February 6th, 2012

Solon’s Poetry (Fragmentary).

Aristotle (?), The Athenian Constitution.Herodotus, Persian Wars.Thucydides, Peloponnesian Wars.The Orators.Epigraphy.

Problems with the sources.

Major Mycenaean centre.

Athens spared the brunt of the Late Bronze Age collapse, though still affected.

Early recovery (i.e. Protogeometric pottery ca. 1050 BCE; Evidence of revived trade networks ca. 900 BCE).

Ca. 750 BCE – Synoikismos of Attica centered on Athens essentially complete; the myth of Theseus.

Probably governed by a Basileus until ca. 750 BCE (i.e. evidence in the office of Archon Basileus).

Oikos (household) = the most basic social unit.

Oikoi divided into: 1. Eupatrids (i.e. the “good fathers”). 2. The laos (i.e. the common people); highly aristocratic.

Oikoi (households) grouped together into 1. Phratries (brotherhoods). 2. Gene (clans). 3. Four (Ionian) phylai (tribes).

Function of phratries, phylai, and gene unclear.

Phratry membership critical feature of citizenship; responsible for seeking justice on behalf of phratry members; justice a semi-private matter.

“But the folk were gathered in the place of assembly; for there a strife had arisen, and two men were striving about the blood-price of a man slain; the one avowed that he had paid all, [500] declaring his cause to the people, but the other refused to accept aught; and each was fain to win the issue on the word of a daysman. Moreover, the folk were cheering both, shewing favour to this side and to that. And heralds held back the folk, and the elders were sitting upon polished stones in the sacred circle, [505] holding in their hands the staves of the loud-voiced heralds. Therewith then would they spring up and give judgment, each in turn. And in the midst lay two talents of gold, to be given to him whoso among them should utter the most righteous judgment.” (Homer, Iliad 18. 496-508. A.T. Murray, 1924)

Government the exclusive prerogative of the eupatrids.

Ca. 750-700 BCE – Powers of Basileus parceled out to several new magistrates (Archons).

Archon Basileus (King Archon): 1. In charge of polis cults. 2. Cult property. 3. Religious law.

Polemarch: 1. Supreme military commander. 2. Judged disputes between Athenians and non-Athenians.

Eponymous Archon: 1. Head of the legislative council (Boule). 2. Presided over assembly (ekklesia). 3. Judicial responsibilities.

Thesmothetai: 1. Six additional archons. 2. Judicial functions.

The Aereopagus.

“The ancient politeia, before Drakon, was ordered as follow. The officials were appointed on the basis of birth and wealth, at first for life and later for a term of ten years. The most important of the offices, as well as the earliest, were those of the king (basileus) and the polemarchos and the archon. The earliest of these was that of the king – which was in fact traditional. Then came a second office, that of the polemarchos, introduced because of the military inadequacy of some of the kings…And the last was the office of archon….As for the thesmothetai, they were not (first) elected until many years later, by which time the offices were already annual. Their function was to record the statutes (thesmia) and preserve them for the settlement of disputes….At that time they were fully competent to judge lawsuits themselves, rather than holding preliminary hearings as they do now….As regards the Council of Areiopagus, it had the task of watching over the nomoi, and it enjoyed many important regulatory powers over the polis and its affairs by virtues of possessing supreme authority in the punishment and fining of all offenders. The archontes were appointed on the grounds of birth and wealth, and it was (ex)archontes who made up the Areiopagus. That is why it is the only one of the offices held for life which has survived to the present day.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 3. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 63)

Competition for political office between eupatrid gene very fierce.

Tension between eupatrids and wealthy commoners.

Growing problem of debt creating tensions between the rich (both eupatrids and non-eupatrids) and the poor.

Situation increasingly unstable after ca. 650 BCE; Evidence of stasis (i.e. The conspiracy of Kylon, The Law Code of Drakon).

