The CeltsThe CeltsHistory, Life, and CultureVOLUME 1: AHJOHN T. KOCH, GENERAL EDITORANTONE MINARD, EDITOREditorial Team: Thomas Owen Clancy, Petra S. Hellmuth,Anne Holley, Glenys Howells, Marian Beech Hughes, Marion LferCopyright 2012 by ABC-CLIO, LLCAll rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrievalsystem, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in areview, without prior permission in writing from the publisher.Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataThe Celts : history, life, and culture / John T. Koch, general editor ; Antone Minard, editor.p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 9781598849646 (cloth : acid-free paper) ISBN 9781598849653 (e-book)1. Civilization, CelticEncyclopedias. 2. CeltsHistoryEncyclopedias. I. Koch,John T. II. Minard, Antone.CB206.C48 2012936.4dc23 2012005137ISBN: 9781598849646EISBN: 97815988496531615141312 12345This book is also available on the World Wide Web as an eBook.Visit www.abc-clio.com for details.ABC-CLIO, LLC130 Cremona Drive, P.O. Box 1911Santa Barbara, California 93116-1911This book is printed on acid-free paperManufactured in the United States of AmericaContentsAcknowledgments xxxiIntroduction xxxiiiCeltic Chronology xliVOLUME 1Aberffraw 1Aberystwyth 1Act of Union, Ireland (1800) 2Acte dUnion, Brittany (1532) 3Acts of Union, Wales (153643) 3Aedn mac Gabrin 4agriculture, Gaul 4agriculture, Ireland 5agriculture, Isle of Man 7agriculture, Scotland 8agriculture, Wales 10Aided nr Afe and Oidheadh Chonnlaoich mheic Con Culainn 11aisling 11Aithbhreac nighean Coirceadail 12Alan Varveg 12Alba (Scotland) 12Alba, name, derivation, and usage 15Alban, St. (Albanus Verolamiensis) 15Albion, Albiones 16Amairgen mac Mled 16Ambrosius Aurelianus (Emrys Wledig) 17Anaon 17Andraste/Andrasta 18Aneirin 18Anglo-Irish literature 19Anglo-Saxonconquest 21Anglo-Welsh literature 23Ankou 27annals 27Annwn/Annwfn 31Anu 32Arawn 32Ard Mhacha (Armagh) 33Arfderydd 33Arianrhod ferch Dn 34Armagh, Book of 34Armes Prydein 35Armorica 35Arras culture 37art, Celtic, pre-Roman 37art, Celtic, post-Roman 42art, Celtic-inuenced, modern, Brittany 45art, Celtic-inuenced, modern, Ireland 46art, Celtic-inuenced, modern, Isle of Man 48art, Celtic-inuenced, modern, Scotland 48art, Celtic-inuenced, modern, Wales 49Arthur, historical evidence 51Arthur, in the saints lives 54Arthurian literature, Breton 54Arthurian literature, Cornish 55Arthurian literature, Irish 56Arthurian literature, Scottish Gaelic 57Arthurian literature, texts in non-Celtic medieval languages 57Arthurian literature, Welsh 62vi CONT E NT SArthurian sites 63Asterix 66Audacht Morainn 66Auraicept na nces 66Avalon (Ynys Afallach) 67awen 68badonicus mons 69bagpipe 70Baile tha Cliath (Dublin) 70ballads and narrative songs, Breton 72ballads and narrative songs, Irish 73ballads and narrative songs, Scottish Gaelic 74ballads and narrative songs, Welsh 75Balor 76Bannockburn, battle of 76bard, in classical accounts 77bard, comparison of the professional poet in early Wales and Ireland 78bard, Romantic perception 79bardic order, in Ireland 79bardic order, in Wales 80Barzaz-Breiz 84Bath 84bean s/banshee 86Bede 86Bedwyr 87Belenos/Belinos 88Belgae 88Beli Mawr 91Beltaine 92Beunans Ke 93Beunans Meriasek 94Bible, in Breton and Cornish 94CONT E NT S viiBible, in Irish and Scottish Gaelic 95Bible, in Welsh 97Bibracte 97biniou and bombard 98Biturges 98Blodeuwedd 99Band/Binn/Boyne 99Bodb 100bodhrn 101Bononia/Bologna 101Botorrita 102Boudca 103Brn fab Ll^yr/Bendigeidfran 104Branwen ferch L^yr 106Breizh (Brittany) 106Brendan, St 108Brennos (of the Prausi or Tolistobogii) 108Brennos (of the Senones) 108Bretha Nemed 109Breton dialects 109Breton language 112Breton lays 115Breton literature, beginnings to c. 1900 115Breton literature, 20th century 120Breton migrations 122Breton music 123Breuddwyd Rhonabwy 124Brian Bruma/Brian Bor 125Bricriu mac Carbaid 126bricta 126Brigantes 126Brigit (goddess) 128viii CONT E NT SBrigit (saint) 129Britain 129British 130Britons 130brochs 131brooches andbulae 132Bruce, Robert de 132Brug na Binne 133bruiden 133Brut y Brenhinedd 133Brut y Tywysogyon 134Brychan Brycheiniog 135Brycheiniog 135Brynaich (Bernicia) 136Brythonic 137Burns, Robert 138Cadwaladr ap Cadwallon 139Cadwallon ap Cadfan 139Caer (Chester), battle of 140Cai fab Cynyr 141Cailleach Bhirre 142Caisel Muman 142Caladbolg/Caledfwlch/Excalibur 143calendar, Celtic 144Calidones 146Camlan 147Camma 147Camulod unon and Camelot 148cantref 148Caradog of Llancarfan 149Caratacos 149carnyx 150CONT E NT S ixCartimandua 150cashel 150Cassivellaunos/Caswallon 151Cath Maige Tuired 152Cathbad 152Catraeth 152cauldrons 154Citinn, Seathrn (Geoffrey Keating) 155Celtiberia 155Celtiberian language 156Celtic countries and characteristics of the Celtic territories 157Celtic languages 162Celtic languages in North America, Breton 164Celtic languages in North America, Irish 165Celtic languages in North America, Scottish Gaelic 167Celtic languages in North America, Welsh 168Celtic languages, online learning resources 169Celtic