A PEOPLE and A NATION

Chapter 28, 29, and 31:

The The Cold Cold WarWar

McCarthyism• Domestic hunt for communists has long

history before McCarthy (Red Scare of 1919–20)

• Soviet espionage exists, but Truman and Eisenhower largely overreact with loyalty probes as well as alarmist rhetoric on Cold War competition

• In 1947, Truman starts discharging “security risks;” for most, no evidence of disloyalty

• Truman and other politicians red-bait opponents

McCarthyism (cont.)• Growing hysteria weakens labor unions;

dissenting writers/teachers lose jobs• Nixon and HUAC lead efforts against

Alger Hiss- who was almost certainly a spy

• McCarthy uses guilt by association as well as lies to become most successful red-baiter

• McCarthy is a demagogue (exploits domestic fears of Cold War, especially with Korean War)

• Internal Security Act (1950) essentially bans CPUSA- Passed over Truman’s veto

Army-McCarthy Hearings, 1954

• Eisenhower expands dismissal of alleged security risks; wants to, but refuses to curtail McCarthy

• McCarthy goes too far when accuses Army of communism on TV; Senate censors him

• McCarthyism claims many innocent victims

• Prevents free discussion of ideas/dissent• Fear helps maintain Cold War consensus

Eisenhower-Dulles Containment Policies

• Oppose communism abroad (call for liberation) and at home

• Massive retaliation: US threatens to use nuclear weapons on USSR if any aggression

• New Look stresses air power and nuclear weapons as cost-effective containment

• Brinkmanship: willing to take USA to brink of war

• Domino theory means US has to support allies

CIA; US Information Agency; Hydrogen

Bomb• Eisenhower increases use of CIA for containment, especially covert operations with plausible deniability

• USIA (1953) tries to undermine USSR with radio broadcasts to E. Europe and USSR

• US gains H-Bomb (1952); in 1954, H-Bomb destroys Bikini and fallout causes illness

• USSR gets H-Bomb (1953), then ICBM (1957)

• US still way ahead in nuclear weapons

The Russians have beaten America The Russians have beaten America in space—they have the in space—they have the

technological edge!technological edge!

Sputnik, 1957

U-2 Incident; Jinmen-Mazu; “Japanese

Miracle”• Eisenhower threatens nuclear

bombs if PRC does not retreat in crisis on Jiang’s commando bases

• PRC retreats (1954–55, 1958); US puts nuclear weapons on Taiwan (1957); PRC develops bomb (1964)

• Japan’s economic success and US’s reliance on nuclear arms creates tensions in alliance

Col. Francis Gary Col. Francis Gary Powers’ plane Powers’ plane was shot down was shot down

over Soviet over Soviet airspace.airspace.

U-2 Spy Plane Incident

US spying destroys Paris Summit (1960); arms race/spying continues (satellites)

US Interests in the Third World

• Rapid decolonization (post-WWII) creates many new nations (125 from 1943–94)

• Most are nonwhite, non-industrial, and in south

• US and Soviet Union compete in Third World for markets, raw materials, investment sites, bases, UN votes, and allies in Cold War

• US intervenes (military and otherwise) to impress USSR and to counter nationalism

American Images of Third World Peoples

• US uses aid, propaganda, help to native elites/ dictators, arms sales, and covert operations

• Many Third World nations want nonalignment

• Eisenhower and Dulles reject neutralism and intervene to contain it; argue that Third World must ally with US in Cold War and adopt US models

• US leaders view Third World through race-, age-, and gender-based stereotypes

US Handicaps with Third World

• US is hurt by domestic segregation (Indian ambassador, 1955) and racial tension (Little Rock, 1957)

• US is hostile to revolutions in 1900s because they threaten US trade, investments, bases, allies

• US sides with European allies, native elites• US opposes anti-capitalist radicalism; tries

to undercut it with development projects• Foreigners both envy and resent US

affluence

US Intervention in Vietnam (1950s)

• By 1954, France is losing war with Vietminh

• Eisenhower does not intervene at Dien bien phu (air strike) because British and Congress resist

• France grants independence at Geneva (1954); Ho accepts temporary division at 17th

• US prevents 1956 reunification elections; backs repressive Diem to lead S. Vietnam

• Civil war develops with formation of NLF/VC

Cold War, Vietnam, & Third World, 1961–1989

• Kennedy and Johnson expand Cold War and deepen intervention in Vietnam and Third World

• Build on actions of Truman and Eisenhower (arms race)