“There was an Athenian called Kylon, an Olympic victor. He belonged to one of the families with a long pedigree of nobility, and was a powerful man in his own right, having married the daughter of the Megarian Theagenes, who at that time was ruling Megara as a tyrant….He accepted some troops from Theagenes, as well as mobilizing the support of his friends, and seized the Akropolis – with a view to setting himself up as tyrant….When the Athenians got to hear of it they came in from the countryside in full force to thwart the conspirators, whom they surrounded and besieged (on the Akropolis). As time passed the Athenians grew tired of the blockade and most of them went away, leaving the nine arch0ntes – who at that time were in charge of most of the affairs of the polis – to supervise the siege, with full powers to make whatever settlement they thought best. Kylon and his supporters, meanwhile, were suffering badly from being under siege without food and water. Kylon himself succeeded in escaping, and so did his brother; but the rest, who were in a sorry state and in some cases actually dying of hunger, sat down as suppliants for their life at the altar on the Akropolis. When they saw men dying in the temple, the Athenians who had been posted there as guards took the suppliants into custody with the promise that they would suffer no harm; so they were led away – and murdered….It was because of this that the men responsible, and their whole family [i.e. the Alkmaionidai after them, were called accursed, and offenders against the goddess.” (Thucydides, 1.26.3-1. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 64b).

“Not long afterwards, in the archonship of Aristiachmos (621/20) Drakon laid down his statutes (thesmoi) in the following manner. A share in the politeia had been given only to those who provided their own arms and armour. It was they who chose the nine archontes and treasurers, from men who had an unencumbered property rating of not less than ten minas; the other, lesser officials were drawn from those who provided their own arms and armour; and the strategoi and cavalry commanders were men who could declare an unencumbered property rating of at least 100 minas, as well as legitimate sons, born in wedlock, who were at least ten years of age….Four hundred and one men, drawn from the citizen body by lot, were also to serve as a boule: everyone aged thirty or over cast lots for membership of it, and for the other offices; and nobody could hold the same office twice until everyone else had held it once – at which point the sortition procedure would start again from the beginning. If any member of the boule failed to attend a session of the boule or the ekklesia he had to pay a fine of three drachmas if he was a pentakosiomedimnos, two if he was hippeus, and one if he was a zeugites. The Council of the Areiopagus was guardian of the nomoi, and also supervised the officials to ensure that they discharged their duties in accordance with the nomoi. It was open to anyone who was being wronged to lay information before the Council of the Areiopagos, indicating which nomos had been infringed in his case. Loans were made on the security of the borrower’s person, as stated before, and few men held all the chora.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 4. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 65b).

Drakon’s politeia did not alleviate tension and stasis.

Tension between eupatrids and rich commoners.

Tension between rich and poor.

Rich occupy most of the arable land.

Majority of the poorer classes in one of two conditions: 1. Sharecroppers (Hektemoroi). 2. Debt-bondage; conditions could overlap.

Eupatrids want a restoration of aristocratic privilege.

Poor want a cancellation of debts and a redistribution of land.

Solon appointed archon in 594 BCE to reform politeia.

“After this there was a long period of stasis between the nobles and the masses. This was because the politeia was entirely oligarchic – especially so, of course, in that the poor with their children and wives were slaves to the rich. They were known as pelatai and hektemoroi, for it was at this rent that they were working the fields of the rich. All the land was in the hands of a few men, and if (the poor) did not pay the rents, they and their children were liable to seizure. Also, all loans were made on the security of the borrower’s person – until Solon, that is, who was the first champion of the demos. So what the majority found the harshest and the most intolerable aspect of the politeia was their slavery – which is not to say that they did not have other grievances too; for their exclusion was, in a word, total.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 2. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 66)

Retained property classifications found under Drakon: 1. Pentakossiomedimnoi (500 measure men). 2. Hippeus (300 measure men; cavalrymen). 3. Zeugites (200 measure men; hoplites). 4. Thetes (Under 200 measure men; laborers).

Chief magistrates elected only from the top two classes. Lower magistrates elected from the top three classes. Retained the Boule (made up of 400 men from top 3 classes

chosen by lot from each of the four tribes; prepared legislation for the ekklesia; scrutinized magistrates after term of office ended).

Retained Council of the Aereiopagos (Punished criminals, treason court).

All classes sat in the: 1. Ekklesia (Assembly that elected magistrates and passed laws). 2. Heliaia (jury pool). 3. Dikasteria (jury).

Any citizen can bring charges on behalf of any other citizen.

Banned debt-bondage; banned hektemorage (seisachtheia – shaking off of burdens); repatriated enslaved Athenians; citizens had certain rights.

New marriage legislation: 1. Engue and legitimacy. 2. Measures against epikleroi.

Effectively created Athenian citizenship.

Banned the export of grain; encouraged the export of olives and olive oil.

Developed the silver mines at Laurium.

Offered citizenship to non-Athenian tradesmen if they settle in Athens.