studies, early history of theeld 171Celtic studies, online resources 172Celtic Tiger 173Celtomania 174Celts in Central and Eastern Europe 175cerdd dafod 178Cernunnos 179Chamalires, inscription 179Chamalires, sanctuary 180champions portion 180chariot and wagon 181charter tradition, medieval Celtic 182Chrtien de Troyes 185Christianity, Brittany, late antiquity and the Middle Ages 186Christianity, Brittany, Protestantism 188x CONT E NT SChristianity, Celtic 190Christianity, Cornwall 192Christianity, Ireland 193Christianity, Isle of Man 196Christianity, Scotland, before 1100 198Christianity, Scotland, c. 1100c. 1560 199Christianity, Scotland, after 1560 200Christianity, Wales 201Chwedleu Seith Doethon Rufein 203Cimbri and Teutones 203Cn Dromma Snechtai 204Cinaed mac Ailpn 204circulating schools and Sunday schools, Welsh 205Cisalpine Gaul 205Cistercian abbeys in Ireland 207Cistercian abbeys in Wales 208Ciume sti 209clan 209Clann MacMhuirich 210Clanranald, Books of 211Clawdd Offa (Offas Dyke) 211clearances 213ciced 213coinage, Celtic 213Coligny calendar 215Collins, Michael 216Colum Cille, St 216Common Celtic 217Computus Fragment 217Conall Cernach 218Conan Meriadoc 218Conchobar mac Nessa 219CONT E NT S xiConn Ctchathach 220Connacht 220Conradh na Gaeilge 220Continental Celtic 221Cormac mac Airt 223Cormac ua Cuilennin/Cormac mac Cuileannin 223Cormac ua Liathin 224Cornish language 224Cornish literature, medieval 225Cornish literature, post-medieval 226Cornish literature, 17th and 18th centuries 226Cornish literature, 19th and 20th centuries 227courtly love 227crosn 228Crachu/Crachain/Rathcroghan 230Cruithin/Cruithni 231crwth 231C Chulainn 232C Ro mac Diri 232Culhwch ac Olwen 233Culloden, battle of 234Cumbria 234Cumbric 235Cunedda (Wledig) fab Edern/Cunedag 236Cunobelinos 237c^ wn Annwn 238Cydymdeithas Amlyn ac Amig 238Cyfarwydd 239Cyfranc Lludd a Llefelys 239Cymdeithas yr Iaith Gymraeg 239Cymru (Wales) 240Cymru (Wales), name 243xii CONT E NT SCymru Fydd 243Cynddelw Brydydd Mawr 244Cynfeirdd 245cynghanedd 245Cynulliad Cenedlaethol Cymru (National Assembly for Wales) 247cywydd 247Cywyddwyr 248Dafydd ap Gwilym 253Dagda 253Dl gCais 254Dl Riata 254dances, Breton 256dances, Irish 256dances, Scottish 257dances, Welsh 258dnta grdha 258Danube (Danuvius) 259De Clare, Richard 260De Gabil in t-Sda 260de hde, Dubhghlas (Douglas Hyde) 260de Valera, Eamon 261Dean of Lismore, Book of the 262Deer, Book of 263Derdriu/Deirdre 263Descriptio Kambriae 263Devolution and the Celtic Countries 264Dewi Sant (St David) 264Diarmaid ua Duibhne 265dictionaries and grammars, Breton 265dictionaries and grammars, Cornish 266dictionaries and grammars, Irish 268dictionaries and grammars, Manx 269CONT E NT S xiiidictionaries and grammars, Scottish Gaelic 270dictionaries and grammars, Welsh 271Dinas Emrys 272dindshenchas 272Ds Pater 273Domnonia 273Dn 274Draig Goch 274druids, accounts from classical authors 275druids, Romantic images of 276druids, the word 277drunkenness 277Drystan ac Esyllt 278Dubhadh 278Dumnonia 279Dn Ailinne 280Dn Aonghasa 281Dn ideann (Edinburgh) 282duns 283Drrnberg bei Hallein 283Durrow, Book of 287Duval, Ajela 288Dyfed 289Easter controversy 291echtrai 292education in the Celtic languages, Breton medium 293education in the Celtic languages, Cornish medium 293education in the Celtic languages, Irish medium 294education in the Celtic languages, Manx medium 296education in the Celtic languages, Scottish Gaelic medium 297education in the Celtic languages, Welsh medium 298Eilean (Iona) 299xiv CONT E NT Sire (Ireland) 300eisteddfod 305Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru (National Eisteddfod of Wales) 306Elfed/Elmet 307Elisegs Pillar 308Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man) 308Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), Celticity of 310Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), in early Irish literature 310Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man),shing and mining 312Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), Manx constitution 313Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), material culture in the High Middle Ages 315Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), place-names of 317Ellan Vannin (Isle of Man), prehistory 319Emain Machae 320Emigration, Cornwall 320Emigration, Isle of Man 321Emigration, Wales 322Enaid Owain ab Urien 322enclosures 323England (Lloegr/Sasana) 323englyn 324oganacht 324Epona 325remn mac Mled 325Erispo 326riu 326Eryri (Snowdonia) 331Esus/Aesus 332Evans, Ellis Humphrey (Hedd Wyn) 333Evans, Gwynfor 333fairies 335famine 338CONT E NT S xvfanum and sanctuary 338feast 339Fedelm 340feis 340Feiseanna and the Oireachtas 341Fergus mac Rich 341fest-noz 342fan 342annaocht 343dchell 345ddle 345Finn mac Cumaill 346Fir Bolg 347Fir Domnann 347Fled Bricrenn 347ood legends 348folk-tales and legends 349folk-tales and legends, Breton 349folk-tales and legends, Cornish 350folk-tales and legends, Irish 351folk-tales and legends, Manx 352folk-tales and legends, Scottish Gaelic 353folk-tales and