domestic native plantscould have constituted the agro–alimentary sys-tem? and (2) What dishes could have comprisedthe Formative food system? We discuss howceramic utensils for cooking, and related tech-niques, could have expanded the human ability totransform, store, and consume food, as well asincreased the diversification of dishes and thecapacity of human selection on plants andanimals, augmenting the complexity and produc-tivity of the agro–food system.

MethodologyThe study was carried out in the municipality

of Zapotitlán de Vadillo, Jalisco (Fig. 1), whichculturally lies in the transition between the coast

and the far western highland subregions ofMesoamer ica (Beekman 2010) , andbiogeographically in the Balsas–Jalisco province(Ferrusquía–Villafranca 1990).

There is no certainty about the ethnic affilia-tion of the local population in the FormativePeriod, but it is possible that they belonged to theSouthern Uto–Aztecan speech community(Beekman 2010), either following the modelproposed by Hill (2001, 2006) on the origin,distribution, and dispersal of this speech commu-nity, or the Merrill et al. (2009) model. At thetime of the arrival of the Spaniards, the localpopulation spoke Western Peripheral Náhuatl, aUto–Aztecan language closely related to theClassic Náhuatl, spoken by the Aztecs (Dakin2003). At present, in the area of study, thistongue is almost lost. We assume in this workthat the current people of the area are descen-dants of the human populations that inhabitedthe region in the Formative Period and that theymaintained their basic foodways even if theyreceived different cultural influences over time.So, at present it is possible to find ancient disheselaborated with native plants that could have beenknown since the Formative Period.

The study was conducted in eight communitieslocated along an altitudinal gradient between 600and 1,600 meters above sea level (masl), on well–drained volcanic soils, and a tropical climate withrain from July to September (Fig. 1). Cruz Blancaand Mazatán are located between 600 and 800masl in spiny tropical deciduous forest vegetationwith cacti, receive a mean annual rainfall of 579mm, and have an average annual temperature of25°C. Tetapán and Perempitz are located be-tween 800 and 1,200 masl in tropical deciduousforest vegetation, receive 665 mm of mean annualprecipitation, and have an average annual tem-perature of 22.5°C. Zapotitlán, Huitzometl,Telcruz, and Zacalmécatl are located between1,200 and 1,600 masl in dry tropical forest andpine–oak forest vegetation, receive a mean annualrainfall of 715 mm, and have an average annualtemperature of 21°C (Vázquez et al. 1995).

The information about the oldest dishes of theregion, and the plants and technology used toelaborate them, was obtained from 40 informants(26 women and 14 men who were between 45and 98 years old; the average age was 69). Threeof them live in Cruz Blanca, one in Huitzometl,three in Mazatán, two in Perempitz, twelve in

69ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

Page 4: The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica1

Telcruz, two in Tetapán, three in Zacalmécatl,and fourteen in Zapotitlán.Using open–ended interviews, we inventoried

the dishes and beverages that the informants hadprepared in the same manner since the time oftheir great grandfathers (the grandfathers of theirgrandfathers), using ceramic utensils and wild,cultivated, and domestic native species that couldhave existed in the Formative Period. Viaparticipative research, we registered the plantsand technology employed during the food prep-aration, keeping a photographic registry of plantsand processes.The botanical samples of plants used were

deposited in the herbaria of the Centro deInvestigación Científica de Yucatán (CICY) andthe Instituto de Botánica–Universidad deGuadalajara (IBUG). Seed samples of domesticatedplants were deposited in the Banco deGermoplasma of the Instituto de Manejo yAprovechamiento de Recursos Fitogenéticos(IMAREFI)–Universidad de Guadalajara. We iden-tified the corn samples following the methodologyand classification used by Wellhausen et al. (1952).We looked over the archaeological registry for

plants, fauna, and technology related with food

elaboration reported for the study area during theFormative and Early Classic periods (Butterwick2000; García-Oropeza et al. 1998; Kan et al.1989; Kelly 1980; Meighan 1972; Mountjoy2012; Valdez 2000; Vela 2005). We alsoreviewed the collections exhibited in the follow-ing museums: Regional de Historia de Colima(Colima, Colima), de las Culturas de OccidenteMaría Ahumada de Gómez (Colima, Colima),Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo (Nogueras, Colima),Casa de la Cultura de Tecomán (Tecomán,Col ima), Univers i tar io de Arqueología(Manzanillo, Colima), Arqueológico de Mascota(Mascota, Jalisco), Regional de Guadalajara(Guadalajara, Jalisco), and Regional Michoacano(Morelia, Michoacán).

ResultsPLANTS THAT COULD HAVE BEEN PARTOF THE FOOD SYSTEM IN THE FORMATIVE

PERIOD

We recorded 33 cultivated species used atpresent to elaborate ancient dishes that couldhave been part of the agro–food system in theFormative Period; 29 of them native species and

Fig. 1. West Mesoamerica, study area and communities.

70 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 68

Page 5: The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica1

Table1.