• From Kennedy to Reagan, US acts to win Cold War and defuse revolutionary nationalism

• US maintains supremacy, but at great cost• Vietnam is key defeat (weakens US

consensus); world changes (less bipolar)• Slowly US/USSR relax Cold War by ‘89

Military Spending

• In 1961, US spends $98 billion on weapons and research; spurs electronics and computers

Kennedy’s Nation Building • An ardent Cold Warrior, Kennedy vows to

win in missiles, arms, space, and Third World

• Alliance for Progress and Peace Corps (1961) try to build pro-US nations in Third World

• Kennedy also advocates counterinsurgency (Green Berets) to defeat revolutionaries

• Few successes; aid goes through native elite

• Many countries resent attempts to impose US models

Kennedy’s Military Expansion• Although missile gap favors US,

Kennedy enlarges military under flexible response

• Arms race accelerates as Kennedy increases nuclear weapons by 150% by 1964

• More CIA operations: assassination plots (Congo, 1960–61) and undermine elections (Brazil, 1964)

• Kennedy rejects negotiations on Berlin, but accepts wall (1961) as way to avoid war

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• Two days after becoming Pres., JFK urged by CIA to move against Cuba.– Urgency based on belief that Castro

intended to export Communism to rest of Lat. Am.

• Plan began w/ Eisenhower Admin. – Overthrow Castro by secretly

supporting an invasion of exiles and establishing a provisional govt.

• Kennedy continues Eisenhower’s plan for exile invasion; tries to hide US role

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• JFK and others not comfortable w/ the plan, but afraid to oppose– If JFK stopped the plan, and

disarmed the exiles the CIA was training, word would leak out and JFK would be betrayed as soft on Cuba. “Appeasement.” “Eisenhower made the decision and you dropped the ball.”

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• JFK realized that invasion could be an international disaster– No way to keep people from

knowing US was behind it.– First foreign policy action would

be aggressive- create ill will in the world.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)• CIA gave assurances that the

invasion would work, could be accomplished w/ small invasion force (1,200-1,500 men), and would not require overt US intervention.

• “Ultimate success will depend on the extent to which the initial assault serves as a catalyst [for an uprising of anti-Castro forces inside Cuba]. “[P]lan was dependent on a general uprising in Cuba, and the entire operation would fail without such an uprising.”– This is a crucial assumption by the CIA.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• JFK repeatedly told Joint Chiefs and CIA that “US strike forces would not be allowed to participate in or support the invasion in any way.”

• Planners didn’t believe him. They felt certain JFK would commit troops to the invasion if it was in danger of failing. This heightened their willingness to take risks.

• CIA Chief Dulles key in selling the plan to JFK- invoke Eisenhower.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• Secrecy of the plan was blown- US newspapers were all over the training of Cuban exiles.

• Castro new something was coming, he just didn’t know when.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• Invasion began on April 15 (Saturday), and quickly falters;

• Many problems (including terrible logistics by CIA and US military), but key is that Cubans do not rise up in support of the invading exiles.

• Original air strikes fail to damage Cuban air forces. This leaves exiles very vulnerable.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)• By Tuesday, failure is evident.

• CIA illusions about 1,400 exiles taking on Castro’s army, about an internal uprising, and about the ability of the exiles to either establish a beach head or get to the mountains doomed the exercise.

• CIA pressured JFK to use airstrikes from US carrier. JFK stuck to his word that he would not do so.

• Invasion collapsed.

Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)

• Impossible to hide US role; • JFK accepts responsibility- his

popularity rises.• Castro moves closer to USSR;

Kennedy vows to topple him• CIA’s Operation Mongoose

(more sabotage, assassination); Joint Chiefs of Staff plans for invasion

Bay of Pigs, 1961

Cuban Missile Crisis

Cuban Missile Crisis (Oct. 1962)

• To preserve Cuban independence, Castro wants Soviet help to deter another US invasion

• US actions against Cuba give Khrushchev an excuse to put nuclear missiles in Cuba

Cuban Missile Crisis• Khruschev decided to turn Cuba

into a missile base. Decided to deploy 24 medium range ballistic missiles (MRBMs) and 16 intermediate range ballistic missiles (IRBMs). – MRBM range: approx 1,050 miles– IRBM range: approx 2,100 miles

• This would double the number of Soviet missiles that could reach the continental US.

