the digital atlas of the human skeleton

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Book Reviews SKELETAL FUNCTION AND FORM:MECHANOBIOLOGY OF SKELETAL DEVELOPMENT,AGING, AND REGENERATION. By Dennis R. Carter and Gary S. Beaupre ´. New York: Cambridge University Press. 2001. 318 pp. ISBN 0-521-79000-X. $80.00 (cloth). For many students of physical anthropology, bone tissue is an integral component of their research. This is certainly the case for many of those inter- ested in the human and nonhuman primate fossil record, archaeological skeletal remains, paleopa- thology, growth and development, developmental genetics, functional morphology, and, of course, skeletal biology. However, even physical anthropol- ogists who study bone are challenged by the rapid pace and substantial breadth of research involving the complex interactions between genetics, develop- ment, and mechanical behavior that produce mam- malian bone structure. Carter and Beaupre ´ have provided us with a well-written and well-illustrated book that summarizes and synthesizes the latest research, and presents some of their own ideas about bone formation, while also incorporating enough of the basics about bone biology and growth to make this volume useful for graduate and ad- vanced undergraduate courses. This book is not written with a clinical audience in mind; rather, it explicitly embeds the discussion of bone growth and mechanical behavior within an evolutionary frame- work. The theme of the book is the role of mechanical factors in the growth, maintenance, repair, and de- sign and adaptation of skeletal tissues. Carter and Beaupre ´ begin with a basic overview of the develop- mental control and evolution of bone and associated tissues, and then proceed with a series of more de- tailed chapters on the mechanics and biology of car- tilage formation, perichondral and periosteal ossifi- cation, endochondral ossification, cancellous bone, skeletal tissue regeneration and repair, and articu- lar cartilage. The last chapters present a broader discussion of biomechanics in skeletal evolution and the likelihood that mechanical factors influence the formation and biology of nonskeletal tissues to a greater degree than is currently understood. The book ends with three appendices on the basic con- cepts involved in the study of material, structural, and failure characteristics of skeletal and related tissues. The first chapter surveys our current understand- ing of developmental and genetic bases of skeletal formation, the origin and evolution of skeletal tis- sues, and the basic events in human skeletal ontog- eny. Carter and Beaupre ´ begin with a brief histori- cal background on the interpretation of bone form, ranging from arguments of design to natural selec- tion theory to the recognition by Wolff, Roux, and others that bone responds to epigenetic mechanical influences. They go on to summarize recent research on skeletal pattern formation, particularly the influ- ence of key families of genes (e.g., the Hox, TGF-, Wnt, and Hedgehog gene families) involved in initial pattern formation and subsequent growth. The chapter continues with a discussion of what the fos- sil record tells us about the evolution of skeletal structures, from the first appearance of dermal bone to the evolution of epiphyses. The chapter ends with an illustrated overview of the major events in hu- man skeletal ontogeny. Although ambitious for a single chapter, Carter and Beaupre ´ succeed beauti- fully. The second chapter presents a detailed introduc- tion to the structure and biology of cartilage, bone, and tendons and ligaments. Carter and Beaupre ´ distinguish between considerations of mechanobiol- ogy at various levels: molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ. As no book on bone biology would be complete without an explanation of stress or strain, they end the chapter with a discussion of these concepts and some basics about conducting stress analysis. Much more detail about relations between stress, strain, and descriptors of material properties (e.g., elastic modulus, shear modulus) are provided in an appen- dix. The remaining chapters focus on the formation and maintenance of specific tissues, including carti- lage, various bone tissues, and articular cartilage and joints. Each chapter considers the ontogeny of one of these tissues, incorporating (albeit not equally) molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ levels. Carter and Beaupre ´ use computer modeling meth- ods (especially finite element analysis) in attempts to achieve general models of growth that identify the most critical factors in the formation of these tis- sues. They underscore the importance of loading history on the development and maintenance of bone form. The concluding chapters of the book are also gen- eral in scope, discussing “Mechanobiology in Skele- tal Evolution.” Carter and Beaupre ´ discuss how size and scaling influence skeletal form and function, including scaling influences on robusticity, cross- sectional geometry, limb kinematics, and joints. They also explore how the differences in the manner of long bone development of mammals and basal tetrapods lead to differences in their response to mechanical stresses during growth. I have only a few criticisms of this book. Although it incorporates findings from both computer model- ing and experimental results, in some sections the book leans heavily on computer modeling, perhaps at the expense of information on how published ex- AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 119:292–296 (2002) © 2002 WILEY-LISS, INC.

