The Effects of Working Memory Training versus Spatial Visualization

Training on General Intelligence Measures, Spatial Intelligence Measures and Eye Movements

Shannon Fitzhugh, Alexandra Morrison,

Thomas F. Shipley, Jason Chein, Nora Newcombe

Temple University

1

Training Both Working Memory and Spatial Visualization Improves

Spatial Skills

Shannon Fitzhugh, Alexandra Morrison,

Thomas F. Shipley, Jason Chein, Nora Newcombe

Temple University

2

Why Does Spatial Performance Improve with Practice?

Any improvement could be task specific or general

Increase some spatial skill

or

Increase some central general purpose cognitive function (perhaps Working Memory?)

or

This is psychology, when has such a dichotomy ever been one or the other?

Working Memory Definition

• Working memory is the ability to retain and manipulate task relevant information

• Working memory capacity is the amount of information one is able to maintain and manipulate

• A simple demo: Remember this sequence of letters, in between each letter will be a math problem please say the answer out loud….

Operation Span Task- A complex span working memory task.

Directions: 1.Remember the Letters in the order presented2.Answer all math problems3.Serially select the letters you were presented from the matrix of letters provided

B

(15/5) + 2 = ?

G

(3*5) + 7 = ?

X

7 + (6/3) = ?

M

(2*8) – 4 = ?

Please Recall the Letters in orderZ X F N

C D G L

X B P M

J Q S T

Answer: B G X M

Working Memory Definition

• Working memory is the ability to retain and manipulate task relevant information

• Working memory capacity is the amount of information one is able to maintain and manipulate

• According to Varhaegen (2004) this span is malleable

Working Memory and Other Cognitive Domains

• Working memory is strongly related to performance in other complex cognitive tasks such as (Engle et al., 1999)

1. Reading comprehension

2. Problem solving

3. Measures of IQ

4. Selective attention

Working Memory Can Change Within An Individual

• Both Verbal and Spatial Working Memory are impaired by anxiety (Markham & Darke, 1991; Miller & Bichsel, 2003).

• Moderate sleep loss impacts working memory performance (Smith, McEvoy, & Gevins, 2002).

• Other effects: Time of day and menstrual cycle

What changes in WM

Three conceptions (one wrong)

Structure change: Increasing WM increases slots available for operations (like a CPU buffer)

Or

Process change: Precision of control - excluding irrelevant information and focusing on useful information (like attention)

Or

Strategy change: Improved use of task specific strategies (predicts no transfer of training)

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How is this spatial training study different from all other spatial training studies?• Builds on real-world success of spatial visualization

workbook (Sorby, 2008)• non-random sample, no active control group

• Investigates the role of working memory in foundational spatial skills• e.g. mental rotation• prior WM training study

• Considers individual strategy differences• Goal: We examine relative efficacy and transfer profile

for each form of training

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Treatment Groups

• Spatial visualization workbook

(Sorby, 2008)

• Verbal WM training (adaptive complex span)

• Influence on executive WM

• Verbal STM training (adaptive simple span)

• Influence on domain-specific storage capacity

Spatial Visualization Training

1. Isomorphic Drawings• Multiple choice• Coded Plans• Drawing

2. Orthographic Drawings• Multiple choice• Coded Plans• Drawing

3. Surface Development• Multiple choice

4. Rotation about 1 Axis• Multiple choice• Coded Plans• Drawing

Working Memory Training

C Glib

XFoot

TPrust

PMile

• Letters are presented (1s)

•Between Letter Presentation (4s) self paced lexicality decisions are made

•At the end of the trial subjects serially select the letters from a matrix of alternatives

•Difficulty is adaptive

Short Term Memory Training

• Letters Presented (1s each)

• There is a 4 s delay between letter presentation

• At the end of trial letters are chosen serially from a matrix of choices

• After two successful trials another letter is added to each trial

CX

TP

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Assessment battery

1. Spatial ability: Paper-and-pencil MRT-A, “Real” mental rotation (3D block objects), Eye-tracking in 3D mental rotation, Paper folding (ETS), Surface development (ETS)

1. WM capacity: Operation span, Symmetry span

1. STM capacity: Letter span, Location span

• Cognitive control: Stroop task, Anti-saccade task, STM with irrelevant background speech

• Reading Comprehension (Nelson Denny)

• Crystallized intelligence (ETS Advanced Vocab. Test)

Mental Rotation Test and Eye-tracking

Individual differences in Spatial skills

High - good at rotation

Low - try to rotate are not good at it

Non-rotators - attempt to use non-rotation strategy (eg matching pieces)

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Assessment battery

• Spatial ability: Paper-and-pencil MRT-A, “Real” mental rotation (3D block objects), Eye-tracking in 3D mental rotation, Paper folding (ETS), Surface development (ETS)