On Hektemorage: “The mortgage stones that covered her, by me Removed – the land that was a slave is free.” (Plut. Sol. 15).

On Debt-Bondsmen: “So far their lot to roam, They had forgotten the language of their home.” (Plut. Sol. 15).

On Balance of Power: “Such power I gave the people as might do, Abridged not what they had, nor lavished new, Those that were great in wealth and high in place My counsels likewise kept from all disgrace. Before them both I held my shield of might, And let not touch the other’s right.” (Plut. Sol. 18).

(Lim & Bailkey, 2002)

“So much for the offices and what he did about them. And it would seem that the three features of Solon’s politeia which were of most benefit to the demos were: first, and foremost, the prohibition of loans on the security of the debtor’s person; second, the provision that anyone who wished to do so could seek legal redress on behalf of those who were being wronged; and third, the right of appeal to a dikasterion. It is this last which is said to have strengthened the masses more than anything else – for when the demos is master of the courts it comes to be master of the politeia.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 9. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 67).

Solon’s laws inscribed upon wooden tablets (axones) and placed publicly in the agora.

Solon leaves Athens.

Poor wanted a redistribution of property but were disappointed.

Eupatrids wanted a retrenchment of their privileges but were disappointed.

Three main factions: 1. The Plain (wealthy aristocrats; favored an extreme oligarchy/aristocracy). 2. The Coast (fishermen and craftsmen; favored the politeia of Solon). 3. The Hill (poorer inhabitants of the countryside and the city; favored an extreme democracy).

Stasis ending in Tyranny.

“After Solon had left, the polis was still in an agitated state. For four years all was peaceful, but in the fifth year after his archonship they did not appoint an archon because of the stasis, and four years after that there was again no archon for the same reason. The, after the same length of time, Damasias was elected archon and kept the office for two years and two months, before being forcibly stripped of it. The, because of the stasis they made the decision to choose ten archontes – five from the eupatridai, three from the farmers, and two from the craftsmen; and these men held the office for (the remainder of) the year after Damasias. This shows the enormous power of the archon, for it was always round this office that the stasis was most clearly concentrated. The general domestic malaise, however, continued. Some saw the origin and explanation of this in the cancellation of debts, a measure which meant that they were now poor. Others were dissatisfied with the politeia and how greatly it had changed. Others still were motivated by personal rivalries. There were three factions. The first was that of the Shore, led by Megakles the son of Alkmaion; their aim seemed to be a middle of the road politeia. The second was that of the Plain; what they wanted was an oligarchy, and their leader was Lykourgos. The third was that of the Uplands, with Peisistratos as its head – the leader most inclined, so it seemed, toward the demos. His following had been joined, moreover, by those who lost money through the cancellation of debts, who were not poor, and those who were not of pure (Athenian) descent, who were now afraid….” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 13. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 68).

Three attempts to establish tyranny in Athens (560, 556, 546 BCE).

Third attempt successful; ruled as tyrant at Athens from 546 BCE to 528 BCE.

Support from: 1. the poorer classes. 2. those who lost money through cancellation of debts. 3. tradesmen and new Athenians of the coast. 4. Outside support from ties of xenia (i.e. Lygdamis, Tyrant of Naxos). 5. Mercenary soldiers.

Succeeded by his sons, Hippias and Hipparchus (ruled from 528-514 BCE together, then Hippias alone from 541-510 BCE.

Peisistratid rule quite popular down to 514 BCE.

Crucial stage in the development of Athenian democracy.

“As previously stated, Peisistratos was moderate in his government of the polis and its affairs, and acted constitutionally rather than like a tyrant….And in general Peisistratos did not impose heavy burdens on the Athenians while he was in power, but always secured and maintained peace and tranquility. As a result it became a cliché to call the tyranny of Peisistratos the Golden Age; for later, when his sons succeeded to his position, their rule was much harsher. But of all his qualities which are mentioned, the greatest was his naturally benevolent concern for the demos.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 16.2-9. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 70).

Maintained the politeia of Solon.Retained control of key offices (cf. Athenian

Archon List, 527/6-522/1, Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 71).

Nobles pacified by receiving public offices.Vote taken away from the ekklesia.5% tax on cash crops – money lent to poor

farmers at low interest rates.Est. circuit judges.Est. major building program (i.e. Athenian temple

of Zeus).The Great Dionysia; The Great Panathanaia.Peisistratus dies (528 BCE); peacefully succeeded

by Hippias and Hipparchus.