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Page 1: The digital atlas of the human skeleton

Book ReviewsSKELETAL FUNCTION AND FORM: MECHANOBIOLOGY OF

SKELETAL DEVELOPMENT, AGING, AND REGENERATION.By Dennis R. Carter and Gary S. Beaupre. NewYork: Cambridge University Press. 2001. 318 pp.ISBN 0-521-79000-X. $80.00 (cloth).

For many students of physical anthropology, bonetissue is an integral component of their research.This is certainly the case for many of those inter-ested in the human and nonhuman primate fossilrecord, archaeological skeletal remains, paleopa-thology, growth and development, developmentalgenetics, functional morphology, and, of course,skeletal biology. However, even physical anthropol-ogists who study bone are challenged by the rapidpace and substantial breadth of research involvingthe complex interactions between genetics, develop-ment, and mechanical behavior that produce mam-malian bone structure. Carter and Beaupre haveprovided us with a well-written and well-illustratedbook that summarizes and synthesizes the latestresearch, and presents some of their own ideasabout bone formation, while also incorporatingenough of the basics about bone biology and growthto make this volume useful for graduate and ad-vanced undergraduate courses. This book is notwritten with a clinical audience in mind; rather, itexplicitly embeds the discussion of bone growth andmechanical behavior within an evolutionary frame-work.

The theme of the book is the role of mechanicalfactors in the growth, maintenance, repair, and de-sign and adaptation of skeletal tissues. Carter andBeaupre begin with a basic overview of the develop-mental control and evolution of bone and associatedtissues, and then proceed with a series of more de-tailed chapters on the mechanics and biology of car-tilage formation, perichondral and periosteal ossifi-cation, endochondral ossification, cancellous bone,skeletal tissue regeneration and repair, and articu-lar cartilage. The last chapters present a broaderdiscussion of biomechanics in skeletal evolution andthe likelihood that mechanical factors influence theformation and biology of nonskeletal tissues to agreater degree than is currently understood. Thebook ends with three appendices on the basic con-cepts involved in the study of material, structural,and failure characteristics of skeletal and relatedtissues.

The first chapter surveys our current understand-ing of developmental and genetic bases of skeletalformation, the origin and evolution of skeletal tis-sues, and the basic events in human skeletal ontog-eny. Carter and Beaupre begin with a brief histori-cal background on the interpretation of bone form,

ranging from arguments of design to natural selec-tion theory to the recognition by Wolff, Roux, andothers that bone responds to epigenetic mechanicalinfluences. They go on to summarize recent researchon skeletal pattern formation, particularly the influ-ence of key families of genes (e.g., the Hox, TGF-�,Wnt, and Hedgehog gene families) involved in initialpattern formation and subsequent growth. Thechapter continues with a discussion of what the fos-sil record tells us about the evolution of skeletalstructures, from the first appearance of dermal boneto the evolution of epiphyses. The chapter ends withan illustrated overview of the major events in hu-man skeletal ontogeny. Although ambitious for asingle chapter, Carter and Beaupre succeed beauti-fully.

The second chapter presents a detailed introduc-tion to the structure and biology of cartilage, bone,and tendons and ligaments. Carter and Beaupredistinguish between considerations of mechanobiol-ogy at various levels: molecular, cellular, tissue, andorgan. As no book on bone biology would be completewithout an explanation of stress or strain, they endthe chapter with a discussion of these concepts andsome basics about conducting stress analysis. Muchmore detail about relations between stress, strain,and descriptors of material properties (e.g., elasticmodulus, shear modulus) are provided in an appen-dix.

The remaining chapters focus on the formationand maintenance of specific tissues, including carti-lage, various bone tissues, and articular cartilageand joints. Each chapter considers the ontogeny ofone of these tissues, incorporating (albeit notequally) molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ levels.Carter and Beaupre use computer modeling meth-ods (especially finite element analysis) in attemptsto achieve general models of growth that identify themost critical factors in the formation of these tis-sues. They underscore the importance of loadinghistory on the development and maintenance ofbone form.

The concluding chapters of the book are also gen-eral in scope, discussing “Mechanobiology in Skele-tal Evolution.” Carter and Beaupre discuss how sizeand scaling influence skeletal form and function,including scaling influences on robusticity, cross-sectional geometry, limb kinematics, and joints.They also explore how the differences in the mannerof long bone development of mammals and basaltetrapods lead to differences in their response tomechanical stresses during growth.