legends, Welsh 354Fomoiri 355foodways 355Foras na Gaeilge 358fortication, Britain and Ireland 358fortication, Continental 360fosterage in Ireland and Wales 361Gaelic 363Gaeltacht 364Galatia 366xvi CONT E NT SGalatian language 368Galicia 369games 371Gaul 371Gaulish 373geis 375genealogies, Irish 375genealogies, Welsh 377Geoffrey of Monmouth 378Geraint fab Erbin 379Gildas 380Giraldus Cambrensis 382Glastonbury, archaeology 383Glauberg 384glossaries 385glosses, Old Irish 386glosses, Old Welsh 386Gododdin 387Gogynfeirdd 388Goibniu 390Goidelic 390Golasecca culture 391Gorsedd Beirdd Ynys Prydain 391Gorseth Kernow (Cornish Gorsedd) 392Goursez Gourenez Breiz-Izel 392Grail 393Grannus 394Greek and Roman accounts of the ancient Celts 394Gruffudd ap Cynan 397Gundestrup cauldron 398Gwenhwyfar 400Gwerful Mechain 400CONT E NT S xviiGwreans an Bys (The Creacion of the Worlde) 401Gwrtheyrn (Vortigern) 401Gwydion ap Dn 402Gwynedd 403Hadrians Wall 405hagiography, Breton 406hagiography, Cornish 407hagiography, Irish 408hagiography, Scottish 410hagiography, Welsh 411Hallstatt, archaeological site 413Hallstatt culture 415harp, Irish 417harp, Welsh 418Hay, George Campbell 419head cult 420Hedd Wyn 422Heledd ferch Cyndrwyn 422Hlias, Per-Jakez 422helmets 423Helvetii 424Hen Ogledd 424heroic ethos in early Celtic literatures 426Heuneburg 428Hibernia 430high crosses, Celtic 430Highland Games 433Highlands and Islands 433Historia Brittonum 435Historia Regum Britanniae 436hoards and depositions 437Hochdorf 437xviii CONT E NT SHurling 440hymns, Welsh 440Hywel Dda 441VOLUME 2Iceni 443imbas forosnai 443Imbolc 444Immram Brain maic Febail 444Immrama 444Indo-European 445inscriptions, ancient 447inscriptions, early medieval 450Insular Celtic 450interpretatio Romana 451Irish drama 451Irish independence movement 453Irish language 455Irish literature, classical poetry 461Irish literature, early poetry (c. 600c. 1200) 462Irish literature, early prose (c. 700c. 1600/1650) 465Irish literature, post-classical 468Irish literature, 19th century (c. 1845c. 1922) 471Irish literature, since 1922 475Irish music 477Irish Republican Army 478Iron Age 479Iudic-hael 480Jacobite poetry 483Jacobite rebellions 484Joyce, James 485keeill 487Kells, Book of (Codex Cenannensis) 487CONT E NT S xixKentigern, St 488Kernow (Cornwall) 489Kilkenny, Statutes of 491kilts 491Kingdom of Man and the Isles 491Kings Cycles, medieval Irish 492kingship, Celtic 493kinship, Celtic 495La Tne, archaeological site 497La Tne period 497Laigin (Leinster) 501Lailoken 502lake settlement 503land agitation, Ireland 505land agitation, Scotland 506land agitation, Wales 507Landevenneg/Landvennec, Abbey of 507language (revival) movements in the Celtic countries 510language (revival) movements, Brittany 510language (revival) movements, Cornwall 511language (revival) movements, Ireland 512language (revival) movements, Isle of Man 513language (revival) movements, Scotland 514language (revival) movements, Wales 515law texts, Celtic, Irish 518law texts, Celtic, Welsh 520Leabhar Bhaile an Mhta 522Leabhar Breac 522Leabhar Buidhe Leacin 523Lebar Gabla renn 524Lebor Laignech 525Lebor na hUidre 526xx CONT E NT Slegendary animals 526legendary history, background and denitions 527legendary history, Brittany 527legendary history, Gaelic Scotland 528legendary history, Gaul 529legendary history, Ireland 530legendary history, Picts 532legendary history, Wales 532Lepontic 534Lewis, Saunders 535Lewis, Saunders, playwright 535Lewis, Saunders, poet, novelist, and literary critic 536Lhuyd, Edward 537Lindisfarne 538Lindow Moss 539literacy and orality in early Celtic societies 539Llefelys/Lleuelis/Llywelus 541Lleu 542Lloyd George, David 542Llyfr Aneirin 543Llyfr Coch Hergest 544Llyfr Du Caerfyrddin 544Llyfr Gwyn Rhydderch 545Llyfr Taliesin 545Ll^yr 546Llywelyn ab Iorwerth 546Llywelyn ap Gruffudd 547Lochlann 547Longas mac nUislenn 548Lordship of the Isles 548Lothian 549luchorpn 550CONT E NT S xxiLug 550Lugnasad/Lughnasadh 551Lugud unon 551Lugus 552Mabinogi/Mabinogion 553Mabon fab Modron 554Mac a Ghobhainn, Iain 554Mac an t-Saoir, Donnchadh Bn 555Mac Bethad/Macbeth 555MacGill-Eain, Somhairle 556Mac Giolla Meidhre, Brian 556Macha 557Macpherson, James 557Macsen Wledig 558Maddrell, Ned 559Madog ab Owain Gwynedd 560Maelgwn Gwynedd 561Mag Roth 561Manannn mac Lir 561Manawydan fab Ll^yr 562Manx language 562Manx language, cultural societies in the 19th century 564Manx language, death of 564Manx literature 565Manx literature, Manx folklore 566Manx literature, Manx Prayer Book and Bible 566Manx literature in English, 20th-century satirical poetry 567Manx music, traditional 568Maponos 568Mari Lwyd 569mass media, Breton 570mass media, Cornish 571xxii CONT E NT Smass media, Irish 572mass media, Manx 573mass media, Scottish Gaelic 573mass media, Welsh 574material culture, medieval clothing 575material culture, musical instruments 576material culture, national costume 577material culture, national costume, Brittany 577material culture, national costume, Cornwall 578material culture, national costume, Ireland 579material