Cuban Missile Crisis• USSR’s perceived benefits of

missiles in Cuba– Deter US attack– Tie Cuba closer to Soviet sphere

of influence– Gain leverage over US regarding

Berlin and other trouble spots– Equalize US/USSR balance of

power

Cuban Missile Crisis

• Khruschev wanted to keep the deployment secret until after the next US election- then he would announce them when in place at a UN meeting.

• Khruschev believed that the US wouldn’t suspect that the USSR would put nuclear missiles outside it’s territory.

Cuban Missile Crisis• In general Khruschev’s belief was

true- US did not suspect nuclear missiles would be placed outside USSR.

• JFK was concerned, however, that it was possible that the USSR would put missiles in Cuba if they thought they could get away w/ it. He warned Khruschev- ‘offensive weapons’ and ‘ground to ground missiles’ would raise the ‘gravest issues.’

Cuban Missile Crisis

• Oct. 1- Def. Sec. McNamara received news of ‘eyewitness’ accounts of missiles being put in Cuba.

• JFK advisors call for U-2 spy plane over flights of Cuba to confirm.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• October 14, U-2 flight lasted 6 min. and produced 928 photos. Got the evidence:– 4 MRBM sites under

construction– 2 IRBM sites– 21 bombers capable of

carrying nuclear bombs– Apparently crated missiles

Cuban Missile Crisis

• Photos developed and enlarged on Oct. 15.

• On morning of Oct. 16 Sec. of St. Bundy took them to JFK in his bedroom at 8:45.

• JFK to Bobby on the phone: “We’ve got some big trouble. I want you over here.”

Cuba- 90 Miles Away

The U-2 Spy Plane

Navy F-8 Crusader

Air Force RF-101

Low Flying Spy Planes

What Kennedy Saw

Missiles being delivered

What Kennedy Saw

What Kennedy Saw

MRBM Launch Site

Military Encampment and Convoy

What Kennedy Saw

What Kennedy Saw

MRBM Sites

CIA MRBM Ref. Photo

What Kennedy Saw

What Kennedy Saw

MRBM Sites

What Kennedy Saw

CIA IRBM Ref. Photo

What Kennedy Saw

IRBM Site

What Kennedy Saw

SAM Sites

What Kennedy Saw

What Kennedy Saw

Cuban Missile Sites

Relative Power of Cuban Missiles

CIA Projections of Strike Potential

Oxford, Miss.

Actual Strike Potential

Cuban Missile Crisis• JFK decides removal of missiles is

necessary• Some suggest air strike; Joint

Chiefs of Staff wants full invasion; members of Congress are briefed and want military action.

• But both options risk escalation and nuclear war.

• JFK did not know:

Invasion = 100%chance of nuclear war

Cuban Missile Crisis

• JFK assembles- quietly- a group of advisers. Came to be called “Ex Comm”

• Were the MRBM/IRBM ready? No. How soon will they be ready? No one could say for certain.– Time frame for decision is

short.

Cuban Missile CrisisWhat are the options?• Some argue for an immediate,

unannounced air attack. Take out the missile sites or go broader and attack general military targets.

• Some argued for an invasion• Others a blockadeAt first, JFK seemed to be set upon

an air attack.

Cuban Missile Crisis• JFK asks military if air strike will

get all the missiles. “Never 100%” he is told. Will not be a single air strike, but continuous attacks.

• Robert Kennedy does not like the feel of this. – Might kill thousands of civilians.– “I now know how Tojo felt when he

was planning Pearl Harbor.” RFK wrote in a note.

Cuban Missile Crisis•McNamara develops a proposal:

–Blockade and open surveillance.•Blockade against any offensive weapons coming in to Cuba.

•Surveillance would be ongoing and indefinite.

•US would prepare to attack the USSR if any offensive action came from Cuba.

•Joint Chiefs continued to call for full scale invasion of Cuba.

Cuban Missile Crisis• By Oct. 18, JFK clearly leaning

towards blockade and negotiation.– Rejects immediate invasion: “Nobody

knows what kind of success we’re going to have… thousands of Americans [might] get killed.”

• Oct. 22, JFK makes TV address to nation announcing the quarantine.

Cuban Missile Crisis

• After days of brinkmanship, a compromise: USSR removes Cuban missiles; US pledges no invasion of Cuba and removes Turkey missiles

• Kennedy proclaims victory• After crisis, Test Ban Treaty

(1963); hot line

We went eyeball-to-eyeball with the We went eyeball-to-eyeball with the Russians, and the other guy blinked!Russians, and the other guy blinked!

Cuban Missile Crisis

JFK: “Let’s get a lock for this thing.”