I have only a few criticisms of this book. Althoughit incorporates findings from both computer model-ing and experimental results, in some sections thebook leans heavily on computer modeling, perhapsat the expense of information on how published ex-

AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 119:292–296 (2002)

© 2002 WILEY-LISS, INC.

Page 2: The digital atlas of the human skeleton

perimental results relate to these models. The chap-ter on cancellous bone, for example, is strong oncomputational modeling but light on existing exper-imental research. The book also lacks a clear state-ment regarding how the term “mechanobiology” isfundamentally different from “biomechanics.” Theauthors (p. 1) at least define “mechanobiology” upfront as the processes by which mechanical forcesregulate the spatial order, size, shape, and histomor-phological characteristics of the skeleton throughoutlife. However, in places, the term is used in a some-what more general sense. It remains to be seenwhether or not this term will be a useful one. One ofthe book’s few obvious omissions is the paucity ofinformation on empirically measured material prop-erties (e.g., elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio, yield,and ultimate stresses) for mammalian cortical andcancellous bone and other tissues. The lack of thisinformation is especially surprising considering thatthere are three appendices dedicated to material,structural, and failure characteristics. The readermight also be confused by the use of conflicting val-ues (e.g., of Poisson’s ratio for cortical bone) in dif-ferent parts of the book.

These complaints are minor, however, in an oth-erwise superb contribution. Carter and Beaupreshould be congratulated on producing a very well-

written synthesis of current thinking in skeletal bi-ology. The book’s coverage of bone and cartilagegrowth is clear and well-illustrated, its discussion offactors influencing bone and cartilage formation andrepair is intelligent, and its consideration of skeletaltissue formation in an evolutionary frameworkmakes it particularly useful for physical anthropol-ogists. On the whole, the book is very well-edited. Itsorganization and generally good index make it easyto find specific information. With these merits inmind, this would be a great book for advanced un-dergraduate and, especially, graduate courses ongrowth, function, and evolution of the skeleton. Any-one whose research or interests involve bone form(including those interested in archaeological or fossilskeletal remains, and those striving to reconstructphylogeny, function, or development based on skel-etal remains) should read this book and have it ontheir shelves for reference.

BRIAN G. RICHMOND

Department of AnthropologyUniversity of IllinoisUrbana-Champaign, Illinois

DOI 10.1002/ajpa.10123Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.

com).

THE DIGITAL ATLAS OF THE HUMAN SKELETON. ByLarry Sawchuk, Janet Padiak, and William Barek.Scarborough, Ontario, Canada: CITDPress. 2000.ISBN 0-7727-6303-8. Canadian $24.99 (CD-ROM).

It is not often that we have the opportunity toreview software that is of interest to members of theassociation and the larger academic community.However, in this case, the software represents animportant and useful tool that will be of interest toboth students and professionals involved with hu-man skeletal biology. The Digital Atlas of the Hu-man Skeleton CD-ROM by Sawchuk et al. repre-sents a practical and highly affordable multimediatool to supplement the learning process for humanosteology. The program runs both as a Macintoshversion on any Mac 68040 (or better) with 16 MB ofRAM and a 16-bit color monitor, or as a PC versionthat will run with Windows 95/98/NT with 16 MB ofRAM and a 16-bit color monitor. The software alsoran seamlessly on a Windows 2000 system duringthis review process, but was not tested on eitherWindows ME or XP.

As stand-alone software, it runs directly from theCD without the need for any additional plug-ins andavoids the sometimes unpredictable level of accessencountered when using online tools. These featuresin particular make it exceptionally well-suited foruse as a secondary textbook, so to speak, for courses

in skeletal biology, or as an ancillary learning toolfor more generalized courses in physical anthropol-ogy whose focus includes but is not limited to humanskeletal biology. The increasingly large proportion ofstudents owning computers, coupled with the gen-eral access to computer laboratories provided bymost educational institutions, supports its use as ateaching tool for students.