CULT

IVATED

AND

DOMEST

ICPL

ANTSUSE

DIN

ANCIENTDISHESIN

ZAPO

TITLÁ

N,JALISC

O,M

ÉXIC

O,W

HIC

HPR

ESU

MABLY

WEREPA

RTOFTHEFO

OD

SYST

EM

OF

THEFO

RMATIVEPE

RIO

D:FO

RM

OFTRANSF

ORMATIO

N,PA

RTUSE

D,METHOD

OFPR

ESE

RVATIO

N,AND

HARVEST

PERIO

D.

ScientificNam

eLo

calNam

eandVarieties

Form

ofTransform

ation

PartUsed

Preservatio

nHarvest

Agave

angustifolia

Haw

.*Azulcriollo,Brocha,Cenizo,

Chancuellar,Cuaquesoca,

Cuchara,Ixtero

verde,

Lineño,Negro,Pencud

o,Perempitz,Prieto,Telcruz.

Syrup,

ferm

ented,

distilled

Stem

andleaf

bases

Baked

anddried,

distilled

Allyear

Agave

maximilianaBaker*

Mezcalpu

lquero

Ferm

ented

Stem

sap

Ferm

ented

Allyear

Agave

rhodacanthaTrel.*

Ixtlero

amarillo

Syrup,

ferm

ented,

distilled

Stem

andleaf

bases

Baked

anddried,

distilled

Allyear

Ann

onalongifloraS.

Watson*

Anona

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nJun–

Oct

Ann

onareticulataL.*

Anona

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nJun–

Oct

Capsicum

annuum

L.*

Mirasol,Colade

rata,Bola,Piquin

Fresh,

dried,

ground

Fruit

Dried

Nov–Jan

Cucurbita

argyrospermaHub

er*

Buchona:verde,pintaandchana;

Redonda:verde,pintaand

rayada;Botellona

verde:pinta

andchana.

Baked,boiled,

toasted

Flow

er,fruitand

seeds

Dried

(seeds)

Nov–Jan

Cucurbita

ficifolia

Bouché**

Chilacayote:blanco

andverde

Boiled

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nNov–Jan

Cucurbita

moschataDuchesne**

Amelonada:pintaandgris;Bola:

verdeandrayada.

Baked,boiled,

toasted

Flow

er,fruitand

seeds

Dried

(seeds)

Nov–Jan

Cucurbita

pepo

L.**

Cascarona

buchona:verdeand

amarilla;Cascarona

costillona:

verdeandam

arilla;Pellejo

buchona:verdeandam

arilla;

Pellejo

redond

a:verdeandam

arilla

Baked,boiled,

toasted

Flow

er,fruitand

seeds

Dried

(seeds)

Nov–Jan

Diospyrosdigyna

Jacq.**

Zapotenegro

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nAug–Oct

Hylocereusocam

ponis(Salm–Dyck)

Britton

&Rose*

Pitahaya

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nJun–

Jul

Hylocereuspurpusii(W

eing.)

Britton

&Rose*

Pitahaya

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nJun–

Jul

Hyptis

suaveolens

(L.)Po

it.*

Chan:

blanco

andnegro

Fresh

Seed

Dried

Nov–Jan

Jacaratia

mexicanaA.DC*

Bonete

Fresh,

roasted,

boiled

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nMar–Apr

Leucaena

leucocephala

(Lam

.)de

Wit.*

Guaje

Fresh

Seeds

Nopreservatio

nDec–Feb

Nopalea

karwinskiana

(Salm–Dyck)

K.Schum

.*Nopal

Fresh,

boiled

Stem

Nopreservatio

nMar–Apr

(Contin

ued)

71ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

Page 6: The Food System during the Formative Period in West Mesoamerica1

TABLE1.

(CONTIN

UED).

ScientificNam

eLo

calNam

eandVarieties

Form

ofTransform

ation

PartUsed

Preservatio

nHarvest

Opuntia

ficus–indica

(L.)Mill.*

Tun

aFresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nSept

Pachycereuspecten–aboriginum

(Engelm.ex

S.Watson)

Britton

&Rose*

Pitaya

decuervo

Fresh,

boiled

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nMar–Apr

Pachyrhizuserosus

(L.)Urb.*

Jícama

Fresh

Root

Nopreservatio

nNov–Jan

Persea

americanaMill.*

Aguacate:bolaandlargo

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nJul–Sept

PhaseoluscoccineusL.*

Frijolyegüa

Boiled

Seed

Dried

Jan–

Mar

PhaseoluslunatusL.*

Cuaresm

eño,

Ancho,Güerito

Boiled

Seed

Dried

Jan–

Mar

PhaseolusvulgarisL.

*Apetito,

Morado,

Azufrado,

Bayo,

Berrend

o,Chicote,

Castillacoloradito,Demilpa,

Flor

demayo,

Garbancillo,

Vaca,Güerito,Higuerillo.