How do you think the policies of Peisistratos furthered the evolution

of democracy in Athens?

Why were the Peisistratids eventually chased from power?

Greatly mythologized by Athenians.

Motivated by personal conflict, not an urge toward democracy.

514 BCE – A Love triangle (Harmodius, Aristogeiton, and Thetalos); the accidental murder of Hipparchus.

514-510 BCE – Hippias hunts for the conspirators; reign becomes harsh.

510 BCE – Hippias driven from power, largely owing to Alkmaionid influence.

“As for Thettalos, he was much younger, and rash and insolent in his lifestyle; and this was the origin of all their troubles. What happened was that Thettalos fell in love with Harmodios, but was quite unable to win his friendship. This made him uncontrollably angry, and he made his bitterness clear in all sorts of ways, culminating in a refusal to allow Harmodios’ sister to be a basket-bearer, as she was intending to be, at the Panathenaia. He also insulted Harmodios by calling him effeminate. So Harmodios and Aristogeiton were provoked into their famous deed, in which many others shared.” (?Aristotle, Athenian Constitution 18. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 72).

“In a branch of myrtle I shall carry my sword, like Harmodios and Aristogeiton when they killed the tyrant and made Athens a place of equal rights….Your fame will always live on earth, dearest Harmodios and Aristogeiton, because you killed the tyrant and made Athens a place of equal rights.” (Athenaeus 695A-B. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 73).

http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/cciv243/cciv243.Harm&Aristog.html#ImageCredit

Democracy not immediately established upon the removal of the Peisistratids.

510-509 BCE – Stasis.

508 BCE – Isagoras elected archon (backed by the aristocratic classes); sought to disenfranchise many citizens; est. an oligarchy.

Opposition from Kleisthenes (Alkmaionid; grandson of Kleisthenes of Sicyon); proposed sweeping political changes giving power to the demos.

Isagoras appeals to Kleomenes of Sparta; Spartans besieged on the Akropolis; forced to withdraw.

Replaced economic divisions with geographic divisions.

Divided Attica into regions (Demes) centered on villages, each with its own assembly and magistrates

Each Deme was divided into Tryttyes (City, Coast, Inland)

Replaced 4 old tribes with 10 new tribes distributed throughout every Deme and Tryttyes

Boule (legislative council) of 500 made up of 50 members (elected by lot) from each tribe; divided into 10 prytaneis according to tribe.

Each tribe elected a strategos (general)

Designed to fragment the power base of nobles

Introduced Ostracism

Ekklesia = The assembly (adult male citizens); debated and voted on legislation, foreign policy etc.; sometimes an appeals court; quorum of 6,000 required; met periodically on the “Pnyx.”

Boule = Council of 500 (50 from each tribe appointed by lot for 1 year); Prepared legislation for the assembly.

Prytaneis = 50 members of the Boule who acted as executive council.

Heliaia & Dikasteria = Popular jury courts.

Tribes = Elected generals (strategoi) and other officials.

Demes = Local administrative units (local assemblies, officials, courts etc); all citizens must be registered in a deme to be a citizen; fellow demesmen distributed into different tribes and trytties (thirds).

Ostracism.

Public officials elected directly (i.e. Archon; Strategos et. al.).

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/54/Pnyx-berg2.png

“So with the aim of pleasing the masses Kleisthenes laid down other new ones (i.e. democratic reforms). These included the nomos about ostrakismos….It had been laid down because of suspicion of those in power….” (?Artistotle, Athenian Constitution 22.1. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 79A).

“Kleisthenes introduced the nomos of ostrakismos into Athens; this is what it was like. The custom was for the boule, having considered the matter for some days, to inscribe on ostraka the name of whichever of the politai should be banished, and throw them into the enclosure of the bouleterion. If there turned out to be more than 200 ostraka for any one, he had t0 go into exile for ten years, though he could continue to enjoy the income from his property. Later the demos resolved to lay down a nomos stipulating that the ostraka were to be more than 6000 for a man who was to go into exile.” (Vaticanus Graecus 1144, fol. 222rv. Crawford & Whitehead, Doc. 79 B).

http://ccwf.cc.utexas.edu/~kallet/greece/Pic%20Ostraka.jpg

Direct democracy not representative democracy.

Court system a vital part of Athenian democracy.

Democracy not universally accepted.

Aristocratic elite still a potent political force.

Oratorical skills vital for political success.

Still favored the wealthy elite; practical obstacles to participation among the lower classes.