The program is organized to allow students toview the skeleton overall, or move through an in-depth index to go directly to individual bones, fea-tures, and landmarks. All bones of the human skel-eton are included, and the graphical interface allowsthe user to move to different areas of the skeletoneasily and quickly with the mouse. Once on the boneor feature of interest, the user can rotate through aseries of still images to view specimens from a vari-ety of different angles and perspectives. The CD alsocomes with a supplementary file of additional read-ings relevant to osteology that students can accessas either a MS Word file or an Adobe PDF file. Whilebrief, it nevertheless provides an additional quickreference resource for students.

Navigating the software is straightforward. Themain menu provides the user with a graphical in-terface on the left (the image of an articulated skel-eton from which to click on individual components orbones directly) and two scrolling lists on the right, tochoose specific elements or key morphological fea-tures directly from an index. Once chosen, the user

BOOK REVIEWS 293

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goes immediately to the main screen view of thebone(s) or features chosen. Once there, one can nav-igate around the skeleton by rotating through aseries of high-resolution still images of the bonebeing viewed, or more up or down the skeleton toadjacent bones. Passing the mouse over each imagehighlights and labels key morphological featuresvisible in the current view. A quick “show all labels”button also allows the user to label all features si-multaneously (see Fig. 1).

Aside from the obvious individual-based supple-mentation, the CD offers several other potentialbenefits. First, it may provide a venue for largerintroductory classes that may not have access to alaboratory environment to learn more about humanskeletal anatomy, or students with laboratories maysupplement their study time outside the laboratory.Similarly, as university teaching collections age andare not replaced, the ability to provide osteologytraining without the immediate wear and tear ofintensive hands-on laboratories that are more thenorm for upper-level classes may be appealing.

I have used this software for 2 years now in asecond-level course in human osteology, to accom-pany the primary textbook, Human Osteology byWhite (2001). In general, most students will find theCD well worth the investment, particularly as itsvery good quality color images can act to supplementlaboratory opportunities for studying the morphol-ogy of the skeleton. While the list of features is notexhaustive, it is an excellent overview of skeletalmorphology. In some respects, the more generalizedlist of features makes it more attractive as a supple-ment for a variety of different texts that may be usedin teaching skeletal biology.

In addition to some extra features being added, afuture revision would benefit from the ability toprint images in a straightforward manner (althoughShft-PrntScrn and pasting into a graphics packageswork fine). In addition, it would be nice to see anautomated and random self-testing feature builtinto the software. Having said this, given the price,ease of use, and quality of images, this is an excel-lent teaching and learning tool that is well worth theinvestment. It will not replace the hands-on learn-ing necessary for in-depth training in skeletal biol-ogy, but it is a welcome addition to the resourcesavailable for teaching and learning human osteol-ogy.

ROBERT D. HOPPA

Department of AnthropologyUniversity of ManitobaWinnipeg, Manitoba, Canada

LITERATURE CITED

White T. 2001. Human osteology, 2nd ed. New York: AcademicPress.

DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20022Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.

com).

MAN CORN: CANNIBALISM AND VIOLENCE IN THE PREHIS-TORIC AMERICAN SOUTHWEST. By Christy G. Turner IIand Jacqueline A. Turner. Salt Lake City, UT:University of Utah Press. 1999. 550 pp. ISBN0-87480-566-X. $65.00 (cloth).

Man Corn represents the culmination of a 30-yearinquiry into one of the ancient Southwest’s mostsensitive and controversial subjects: human canni-balism. It began in earnest in 1967 after an unre-lated study of teeth from Polacca Wash in northeast-ern Arizona revealed a set of human remains thathad been battered and broken in a manner similarto animal bone refuse from an archaeological mid-den. The study came to embroil Southwest scholars

in one of the most contentious debates of modernanthropology: the existence of cannibalism amongprehistoric Puebloan peoples. Through the years,the authors have amassed a growing body of osteo-logical evidence for body mutilation and cannibalismin the American Southwest. This volume assemblesthe evidence as of 1995, and lays out a theory toexplain the origins and practice of human cannibal-ism in the region: importation of the practice byMesoamericans for use in subjugating the Anasazi.

After a brief chapter introducing the problem ofanthropophagy and its history in the literature, theauthors move into a detailed chapter on the signa-ture taphonomic features of cannibalism assem-blages. They revisit a list of 14 characteristics pub-

Fig. 1. Example of “show all labels” button.