Boiled

Seed

Dried

Nov–Jan

Physalisphiladelphica

Lam.*

Tom

atillo:

Demilpa,Decáscara

Fresh,

grilled–marinated

Fruit

Dried

Aug–Oct

Pouteria

sapota

(Jacq.)

H.E.Moore

&Stearn*

Mam

eyFresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nMar–Apr

Psidium

guajavaL.*

Guayaba:blanca,am

arillaandrosa

Fresh,

dried,

boiled

Fruit

Dried

May–Jul

Psidium

sartorianum

(O.Berg)

Nied.*

Guayabilla

Fresh,

dried,

boiled.

Fruit

Dried

May–Jul

Rubussp.*

Zarzamora

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nMay–Jul

Solanum

lycopersicum

var.cerasiforme

(Dun

al)D.M.Spooner,

G.J.And

erson&

R.K.Jansen

*

Jitomate:de

milpa,bola;

bule,largo,

riñón

Fresh,

dried,

boiled

Fruit

Nopreservatio

n,dried

Nov–Jan

Spondias

purpurea

L.*

Ciruela:am

arilla,borracha,

malacatito

,tecomana,morada

Fresh

Fruit

Nopreservatio

nMay–Jul

Stenocereusqueretaroensis

(F.A.C.Weber

exMathes.)Buxb.*

Pitaya

Fresh,

dried,

boiled

Fruit

Dried

Apr–Jun

Zea

maysL.

*Reventador:blanco,am

arillo;

Chapalote:blanco,am

arillo,

rojo,negro;

Harinosode

Ochoor

Ancho:blanco,am

arillo,

morado,

negro;

Dulce:naranja,

amarillo,

rojo;Tabloncillo:

blanco,am

arillo,

negro,

rojo;

Tabloncilloperla;E

lotesoccidentales.

Nixtamalized,ground

ed,

toasted,

soaked

inashes,

ferm

ented,

steam

boiled,

fresh.

Grain

Dried

Nov–Jan

*Nativeplant(29);**Plantpossibly

introduced

intheFo

rmativePeriod.

72 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 68

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4 introduced from other regions of Mesoamerica(Table 1 and Appendix I—ElectronicSupplementary Material [ESM]). We also record-ed 75 wild native plants that possiblycomplemented the diet seasonally, the same 68that we reported for the Archaic Period(Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2012, 334–335 andTable 1), plus 7 species that we did not report butprobably were also used in the Archaic Period:Phaseolus coccineus L., Cucurbita radicans Naud,Amaranthus hybridus L., Amaranthus spinosus L.,Chenopodium ambrosioides L., Portulaca oleraceaL., and Phytolacca sp. The leaves of the last five,which generically are called quelites, are consumedboiled.

We think that these plants could have formedpart of the diet of the inhabitants of the area inthe Formative Period because all of them havewild ancestors in the area, and the flora of WestMesoamerica has not suffered significant changesin the last 9,000 years (Piperno et al. 2007).There is archaeobotanical and molecular evidencethat some of the species, such as Zea mays andCucurbita spp. (Matsuoka et al. 2002; Piperno etal. 2009; Ranere et al. 2009), were domesticatedsince the Archaic Period in the portion of WestMesoamerica that is within the biogeographicalregion Balsas–Jalisco. For other species likePhaseolus vulgaris L., P. lunatus L. (Kwak et al.2009; Serrano-Serrano et al. 2012), S. purpurea(Miller and Schaal 2006), H. suaveolens (Vergara-Santana et al. 2005), Agave rhodacantha Trel.,and A. angustifolia Haw. (Carrillo-Galván 2012;Vargas-Ponce et al. 2007) there is molecular,morphological, or physiological evidence; howev-er, there are no archaeobotanical records. There isstill some doubt of whether P. oleracea andSolanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme (Dunal) D.M. Spooner, G. J. Anderson & R. K. Jansen werepresent in the food system during the FormativePeriod.

Portulaca oleracea was considered an introduc-tion from Europe by De Candolle (1883). Thishypothesis has been refuted because this species isa polyploid complex: 2x, 4x, and 6x, and allgenotypes occur in America, while in Europe onlythe 4x and 6x exist. There are archaeologicalrecords of the domesticated genotypes (6x) priorto 1492 on both continents, but the Americanrecords are older. This species exhibits in Mexicoits greatest morphological, physiological, andecological diversity (Danin et al. 1978; Daninand Reyes-Betancourt 2006). Ta

ble2.

MAIZERACESGROWN

INTHEMUNIC

IPALITYOFZAPO

TITLÁ

NJALISC

O,M

ÉXIC

O,W

HIC

HPR

ESU

MABLY

WERECULT

IVATED

DURIN

GTHEFO

RMATIVEPE

RIO

DIN

THEST

UDIED

AREA.ORIG

IN,ACTUALUSE

S,TYPE

OFRECORD,AND

REFE

RENCES.