culture, national costume, Isle of Man 579material culture, national costume, Scotland 579material culture, national costume, Wales 580Math fab Mathonwy 580Matronae 581Medb and Ailill 581Meddygon Myddfai 582medical manuscripts, Ireland and Scotland 583medical manuscripts, Wales 583Medrawd 584Meilyr Brydydd 584Melor, St 585Mesca Ulad 586metrics, medieval Irish 586Mide (Meath) 587Ml Espine and the Milesians 588miraculous weapons 588Mn 588monasteries, early Irish and Scottish 589monasticism 591Morgannwg 592Morrgan 593CONT E NT S xxiiiMumu (Munster) 593Myrddin 594Mythological Cycle 597nationalism, Brittany 599nationalism, Cornwall 600nationalism, Ireland 600nationalism, Isle of Man 602nationalism, Scotland 603nationalism, Wales 604nature poetry, Celtic 605Navigatio Sancti Brendani 607nemeton 608neo-druidism 608Niall Nogiallach mac Echach 610Ninian, St 610Nodons/Nuadu/Nudd 611Nomino/Nevenoe 612Numantia 612OGrady, Standish James 615 Grianna, Samus 615 Grofa, Art 615Oengus Cile D 616Oengus Mac ind c 616ogam inscriptions and Primitive Irish 617Ogmios 619Oilein rann (Aran Islands) 620Oisn/Ossian 621Old Cornish Vocabulary 621Onuist son of Uurguist 622oppidum 622Ordinalia 623Otherworld 624xxiv CONT E NT SOwain ab Urien 626Owain Glynd^ wr 626Owain Gwynedd 627Owain Lawgoch 628Owen, Daniel 628P-Celtic and Q-Celtic 629Palladius 629Pan-Celticism 630Parnell, Charles Stewart 632Partholn 632Patagonia 632Patrick, St 634Pelagius 636Pentreath, Dolly 637Peredur fab Efrawg 637Pictish king-list 638Pictish language and documents 638Picts 640Piran, St 642Powys 642pre-Celtic peoples, pre-Celtic substrata 643Preiddiau Annwfn 644Principality of Wales 644printing, early history in the Celtic languages 645prophecy 646Proto-Celtic 649Proto-Celtic industries (technologies and techniques) 650Proto-Celtic weapons 651Pwyll Pendeg Dyfed 653Reformation literature, Brittany 655Reformation literature, Ireland 656Reformation literature, Scotland 657CONT E NT S xxvReformation literature, Wales 658reincarnation and shapeshifting 659religious beliefs, ancient Celtic 661Renaissance, Celtic countries, overview 663Renaissance, Ireland 664Renaissance, Scotland 665Renaissance, Wales 666Rheged 667Rhiannon 667Rhodri Mawr ap Merfyn 668Rhuddlan, Statute of 668Rhydderch Hael 669Rhygyfarch 669Rhys ap Gruffudd 669Rigotamus/Riothamus 670ring-forts 670Riou, Jakez 672river names 673roads, pre-Roman 673roads, Roman (sarnau) 674Roberts, Kate 675Romances in Welsh 676Romanticism, Brittany 676Romanticism, Ireland 677Romanticism, Scotland 679Romanticism, Wales 680Rome, Gaulish invasion of 681Roquepertuse 682Rosmerta 683rugby 683S4C 687sacrice, animal 687xxvi CONT E NT Ssacrice, human 688Samain 690Samson, St 691Sanas Chormaic 692satire 692Sayers, Peig 696Scl Tuin meic Cairill 697Scla Mucce Meic D Th 697Scots/Scotti 697Scott, Sir Walter 698Scottish Gaelic drama 699Scottish Gaelic language 700Scottish Gaelic literature (to c. 1200) 702Scottish Gaelic poetry, classical Gaelic 702Scottish Gaelic poetry, to c. 1745 703Scottish Gaelic poetry, later 18th century 707Scottish Gaelic poetry, 19th century 707Scottish Gaelic poetry, 20th century 708Scottish Gaelic prose, modern 709Scottish king-lists 710Scottish Parliament 710Scottish place-names 711scripts, epigraphic 712sean-ns 717Senchas Mr 717Serglige Con Culainn 718shield 718shinty 719sd 720Sin Cent 720slavery and the Celtic countries, ancient and medieval 721South Cadbury Castle 722CONT E NT S xxviisovereignty myth 722spirituality, Celtic 723spring deities 724Stannary Parliament 724Stonehenge 724Suibne Geilt 726S ulis 727superstitions and magical beliefs 728swords 730Tin B Cuailnge 733Tair Rhamant 734tale lists, medieval Irish 734Taliesin, historical 735Taliesin, tradition of 736Tara brooch 737Taranis 738tartans 738Tartessian 739tattooing 739Teamhair (Tara) 739Teutates 740TG4 741Thames, river 741Tintagel 741Tr na ng, Irish background 743Tr na ng, Welsh connection 743Tochmarc Emire 743Tochmarc tane 744Togail Bruidne Da Derga 744Togail Tro 745tombs in Iron Age Gaul 745Tone, Theobald Wolfe 746xxviii CONT E NT STorc 746Truigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghrinne 747Transalpine Gaul 748Tregear Homilies 748triads, of Ireland 748triads, Trioedd Ynys Prydain 749Tristan and Isolt 749Trojan legends in the Celtic countries 750tuath 751Tuath D 751Tudur (Tudor) dynasty 753Turoe stone 754Twrch Trwyth 755Tynwald 755Ufngton, White Horse of 757U Nill 757Uinniau (Findbarr, Finnian) 757Ulaid 758Ulster Cycle of Tales 759Union with Scotland (1707) 763Urien of Rheged 764Uthr Bendragon (Uther Pendragon) 765Uuinuualoe, St 765vehicle burials 767Vercingetorx 767vision literature, medieval Irish 768vitried forts 770Vix 770voyage literature 771Wallace, William 775warfare, Proto-Celtic vocabulary 775watery depositions 776CONT E NT S xxixWelsh drama 777Welsh language 779Welsh music, caneuon gwerin 784Welsh music, cerdd dant 784Welsh music, contemporary 785Welsh music, medieval 786Welsh poetry, early and medieval 787Welsh poetry, 17th and 18th centuries 788Welsh poetry, 19th century 789Welsh poetry, 20th