294 BOOK REVIEWS

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lished by the first author in 1983 that includes: asingle, short-term depositional episode, good-to-ex-cellent bone preservation, extensive body disarticu-lation, and a low frequency of animal gnawing andchewing. Through the years, they have refined oradded other attributes to this list to include sixessential perimortem damage criteria that they usein determining if cannibalism occurred in the 76cases reviewed in this volume: breakage, cut marks,anvil abrasions, burning, missing vertebrae, andpot-polishing. As discussed in the literature anddemonstrated by the authors through comparativeassessment of archaeological (and ethnographic)data on food processing in the American Southwest,these damage characteristics are seen in archaeolog-ical assemblages of animal food refuse and, by anal-ogy, suggest similar processing of human remains.Also discussed here is comparative information on“considerate” burials in the Southwest by type andtime period, data essential for evaluating alterna-tive hypotheses concerning the formation of “canni-balism” deposits. The chapter concludes with a dis-cussion of noncannibalistic violence and how it canbe distinguished osteologically from behaviors in-volving cannibalism. Characteristic features of non-cannibalistic violence include: projectile points em-bedded in bone; a general dearth of cut marks, that,when present, are restricted to the cranial vault;and traumatic breakage of heads and faces in theabsence of other breakage and in association withotherwise relatively complete skeletons.

Most of the volume (360 pages) is devoted to acase-by-case presentation of 76 sites of purportedcannibalism or violence (Chapter 3, Table 3.1). Thecases are presented in chronological order from thedate they were first reported. The purpose of thisorganization is to provide the reader with a histori-cal perspective on accounts of violence and cannibal-ism in the Southwest. I commend the authors fortheir uniform presentation of data collected over a100-year period by numerous different researchers,as well as for their efforts to revisit as many of thesecollections as possible for purposes of confirmationand standardization. Each case study is formatted toinclude the following information: claim date, claim-ant, claim type, site designations, location, and type;cultural affiliation; chronology; excavators and date;institutional storage; site and osteological reports;skeletal evidence of stress; burial context and asso-ciated artifacts; figures (photos); taphonomy (asknown or reported); archaeologist’s and other inter-pretations; and a discussion. The most variable ofthese categories in terms of individual case studiesis information pertaining to taphonomy in conse-quence of differences in date of discovery, nature ofanalysis, and reporting. Taphonomy sections vari-ously include an accounting of the minimum numberof individuals (MNI), age and sex, preservation,bone and fragment number, breakage, cut marks,burning, anvil abrasions, polishing, vertebrae num-

ber, scalping, rodent gnawing, carnivore chewing,insect parts, other modifications, and individualdamage. Not surprisingly, these sections are mostcomplete for cases personally studied or reviewed bythe authors.

Using the criteria outlined above, Turner andTurner identify 286 individuals from 38 sites wheredamage to human remains can reasonably be attrib-uted to cannibalism. At another 18 sites they iden-tify violence without cannibalism, and at six theydisagree with, or at least have serious reservationsabout, purported cannibalism claims. Forty-two ofthese case studies were substantiated by the au-thors through personal examination, and an addi-tional 18 were accepted based on published descrip-tions. Two others were provisionally accepted withrecommendation for further study. One small cor-rection: Table 3.1 (p. 57) identifies Bc51 in ChacoCanyon as a site with violence but not cannibalism;this seems to be a typographical error, because it isdescribed as a cannibalism site in the text (pp. 361–362) and plotted on the map of such sites (p. 411).This aside, the evidence is very well-presented andwell-illustrated, and quite convincing in terms ofboth sheer abundance and demonstrable intersitesimilarities. The chapter concludes with compara-tive statistical analyses of violence and cannibalismassemblages. These two types of assemblages areshown to differ in sex, but not in age, composition:males predominate by 2:1 in violence, but not incannibalism assemblages. Correlations with thePueblo II Chaco phenomenon are also demonstratedin both the temporal distribution of cannibalismsites (most dating between A.D. 900–1300) and intheir geographic distribution relative to Chacoangreat houses.

To provide a background for their final argumentconcerning the causes of Anasazi cannibalism, theTurners devote the next chapter to evidence of sac-rifice and cannibalism in Mexico. Unlike the South-west, here the ethnohistoric evidence of cannibalismis abundant and largely undisputed, and archaeo-logical studies extend these practices back in time atleast 2,500 years. Data collected by the Turners ontwo collections from central Mexico, Electra andTlatelcomila, provide a basis for comparisons be-tween Mexico and the Southwest. Although thesereveal statistically significant differences betweenthe regions for most site comparisons, these differ-ences have more to do with relative frequencies ofthe different perimortem signatures (e.g., cutmarks) than with differences in damage types. Thechapter establishes the great antiquity of cannibal-istic practices as well as the prominent sociopoliticalrole of sacrifice and cannibalism in central Mexico.