Race

Origin

Uses

Record

References*

Nal–Tel

Native,Archaic

Popcorn–Pinole

Geological,Archaeological

A,B

Reventador

Native,Archaic

Popcorn–Pinole

Geological,Archaeological

A,B,F

Chapalote

Native,Archaic

Pinole–Tam

alGeological,Botanical–Archaeological

A,B,C,D,E:57

Harinosode

ocho

orAncho

Introduced,Prehistoric

Atole–Pozole

Geological,Botanical–Archaeological

C,D,E:41

,G

Dulce

Introduced,Prehistoric

Pinole,Ponteduro–

Tendercorn

–Tejuino

Botanical

A,H

Tabloncillo

Pre–historiccross

Atole–Tam

al–Tejuino

Botanical–Archaeological

A,D:Fig2d,

HElotesOccidentales

Pre–historiccross

Tendercorn–Pozolillo–Pozole

Botanical

A,H

*ReferencesforOrigin:

(A)Wellhausenetal.1

952.

Fortype

ofrecord:(B)Museo

RegionalM

ichoacano;(C)Gardu

ño-M

onroyetal.2

009;

(D)Museo

Alejand

roRangelH

idalgo

Nogueras,Colim

a;(E)García-Oropeza

etal.19

98;(F)Thompson

2003

;(G

)Beekm

anandBaden

2011

;(H

)Ron-Parra

etal.20

06.

73ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

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Solanum lycopersicum var. cerasiforme originatedin South America. It is not known when it couldhave arrived (probably dispersed by birds) or howlong it could have taken to reach its presentample distribution in Mesoamerica as a ruderaland weed plant, but there is evidence that it wasdomesticated in the present Mexican states ofVeracruz and Puebla (Blanca et al. 2012; Jenkins1948). These biological processes could havetaken a long time, which makes possible itspresence in the study area during the FormativePeriod (Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2012).We recorded three species of Agave used for

making old dishes. These species have at presentat least 15 traditional varieties (Table 1), of whichIxtero verde (A. angustifolia) and Ixtero amarillo(A. rhodacantha) are considered the most ancient.Agave angustifolia and A. maximiliana Baker arerepresented in funerary offerings dated from 400–600 C.E. in a way that suggests they wereprobably cultivated for their use as food andbeverages (Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2009b).We found seven ancient races of corn and 19

variants used to make 20 old dishes. Two of themare archaic races (Chapalote and Reventador), twoare prehistoric races (Harinoso de Ocho andDulce), and three are prehistoric crosses(Tabloncillo, Tabloncillo Perla, and ElotesOccidentales (a subrace of Harinoso de Ocho)(Tables 1 and 2). Our morphological analysis ofcarbonized samples of maize cobs associated withstoves of the Classic Period (384 C.E.), reportedby Jácome (2012), indicates that they belong tothe Nal–tel race. We also analyzed the morphol-ogy of several corncob impressions that werereported by Garduño–Monroy et al. (2009,Fig. 4) as being found on the lava of theQuinceo volcano (subregion Eastern Highlands),probably from around 1880 B.C.E. and 1700B.C.E., according to Fisher et al. (2003) and theGlobal Volcanism Program Database (2013). Ouranalysis suggests that they belong to the complexChapalote/Harinoso de Ocho races. Wellhausen etal. (1952, Fig. 4) analyzed other corncob impres-sions left in this same lava (Museo RegionalMichoacano). Their analysis suggests the presenceof the race Cónico, as well as a race that could beChapalote or Nal–Tel. The analysis of maizephytoliths found in ceramic vessels suggests thatthe Reventador race was present during the LateFormative Period (300–100 B.C.E.) in theTequila Valley (Thompson 2003). Beekman andBaden (2011) suggest that Harinoso de ocho was

cultivated in the Early Classic Period (200–300C.E.) in this valley. We didn’t find the Palomerojaliscience (a subrace of Palomero toluqueño),reported in the 1950s as growing in the Colimavolcanoes surroundings by Wellhausen et al.(1952).We identified the Chapalote, Harinoso de ocho,

and Tabloncillo races in ceramic vessels thatrepresent domestic dogs biting maize cobs,exhibited in several museums (Fig. 2). Thesevessels are characteristic of the Early ClassicPeriod (100–400 C.E.) and have been found inlarge quantities as offerings in shaft tombs(García-Oropeza et al. 1998, 69 and 77),suggesting they were commonly cultivated andconsumed. Stable isotopic studies on skeletalremains have revealed that the human popula-tions of the studied area consumed primarilymaize during the Formative and Early ClassicPeriods (Cahue et al. 2002 cited by Beekman2010; Jácome 2012). Hence, in our study area,the data suggest that the Nal–Tel, Chapalote,Reventador, Harinoso de ocho, and Tabloncilloraces could have been cultivated and consumedduring the Late Formative and Early Classicperiods.We recorded three species of domesticated