century 790Welsh prose literature, Early Modern 791Welsh prose literature, Middle Welsh 792Welsh prose literature, the novel 793Welsh prose literature, the short story 794Welsh women writers (17002000) 795wild man in Celtic legend 797Williams, Edward 803wisdom literature, Irish 804Wynne, Ellis 805Yeats, William Butler 807Ystrad Clud 808Ystrad-fur 809Bibliography 811The Editors and Contributors 821Index 825xxx CONT E NT SAcknowledgmentsThe University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh and Celtic Studies and theEditors wish to acknowledge the sustained support and generosity of ABC-ClioPublishers, which funded several members of the CAWCS Research Team workingonthisencyclopedia.Thispartnershipbetweenapublisherandanacademicresearch centre was a far-sighted decision that deserves high praise and emulation.Thenancial support of the University of Wales has also been invaluable. We grate-fully acknowledge a British Academy small grant that partially funded the posts ofBibliographerandIllustrationEditor. Athree-yeargrantfromtheArtsandHumanities Research Council funded the research for the Celticity Projects CesairDatabase, Proto-Celtic Vocabulary, and Atlas. Although this grant did not directlycontribute to this encyclopedia, the benecial synergy afforded by researchers carry-ing out these collaborative projects simultaneously was immeasurable.The Research Team is also deeply grateful for the administrative support receivedat CAWCS from Vera Bowen, Hawys Bowyer, and Nia Davies. As for the publishers,staunchandencouragingsupportwasforthcomingfromRonBoehm,SimonMason, Ellen Rasmussen, Donald Schmidt, and Tony Sloggett (2006 edition). In2011, Mariah Gumpert and John Wagner brought a renewed level of support anddedication to the project.IntroductionThe Celts: History, Life, and Culture is designed for the use of everyone interested inCeltic studies and also for those interested in many related and subsidiaryelds,including the individual CELTICCOUNTRIES and their languages, literatures, archaeol-ogy, history, folklore, and mythology. In its chronological scope, this encyclopediacovers subjects from the HALLSTATT and LA TNE periods of the later pre-RomanIron Age to the beginning of the 21st century. Geographically, as well as includingthe Celtic civilizations of Ireland, Britain, and Brittany (ARMORICA) from ancient timesto the present, it covers the Continental Celts of ancient GAUL, the Iberian Peninsula,and central and eastern Europe, together with the Galatians of present-day Turkey;it also follows the modern Celtic diaspora into the Americas.These volumes represent a major, long-term undertaking that synthesizes freshresearch in all areas with an authoritative presentation of standard information.The 808 entries, ranging in length from 50 to more than 3,000 words, cover theeldindepth;theyarefullyintegratedwithaclearsystemofinternalcross-references and are supported by a select list of 160 items for further reading in theBibliography at the back of Volume 2. The work of the 263 contributors representsthe leading edge of research currently being carried out at all centres of Celtic stud-ies around the world. The name of the contributor of each entry appears at the endof the entry.For several reasons, a project of this scope was felt to be essential at this time.First, as a scholarly, but accessible, comprehensive overview of Celtic studies, thisencyclopedia is unique. There is no shortage of popular and semi-popular volumeswith Celtic or Celts in their titles, but none aims to encompass the whole eld withbalance and scholarly reliability. At the same time, there exists a body of specialistpublications that sets standards for the small corps of professional Celticists. In thisnarrow context, Celtic studies often means little more than the historical linguisticsof the CELTICLANGUAGES. The publications in this category are often difcult to readand difcult tond in print or even in general library collections. Most of the hand-books and edited texts that constitute the core works of Celtic philology date fromthe mid-20th century or earlier, and have not been superseded. Even by their ownrigorous and esoteric standards, the expert reference works are a generation or moreout of datea major pitfall requiring of Celtic scholars an almost superhumankeeping up with more recent advances to remain current. To put it metaphorically,the glue holding Celtic studies together as an academic discipline has grown old andbrittle.The situation with regard to books in Celtic studiesin which a qualitative gaplooms between specialist and more popular worksmirrors divisions betweenworkers in theeld. Small numbers of professional scholars, academic departments,and library collections devoted to Celticity contrast with the vast and growinginternational cohort of enthusiasts. This latter category includes both amateursand experts in othereldsmodern history, comparative literature, ancient andmedieval studies, and many other disciplineswho are self-taught when it comesto Celtic studies, owing to