In the final chapter of Man Corn, the authorsmake their case for the Mesoamerican origins andideological underpinnings of cannibalistic practicesin the American Southwest. The explanation theypropose combines aspects of social control, ritualhuman sacrifice, and social pathology, which they

BOOK REVIEWS 295

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argue figured prominently in cannibalistic practicesof the Teotihuacan and Toltec cultures of centralMexico. They suggest that these practices were di-rectly imported to the Southwest by Mexicans, pos-sibly vanquished Toltec warrior-cultists, seeking toestablish a Mesoamerican-style hierarchical systemin Chaco Canyon. In support of this direct-importa-tion model, they review the many Southwest cul-tural features attributable to Mexican origins: culti-gens, trade items such as copper bells and macaws,ceramic forms and finishes, various symbolic fea-tures of art and architecture, and the Mesoameri-can-style road system emanating from Chaco Can-yon. The Turners add dental transfigurement to thislist, citing in particular an adult male from PuebloBonito with side-notching of the upper anteriorteeth as evidence for the actual presence of peoplefrom Mexico in Chaco Canyon. In short, they arguethat Southwest cannibalism sites correspond tempo-rally and geographically with the Chaco phenome-non, which in turns shows evidence of strong Mexi-can ideological influence: hence, the practice ofcannibalism came from Mexico and was used as inMexico to establish and maintain a theocratic politycentered at Chaco Canyon.

I find the Turners’ argument very provocative andappreciate their broad view of historic and socialprocesses. However, although convinced by the evi-dence for cannibalism, I remain unconvinced at thiswriting of the causal scenario as they present it forseveral reasons: 1) the Turners do not adequatelyaddress how the practice skipped over two majorgeographic regions (Hohokam and Mogollon) to endup in the Anasazi region; 2) the display element(e.g., skull racks) so prominent in Mesoamerica andseemingly important for purposes of ongoing intim-idation has not yet been demonstrated for the South-west; 3) some cannibalism sites, such as CottonwoodWash in southeastern Utah, predate the appearanceof the Chacoan great houses they are argued tocorrespond with; and 4) “cannibalism” sites tend to

concentrate to the north of Chaco Canyon (Fig.3.292) after its cultural efflorescence, whereas dem-onstrations of cannibalism might reasonably be ex-pected to concentrate in Chaco Canyon and regionsto the south and west during the initial phase ofChacoan expansion. This is not to say that the prac-tice of cannibalism could not have had Mesoameri-can roots, but details such as these complicate asimple explanation of Mexican importation. It is alsoimportant to keep in mind that “cannibalism” sitesspan at least a 400-year period; and the causes,perpetrators, and practice itself could have changedduring this time. Victims or targets of intimidation,for example, could have become perpetrators of re-venge acts.

What I particularly like about this volume is thatit lays out all of the evidence in a format conduciveto intersite comparisons and model-testing. While Idisagree with aspects of the Turners’ interpreta-tions, I am able to do so because the evidence theyused to formulate their theory is equally available tothose such as myself who might question it. Thenumerous high-quality photographs provide an ar-chive of perimortem trauma useful not only toSouthwest scholars but also to anyone interested inthe identification and documentation of perimortemdamage in human skeletal remains. Man Corn is amonumental work on Southwest violence and can-nibalism that bears testimony to the dogged deter-mination of the authors to answer their critics in themost straightforward and compelling of ways: acase-by-case evaluation of the evidence.

PATRICIA M. LAMBERT

Department of AnthropologyUtah State UniversityLogan, Utah

DOI 10.1002/ajpa.20023Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.

com).

BOOKS RECEIVEDMarks J (2002) What it Means to be 98% Chimpanzee:

Apes, People, and their Genes. Berkeley, CA: Univer-sity of California Press. 312 pp. $27.50 (cloth).

Salzano FM, and Bortolini MC (2002) The Evolution

and Genetics of Latin American Populations. NewYork: Cambridge University Press. 512 pp. $90.00(cloth).

Swindler DR (2002) Primate Dentition: An Introductionto the Teeth of Non-human Primates. New York:Cambridge University Press. 296 pp. $80.00 (cloth).

296 BOOK REVIEWS