Phaseolus, with 12 varieties used for old dishes.We also recorded, as part of the old dishes, fourdomesticated species of Cucurbita with 23 culti-vars (Table 1). Three species are represented invessels of the Comala phase (100–700 C.E.): C.argyrosperma, Cucurbita moschata Duchesne, andCucurbita pepo L. (Vela 2005, 23, 51, 53; Kan etal. 1989, 163 [figure 176], 167 [figure 186], 169[figure 190]; Schöndube 2000, 216 [figure 19]).The first—C. argyrosperma—was possibly domes-ticated in the Balsas–Jalisco region. The secondspecies—Cucurbita moschata—was possibly intro-duced during the Formative Period from SouthAmerica (Piperno and Dillehay 2008). The thirdspecies—Cucurbita pepo—was also possibly intro-duced during the Formative Period, but fromanother Mesoamerican region (Smith 2001).We found wild, cultivated, and domestic chili

peppers (C. annuum), tomatoes (Solanumlycopersicum L.), tomatillos (Physalis philadelphicaLam.), avocados (Persea americana Mill.), guajes(Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit), and hogplums (S. purpurea), which were cooked in anample variety of chili sauces with both lithic andceramic tools. The sauces made from the fruits ofwild tomatoes (S. lycopersicum var. cerasiforme)

74 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 68

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and tomatillo (P. philadelphica) are prized todayby the local people. We also found wild anddomestic populations of H. suaveolens utilized inthe preparation of pinole and bate, five cultivatedvarieties of hog plum and three of guava (Psidiumguajava L.) with which maize atoles are preparedby drying and boiling of the fruits.

Some edible plants are represented in theceramic jars of the Early Classic Period, indicatingtheir cultural importance and possible consump-tion before that period: Indian comb (Pachycereuspecten–aboriginum [Engelm. ex S.Watson] Britton& Rose) (Schöndube 2000, 217 [figure 22]);Pitaya (Stenocereus queretaroensis [F.A.C. Weberex Mathes.] Buxb.) (Schöndube 2000, 217[figure 24]); Anona (Annona longiflora S.Watson or Annona reticulata L.) (Kan et al.1989, 170 [figure 193]; Schöndube 2000, 216);and Bonete (Jacaratia mexicana A. DC)(Schöndube 2000, 218 [figure 25]). One treespecies—Zapote negro (Dyospiros digina Jacq.)(Schöndube 2000, 216)—which is also represent-ed in these Early Classic Period jars, does notbelong to the current local flora, but it could havebeen introduced during the Formative Period.

DISHES AND BEVERAGES THAT COULD

HAVE BEEN PREPARED IN THE FORMATIVE

PERIOD USING CERAMIC UTENSILS

We registered 66 ancient dishes and beverageselaborated at present with cultivated nativeplants or plants introduced before the ClassicPeriod (ESM), using ceramic utensils similar tothose reported for the Formative Period by Kelly(1980, 55–77 [figures 9–30]): concave plates(cajetes), deep vessels (cántaros), deep pots (ollas),and wide–mouth bowls (ollas boca ancha) with aconcave lid (frijoleras). Bottles, stirrup pots, andcompound vessels united by one, two, and threetubes (types: bottle gourd, bifid, and trifid)reported earlier by this author and Mountjoy(2012) are not in use anymore.

The dishes include the following categories: (1)Pinoles, (2) Atoles, (3) Tamales, (4) Eggs, (5)Vegetables soups, (6) Pipianes, (7) Animal andvegetables broths, (8) Chili sauces, (9) Non–alcoholic beverages, (10) Fermented alcoholicbeverages, (11) Distilled drinks, and (12) Others.

We also registered 17 species of wildlife thatcould be part of the dishes consumed in the

Fig. 2. Ceramic vessels, with dogs biting or eating corn (Cultural Phase Comala): (a) Harinoso de ocho(García-Oropeza et al. 1998, 41); (b) Chapalote race (García-Oropeza et al. 1998, 57); (c, d) Tabloncillo race(Museo Universitario de Arqueología, Manzanillo, Colima and Museo Alejandro Rangel Hidalgo, Nogueras,Colima).

75ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

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Fig. 3. Hypothetical scheme of some solid foods that could be prepared during the Formative Period.

Table 3. ANIMALS PRESUMABLY USED AS FOOD DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD, REPRESENTED IN POTTERYVESSELS OF THE EARLY CLASSIC PERIOD (COMALA FASE 100–400 C.E.) IN THE STUDY AREA. SCIENTIFIC NAME,

ENGLISH NAME, AND REFERENCES.