the limited availability of formal instruction in theeld.In the light of this background, this encyclopedia recognizes a broad need for fulland up-to-date information well beyond the limited institutional bounds of Celticstudies per se. My own experience, for example, of teaching Celtic studies to under-graduates in the United States during the years 19851998 was a revelation to me: Itshowed how little material was available, and how much was needed as essentialbackground for newcomers to this fascinating and rewardingeld of studyoneso near, yet in many ways so unreachably far, from American civilization.Like all subjects in this time of exponentially expanding information, Celtic stud-ies has tended to fragment into specialties, and its experts have neither the resourcesnor the training to move easily between subeldsbetween languages and periods,for example. Once again, the unsatisfactory links that bind theeld together areeither outdated and arcane or semi-popularized and intellectually suspect.Another reason for embarking on a major synthesis at this time is that archaeo-logical Celtic studies in Britain underwent a profound crisis of conscience in the late20th century, and this debate has continued into the 21st century. The validity ofapplying the termCeltic to any group of people or culture of any period has beenquestionedespecially in connection with the cultural history of Ireland andBritain, to which the termsCeltsandCelticwere evidently not applied untilmodern times. On the one hand, in the wake of this episode ofCeltoscepticism,therelatednessandcommonoriginsoftheCelticfamilyoflanguagesremainunchallenged scientic facts, and the nameCeltic for this familygiven that allsuch terms are ultimately arbitraryis no more misleading or historically unjusti-edthansuchwell-establishedandundisputedtermsas,say, Germanic orSemitic. On the other hand, the idea that certain types of non-linguistic culturesuch as artefacts in the LA TNE stylecan be meaningfully described asCelticnow requires greater circumspection. There are few, if any, types of artwork, weap-ons, or ritual sites, for example, for which it is likely, or even reasonable, to expectthat there would have been a one-to-one correspondence between those who usedthem and speakers of Celtic languages, or speakers of Celtic languages only, or, con-versely, that all speakers of Celtic languages used them. While northwest and centralSpain, GALATIA in Asia Minor, and all of Ireland (including Munster) were eminentlyCeltic linguisticallyat least by the Late La Tne periodLa Tne objects of the rec-ognized standard forms are thin on the ground in these areas. Thus, while this ency-clopediaisnot exclusively, or even primarily,about theCeltic languages,thedening criterion ofpeoples and countries that do, or once did, use Celtic lan-guages and an index of connectedness to the Celtic languages have been borne inmind when branching out into other cultural domains, such as art, history, music,xxxiv I NT RODUCT I ONand so on, as well as literature produced in the Celtic countries in English, Latin,and French. For areas without full literary documentation, the presence of Celticplace-names and group names has been a key consideration for determining partsthat can be meaningfully considered Celtic. Owing to the importance of the studyof names as diagnostic of Celticity, the reader willnd numerous discussions of ety-mology in the entries.The policy of this encyclopedia is also to give proper names in their forms in therelevant Celtic language, where this is practical. For the modern Celtic countries,Anglicized or French forms of names prevail. It is often difcult even tond out whatthe Gaelic form of a Scottish place-name is, or the Breton form of one in Brittany, andthis issue, in turn, can become a major impediment for those moving on to researchsources in the original languages, as they cannot always be certain whether what theyare encountering is the same place or person. The fact that we are used to seeingAnglicized (and Frenchied) forms of names on mapsand these versions only,unlike the place-names of more widely spoken languagesis a major contributingfactor to the invisibility of the Celtic languages, their apparent nonexistence, and theirseamless incorporation into the core Anglophone and Francophone areas. Anotherreason for supplying Celtic-language forms for names coined in the Celtic languagesis that it is these forms that are most informative with regard to etymology, explainingtopographical features, genealogical links, dedications to saints, and other factors.Having thus dened the scope of our subject as the Celtic languages and culturesand the people who used them from the earliest historical records to the present, thecontent of the encyclopedia has also inevitably been shaped by the history and pre-dominant projects ofCelticstudies asaeld. Since its dual origins in literaryROMANTICISM and the comparative historical linguistics of the INDO-EUROPEAN lan-guages, the centre of gravity of Celtic studies has recognizably remained