• WM capacity: Operation span, Symmetry span

• STM capacity: Letter span, Location span

• Cognitive control: Stroop task, Anti-saccade task, STM with irrelevant background speech

• Reading Comprehension (Nelson Denny)

• Crystallized intelligence (ETS Advanced Vocab. Test)

Congruent

BlueBlue

Green Green

RedRed

YellowYellow

Incongruent

BlueBlue

Green Green

RedRed

YellowYellow

Stroop Effect = Incongruent – Congruent

The Stroop Effect: A Test of Selective Attention

Nelson Denny Reading Test

In the sixteenth century, an age of great marine and terrestrial exploration, Ferdinand Magellan led the first expedition to sail around the world. As a young Portuguese noble, he served the king of Portugal, but he became involved in the quagmire of political intrigue at court and lost the king's favor. After he was dismissed from service to the king of Portugal, he offered to serve the future Emperor Charles V of Spain.

The sixteenth century was an age of great ___exploration. A. cosmic

B. land C. mental D. common man E. none of the above

ETS Vocabulary Test

Which of the following is a synonym of Jovial?

1. Refreshing

2. Scare

3. Thickset

4. Wise

5. Jolly

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Training study session overview

• Pre-training assessment battery (3hr session)

• Mental rotation screener (High, Low, Non- rotators)

• Training (Spatial, WM, or STM treatments)

4 weeks

20 sessions, 5 days per week, 30 min. each

• Post-training assessment battery (3hr session)

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Results

• Very preliminary and selective• Still collecting and analyzing data• Trends – no test of significance, no SE given• Likely be influenced by individual differences

• A few Transfer Tasks: • Verbal WM• Spatial WM• Mental rotation

– MRTa– Eye-tracking with real objects

• Stroop• Vocabulary

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Results – post-test working memory

• Greatest improvement for verbal WM treatment group

Mean Improvement in Operation Span After Training

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Spatial Visualization Working Memory Short term Memory

Cha

nge

in s

core

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Transfer effects – Spatial WM

• Improvement only seen in verbal WM treatment group

Mean Improvement in Symmetry Span After Training

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Spatial Visualization Working Memory Short term Memory

Cha

nge

in s

core

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Transfer effects – Spatial abilityVandenberg mental rotation test (MRT-A)

• WM training > STM > Spatial Visualization training• MRTA demands memory so that maybe why STM up• Paper folding could help distinguish memory from spatial skills

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

SV WM STM

Percent Correct

Training Group

MRT - A Scores Pre/Post by Training Group

Pre - MRT - A

Post - MRT - A

Pro

port

ion

Cor

rect

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Transfer effects – Mental rotation

• Mental rotation with real objects – Eye tracking patterns

16.26

13.96

26.67

9.28

14.53

30.00

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

Spatial WM STM

Average N

um

ber of Fixations

Training Group

Average Number of Fixations by Training Group

Pre and Post Training

PRE

POST

• Gaze patterns show increase in efficiency only in Spatial Visualization group

9.00

6.27

11.28

6.56

7.00

12.31

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

Spatial WM STM

N

um

ber of Tim

es Sw

itched Gaze Betw

een Figures

Training Group

Average Number of Times Gaze Switched Between Figures

Pre and Post Training

PRE

POST

Suggest increase in efficiency in encoding• Gaze patterns show increase in efficiency only in Spatial Visualization group

Transfer effects – Mental rotation

0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7

0.8

High Low Non

Percent Correct

Spatial Group

MRT - A Scores Pre/Post by Spatial Group

Pre - MRT - A

Post - MRT - A

•Collapsed across training type

•Training helps individuals who are attempting to transform the objects

•Training does not help image based strategies (they are doing as well as the strategy allows) suggests interventions must be tailored to individuals

Who benefits most from training?P

ropo

rtio

n C

orre

ct

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Transfer effects – Cognitive Control

• Stroop color-word interference

Con

grue

ncy

Eff

. (m

s)

• WM > STM > SPATIAL• WM training results in an overall improvement in executive

functioning

Mean Reduction In Stroop Effect (ms) After Training

-20

-10

0

10

20

30

40

Spatial Visualization Working Memory Short term Memory

Change in average difference between incongruent and congruent items

(up is better)

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Transfer effects – Vocabulary

• ETS Advanced Vocabulary Test

• Working memory may increase comprehension or less specifically improve any test taking

Mean Improvement in Vocabulary After Training

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

Spatial Visualization Training Working Memory Training Short term Memory Training

Cha

nge

in s

core

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Conclusions

• WM training seems to improve participants’ ability to perform mental rotations, but also influences cognitive control

• Spatial visualization workbook training influences at least one measure of spatial ability (MRTA) in a random sample

• Training effects are generalizable to other tasks (transfer)• Different treatment conditions yield different patterns of

transfer to measures of spatial ability, cognitive control, and memory. Suggests potential for additive effects in combined training