Scientific name English name References

Anas clypeata Linnaeus, 1758 Duck E: Fig.7; F: 58, 66Carcharhinidae sp. Shark A: 192, Fig. 29Crotalus spp. Pit vipers C:132, 159; F: 68Crustacea: Decapoda Crab D: 219, Fig. 219Dasypus novemcinctus Linnaeus, 1758 Nine–banded armadillo E: 224; F: 50, Fig. 5Didelphis virginiana Kerr, 1792 Virginia opossum C: 151, Fig. 151Iguana iguana Linnaeus, 1758 Iguana C: 155, 158, Figs. 161, 166Litopenaeus vannamei Bonne, 1931 Shrimp D: 218, Fig. 26Macrobrachium americanum Bate, 1868 Freshwater prawn D: 209, 212, Figs. 1, 28Meleagris gallopavo Linnaeus, 1758 Turkey C: 160, Fig. 169Nasua narica Linnaeus, 1766 White–nosed coati D: 213, Fig. 7Odocoileus virginianus mexicanus Gmelin, 1788 White–tailed deer BPecari tajacu Linnaeus, 1758 Wild boar F: 30, 68, 71Peromyscus perfulvus Osgood, 1945 Field rodent C: 159, Fig. 164Podilymbus podiceps Linnaeus, 1758 Duck E: Fig. 7; F: 58, 66Rana sp. Frog C: 156, 157, Figs. 163, 165; F: 41, 68Thomomys sp. Gopher A: 174; C: 151; D: 213

A) Furst 2000; (B) Jácome 2012; (C) Kan et al. 1989; (D) Schöndube 2000; (E) Valdez 2000; (F) Vela 2005.

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Formative Period (Table 3), cooked in under-ground ovens or in water and seasoned with chilipeppers and leaves of epazote (C. ambrosioides),orégano (Lippia graveolens Kunth.), hog plum, oravocado. This fauna is represented archaeologi-cally for the Early Classic Period in hollow vesselssuitable for liquids (Table 3).

The high occurrence in the funeral offerings ofprojectile points and ceramic pots representingedible wildlife may be interpreted, according toBeekman (2010), as an important and permanentcontribution of hunting in the diet during theFormative Period. The plethora of meat obtainedfrom wild fauna was commonly consumed untilthe recent past. However, its consumption hasnowadays declined due to overhunting. Rabbits(Sylilagus ssp.), chachalacas (Penelope poliocephala),or pigeons (Zenaida macroura), commonly con-sumed nowadays, were not found in the archae-ological records reviewed.

The dishes made with plants and animals wereclassified into three broad groups: solid, solid/liquid, and liquid (Figs. 3, 4, and 5).

DiscussionPROBABLE STRUCTURE OF THE FOOD SYSTEM

DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD

Our results suggest that the food system of theFormative Period could have included more than 66dishes made primarily with 33 species of cultivatedand domesticated plants, with maize being the mostimportant energy source, complemented by pit–cooked agaves. Beans (Phaseolus spp.) could haveconstituted the primary source of proteins. Theseeds of squashes could have been the main sourceof lipids, complemented by avocadoes and Hyptis.Chili peppers, tomatoes, tomatillos, quelites, and hogplums provided vitamins and minerals. Non–alcoholic beverages like bate and alcoholic beverageslike tejuino were probably a quotidian and ritualfood, as they are currently among the native groupsof western Mexico (González-Ramos 1972; Hintonet al. 1972).

Mezcal liquors were probably the prime sourceof alcohol for social and religious activities (Coyle2010; Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2009a). The

Fig. 4. Hypothetical scheme of some solid–liquid foods that could be prepared during the Formative Period.

77ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

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dishes made with H. suaveolens, Enterolobiumcyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb., or S. purpurea mustbe regional because these species are not distrib-uted throughout Mesoamerica. The diet wasprobably reinforced with the meat of domesticanimals like dog (Canis lupus ssp. familiaris) andturkey (Meleagris gallopavo), which, together withhunted deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and wildboar (Pecari tajacu), could have been a majorsource of proteins and fats (Jácome 2012).Chili sauces made with chili peppers and the

fruit of wild populations of tomatoes (S.lycopersicum var. cerasiforme) and tomatillos (P.philadelphica) could be very important to providea wide range of flavors to foods. They remainmuch appreciated (Jenkins 1948; Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2012).

CERAMIC UTENSILS USED FOR COOKING

DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD AND THEIR

POSSIBLE IMPACT

The most relevant technological innovations inWest Mesoamerica during the Formative Periodregarding ceramic cooking utensils were cookingin water and steam, nixtamalization, and, possi-

bly, distillation. These innovations were accom-plished thanks to clay utensils that were possiblyused in the same manner that they are used today,mostly by poor farmers. They are 1) concaveplates (cajetes) to cover pots during the cooking ofseeds or as plates or bowls for eating; 2) deepvessels (cántaros) to nixtamalize (soaking andcooking maize grains with water that containslime) to ferment sweet juices or to transportliquid foodstuffs; 3) deep pots (ollas) to cookfoods with water and wide–mouth bowls (ollas deboca ancha), 4) bean pots (ollas frijoleras o de tapade agua) to cook grains and seeds; and 5)compound vessels (not observed nowadays) unit-ed by one, two, and three tubes (types: bottlegourd, bifid, and trifid), to distill as has beendescribed by Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. (2009a), orto cook by steam, placing the water in the lowerpart and the food in the upper section.These innovations had a large impact on the

food system that had initially developed duringthe Archaic Period, because they allowed 1) newways of transforming food, such as the distillationof agave ferments (Zizumbo-Villarreal et al.2009a); 2) an increase in the quality of some

Fig. 5. Hypothetical scheme of some liquid foods that could be prepared during the Formative Period.