in theancient and early medieval periods, the time of the earliest Celtic texts and historysopening horizon that constitutes the background for traditional heroes and saintsof the Celtic countries. It is, of course, common origins in these early times thatdene the Celtic languages, and their speakers, as a familyonce again, the glueholding the Celtic studies together as a discipline. Thus the prominence given toearly evidence and sources of tradition continues here. Also under the rubric ofCeltic origins, we have given special attention to the Picts, Scots, and Britons ofthe north in the early Middle Ages, where Celtic studies contributes to our under-standing of the emergence of Scotland. In addition, however, Romanticism and his-toricallinguisticshavefocusedattentiononmoderntimesandthefuturebydening present-day national identities and aspirations and throwing into reliefthe special signicance of the Irish, Scottish Gaelic, Manx, Welsh, Breton, andCornish languages and their uncertain fates. Here Celtic studies is a vital ingredientin such modern political processes as the birth of the Irish Republic, for example, orthe currently unfolding and as yet unresolved developments in devolution withinthe United Kingdom and the integration of states and regions within the EuropeanUnion. In the middle, between archaic Celtic origins and modern Celtic identitypolitics, the current generation of Celtic scholars are now turning their attentionincreasinglytothelong-neglectedlatermedievalandearlymodernperiods,I NT RODUCT I ON xxxvincluding, for example, recent work on classical Irish (or Gaelic) poetry and theWelsh poets of the nobility, the fruits of both areas of research being fully reectedhere. Recent Celtic studies has also shared with other humanistic disciplines a grow-ing interest in contemporary literary theory; it is largely thanks to the inuence offeminist theoretical perspectives, for example, that many entries on recently discov-ered or reevaluated women writers will be found in these volumes.How to Use This EncyclopediaThe Celts: History, Life, and Culture is largely self-contained; in other words, it is notanticipated that a second work will be required to enable the reader to understandthe information in the entries. A detailed cross-referencing system allows readerstond relevant information shared between related articles. Cross-references inthe text of an entry place the title of a related article (or itsrst word or words) inSMALLCAPITALLETTERS.Tond a particular piece of information in the encyclopedia, the best startingpoint is the unied table of Contents at the beginning of each of the two volumesor the index in Volume 2. For broader categories, the list of Contents gives the titlesof the 803 entries in alphabetical order, together with page numbers. The index pro-vides a fuller list of subject items in alphabetical order. Within the index, subjectsthat are themselves entry names are set in bold type.A number of other symbols and abbreviations are used within the encyclopediaas follows:/ (General) Meansor and is used to indicate variant forms of names (forinstance, Brecknock/Brecon) or dates (for instance,AD 829/30) wherethere is uncertainty between two dates./ / (Linguistics) A letter or symbol between two slashes indicates a sound (phoneme).cf. (General) Short for confer, meaningcompare.e.g. (General) Short for exempli gratia, meaningfor example.i.e. (General) Short for id est, meaningit is orthat is.no. (General) Short for numero, meaningnumber. (History) Meansdied and indicates that the number that follows is the date ofdeath. (History) Used to indicate a range of possible dates.AD 10001100 meansayear betweenAD 1000 and 1100.c. (History) Short for circa, meaningabout, and indicates that the number thatfollows is an approximate date or date range.. (History) Short for oruit, meaningourished, and indicates the date or daterange during which a person was active.r. (History) Short forreigned and indicates that the numbers that follow are thebeginning and ending dates of the reign.< (Linguistics) Meansis derived from and indicates that the word that follows isthe etymon or ancestral form of the sound or word before thesymbol.> (Linguistics) Meansgives and indicates that the word that follows is thederivative or later form of the sound or word before the symbol.xxxvi I NT RODUCT I ON (Linguistics) Indicates that the letter(s) between the angle brackets is (are) beingdiscussed as a letter or as letters.[] (Linguistics) Indicates that the letter(s) or symbol(s) between the bracketsrepresent(s) a phonetic transcription.* (Linguistics) Meansreconstructed as and indicates that the word that follows isreconstructed based on historical linguistic evidence but is notattested in a historical or archaeological context.