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foodstuffs, by making them easier to digest andmaking available nutritional elements that withother preparation methods were not (includingnixtamalization, which facilitated grinding bybreaking the pericarp of the corn grain andsolubilizing the hemicellulose and pectin,incremented the absorption of calcium andpotassium, dissolved and gelatinized starches,and liberated the chemical products of the seedthat elevated the availability of niacin [Rodríguezet al. 1996]); 3) the reduction or elimination ofanti–nutrimental substances, as is the case ofsoaking and prolonged cooking in water of beans,which reduces to non–toxic levels the contents oftannin, phytate, cyanide, and trypsin inhibitor(Adeniran et al. 2013), 4) the integration ofspecies and varieties that had not been incorpo-rated before because of the lack of processes thatmade them digestible and palatable to humans,like the incorporation of quelites in soups andtamales (Bye 1981); and 5) the elaboration ofnew dishes and the selection of new varietiesadequate for them. For example, with maize,esquites, pozoles, and new types of atoles, tamales,and tejuino could be elaborated. In this study, weregistered 22 different dishes prepared withmaize, among them 14 types of tamales and fivetypes of atoles. With beans, soups (five types) andtamales (three types) could be elaborated. WithCucurbita, tamales (two types), soups (two types),and pipianes (six types) could be elaborated.

The results suggest that the diversification andpermanence of the races or ancient varieties ofmaize and Cucurbita are related to their specificuses. In the case of maize, the Chapalote race toelaborate pinole; the Reventador to elaboratepopcorn; the Harinoso de Ocho to elaborate atoles,pozole, and tamales; the Dulce to elaborate tejuino,ponteduro, and elotes; the Tabloncillo to elaboratetamales and pozole; the Elotes Occidentales subrace,to elaborate pozole and elotes. In the case ofCucurbita, the varieties with hard peel are keptbecause of their importance in the elaboration ofpipianes; the ones with thin peel are kept becauseof the importance of their fruits in the elaborationof soups and broths.

Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. (2009a) have suggestedthat the invention of the frijolera pot during theFormative Period in West Mesoamerica may havebeen the first step in the process of invention ofdistillation techniques, which in turn led to newhuman selection pressures on the agaves toproduce more and better spirits (mezcal) from

their ferments. These frijolera pots can be consid-ered proto–distillers, because during their use it iseasy to observe the process of water evaporationand its condensation upon making contact withthe lid that contains fresh water. From these pots,the double pots, connected by one (bottle gourd),two (bifid), or three (trifid) tubes, would have beendesigned, especially to distill agave ferments toproduce mezcals. They are found as funeraryofferings during the Formative Period (Kelly1980). Some of them have agave plant pictures asdecoration, and it seems that some have beenfound associated with miniature vessels that couldbe catch bowls for the spirits. We report 13varieties of A. angustifolia used to elaborate mezcals.

Our results support the idea that an importantpart of the diversification of crops is due tohuman selection directed toward the suitability ofvarieties to the culinary requirements, whichincludes the preparation of foods (in this casethe technological innovations developed duringthe Formative Period), as well as cultural prefer-ences (Colunga-GarcíaMarín and Zizumbo-Villarreal 1993). The diversification of cultivatedplants, by itself, would have positively influencedthe complexity of the agro–food system, and thusthe productivity of the agro–ecosystems.

CULTURAL RELEVANCE AND CONTINUITY

OF THE FORMATIVE FOOD SYSTEMThe great social, economic, and cultural

changes registered during the Late FormativePeriod in West Mesoamerica—rapid demograph-ic growth, monumental architecture, incipienturbanism, social stratification, and an emergingpolitical system (Beekman 2010)—have beenused to explain the intensification of agricultureand the increment in the yield of corn (Beekman2009; Beekman and Baden 2011). We think thatthe increase in complexity of the productivesystem (milpa) and the food system must beadded to these explanations. In both, the core isconstituted by maize, beans, and Cucurbita, andas a whole they are constituted since then by atleast 33 species of cultivated plants and 75 wildplant species. These systems had been in devel-opment since the Archaic Period, but theirstructure was achieved in the Early FormativePeriod, greatly due to the invention of ceramiccooking utensils.

It is probable that the synergy achieved by thediversification of cultivars in the growing fields,

79ZIZUMBO-VILLARREAL ET AL: THE FOOD SYSTEM DURING THE FORMATIVE PERIOD2014]

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the diversification of dishes in the kitchen, andthe nutritional complementarity of species in thediet had a positive impact on the productivity ofthe work of farmers, thus contributing to theestablishment of a robust subsistence system, withthe milpa at its core, and the products of theother plants and animals integrated around it.With this system, resources have been obtainedduring every season of the year, from diverseecosystems that are found in an altitudinalinterval from 500 up to 2,500 masl, wherecurrent farmers of the study area harvest andcollected them.The food system found by the Europeans in

1523 C.E. in West Mesoamerica was modified bythe conquest and subjugation of the nativepopulation. Some native species were substitutedfor introduced ones. The fructans and non–digestible fibers (pre–biotics) provided by theagaves syrup were substituted by the sucrose ofsugarcane. Maize was partially substituted bywheat, beans by lentils and chickpeas, squashseeds and fleshy chía by sesame and olives, etc.Moreover, pig and cattle fats were incorporatedinto the preparation of tamales and beans.The modification of the pre–Hispanic diet has

spread and deepened in the rural areas of Mexicoin the last 60 years as a consequence mainly ofgovernmental politics. In many sites, they haveeradicated the maize–bean–squash–weeds systemby the promotion of the use of herbicides,pesticides, and fertilizers. They have substitutedthe native germplasm with hybrids designed foragro–systems of commercial mono–crops andhave favored the substitution of maize for othergrasses like wheat, sorghum, rice, sugarcane, andbarley. They have encouraged the substitution ofthe diversity of native grasses for African grassesfor extens ive l ive s tock product ion.Simultaneously, they have implemented socialassistance programs based on the introductionand promotion of industrial foods, includingpowdered cow’s milk for children, ignoring theadverse effects on the native population that islactose intolerant. The intensification of thesechanges in foodways is leading to health prob-lems, such as diabetes and obesity, which havebecome epidemic in Mexico in recent years(Sánchez-Castillo et al. 2004).In spite of these changes, an important part of

the dishes from the Formative Period survived asfoodstuffs of common use until the middle of thelast century, indicating their high cultural impor-

tance over a long period of time. For example, theagave “breads” (sun dried portions of ground andbaked agave stems), were prepared and consumeduntil 50 to 100 years ago by the Uto–Aztecanspeech communities of North Mexico and theSierra Madre Occidental (Bye et al. 1975;Castetter et al. 1938). Pinole, bate, ash tamal,mezcal tamal, and tejuino are still elaborated andconsumed by the rural and urban population inthe study area (Zizumbo-Villarreal et al. 2012).The education programs that attempt to

improve the nutritional level of the population,and those that seek the sustainable use of plantresources for agriculture and alimentation, mustestablish an understanding and appreciation ofthe knowledge and traditional practices of prep-aration and conservation of food, as well as of thegathering, cultivation, harvesting, and storing ofboth the wild and domesticated species involved.An appreciation of this knowledge must be donein its evolutionary, ecological, cultural, andnutritional dimensions in order to grasp itstranscendence.

ConclusionsWe found that the Formative Period food

system in West Mesoamerica (2400 B.C.E.–100C.E.) could have included more than 65 dishesand drinks prepared with 33 cultivated anddomesticated native plants using techniquesprobably available during this period. Richnessof dishes indicates that a complex food systemcould have been established since the FormativePeriod, based on cultivated and domesticatedplants, and complemented with wild plants andanimals. At the core of the food system wasmaize, accompanied by agaves, beans, squashes,chilies, tomatoes, tomatillos, and fleshy chía.Overall, these species provided the carbohydrates,proteins, lipids, vitamins, and minerals necessaryfor human development.Cooking in water, steaming, nixtamalization

(soaking and cooking with water that containslime), and probably distillation, were the mostrelevant technological innovations allowed by thedevelopment of ceramic utensils for cooking duringthis period. These innovations facilitated thetransformation of the food, raised the quality,increased the number of dishes, and introducednew selective pressures on the cultivated plants, allof which had an impact on their diversification,domestication, and productivity, and, as a conse-quence, on the complexity of the agro–food system.

80 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 68

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To test many of the ideas suggested in thispaper, it is necessary to conduct archaic–botanicalstudies that could provide direct evidence. Thesestudies may include the analysis of food residuesin ceramic vessels, fireplaces, and cooking ovens,as well as in the dentures of human remains. Ourstudy indicates the species and varieties of plantsand animals that could be found.

The complex agro–food system with highproductivity found by the Europeans upon theirarrival in 1523 in West Mesoamerica, could havebeen achieved since the Early Formative Period andcould have been the base for the cultural develop-ment in the area during the Classic Period.

In the last 60 years, an accelerated loss of thetraditional foodways in the region has been ob-served, partially due to the simplification of themilpa productive system promoted by the Mexicangovernment agencies, but also because of thepermanent advertising of industrially processedfoods. The intensification of these changes in thefoodways is leading to health problems, such asdiabetes and obesity, which have become epidemicin Mexico in the last several years. Faced with this,it is urgent to analyze the benefits of traditionalfoodways to combat these diseases.

AcknowledgementsThe authors thank Jerónimo Zizumbo–

Colunga for his help in translation; VerónicaLimones Miguel Fernández and Victor Canchéfor their help in different technical tasks; ArqueólFernando González for valuable discussions; thefamilies of Zapotitlán for their hospitality; andSNICS–SAGARPA (BEI–FRI–12–7) for partialfunding.

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