** (Linguistics) Indicates that the word that follows is a hypothetical form that hasnever been current in the spoken or written language.gl. (Linguistics) Short forglossed and indicates that the word that follows wasa translation in the source text of the word that precedes.pl. (Linguistics) Short forplural. (Text) Meanssection and indicates the section or chapter within a largerwork.. (Text) A period is used to separate sections of ancient and medieval texts;for example, 1.2.3 should be readbook one, chapter two, line three;1.2.35 should be readbook one, chapter two, lines three throughve. Two numbers with one period between refer to book andchapter only: 1.2,book one, chapter two.col. (Text) Short forcolumn.l. (Text) Short forline.ll. (Text) Short forlines.p. (Text) Short forpage.pp. (Text) Short forpages.r. (Text) Short for recto, meaning on the right, and indicates the front side of amanuscript page, the one on the right when the book is openat.s.v. (Text) Short for sub verbo, meaningunder the word, and indicates that theword that follows is the headword in a reference work.v. (Text) Short for verso, meaningon the back, and indicates the back side ofa manuscript page, the one on the left when the book is openat.For students and other readers wishing to pursue any aspect of the subject matterof this encyclopedia in greater depth, a convenientrst step is provided by the bib-liography in Volume 2. This collection represents the most essential, accessible, andup-to-date publications in Celtic studies, offering a wide entryway onto this fasci-nating and rewardingeld. To go beyond this reading list, readers wishing to pur-sueseriousandoriginal researchshouldrstturntotheve-volumeCelticCulture: A Historical Encyclopedia (2006, print publication and ebook), of whichthe present volumes represent a concise and updated version. Celtic Culture containsa 10,000-item bibliography in itsfth volume, which include pre-modern texts,publications in languages other than English, and specialist studies.The Celticity Project and the Research TeamThe Celts: History, Life, and Culture forms part of a major research project, entitledThe Celtic Languages and Cultural Identity: A Multidisciplinary Synthesis, inprogress since 1998 at the University of Wales Centre for Advanced Welsh andCeltic Studies (CAWCS), Aberystwyth, under the direction of Dr. John T. Koch. ItI NT RODUCT I ON xxxviiis one of ve major publications of the project, the others being: (1) Cesair: AnEnglishEarly Irish Interactive Database; (2) A Proto-Celtic Vocabulary and WorldView; (3) Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia (ABC-Clio, 2006), and (4) AnAtlas for Celtic Studies: Archaeology and Names in Ancient Europe and Early MedievalIreland, Britain, and Brittany (2007).Five years after the publication of theve-volume Historical Encyclopedia, theCAWCS research team decided to undertake a revised and updated encyclopedia,presenting Celtic archaeology, culture, folklore, history, linguistics, literature, andreligioninaformatthatwasmoreaccessibletothegeneralreader.TheCelts:History, Life, and Culture contains all of the essential information about theeld ofCeltic studies and these subelds within it while setting aside coverage of the moreesoteric facets of theeld of interest only to specialists. The bibliography, too, hasbeen customized to exclude works that are difcult for most readers to acquire. Inthisencyclopedia,wehaveprovidedasetof furtherreading bibliographies,grouped by subject, of readily obtainable works in English. In addition, both inthe bibliographies and in the articles commissioned for this encyclopedia, we haveincluded references to websites whose information is accurate and reliable.The following members of the CAWCS staff participated in the Celticity projectand the work of the encyclopedia: CAWCS Director Professor Geraint H. Jenkins;ManagingEditor Dr. MarionLfer; ResearchFellowsDr. GrahamJones,Dr. Raimund Karl, Dr. Antone Minard, Simon Faolin, and Caroline aan deWeil;ResearchEditorDr.PeterE.Busse;EditorsMarianBeechHughesandGlenys Howells; Bibliographer Anne Holley; Assistant Bibliographers WilliamSlocombe and Heike Vieth; and Illustration Editor Esther Elin Roberts. Dr. Mary-AnnConstantineofCAWCSassistedwithFrenchandBretonreferencesandRobert Lacey of the National Library of Wales with Irish and Scottish Gaelic. All ofthe research staff of the other projects at CAWCS generously assisted; several con-tributed entries. Also working closely with the team on the encyclopedia were theContributingEditorforIrelandandScotlandDr.PetraS.HellmuthandtheContributing Editor for Scotland Professor Thomas Owen Clancy. Margaret WallisTilsley read the entries in page proof.The Celticity project has also beneted greatly from the generous participation ofmembers of its Advisory Panel: Professor Barry Cunliffe (Oxford), Professor WendyDavies (London), Professor William Gillies (Edinburgh), ProfessorGwenal LeDuc (Rennes), Professor J. P. Mallory (Belfast), Professor Mirn N Dhonnchadha(Galway), Professor Pdraig Riain (Cork), Professor Peter Schrijver (Munich),Professor Patrick Sims-Williams (Aberystwyth), Professor Robin Chapman Stacey(Seattle, Washington), Professor Claude Sterckx (Brussels), and Professor StefanZimmer(Bonn).ForCesair,theProto-CelticVocabulary,andtheAtlas,J. P.Mallory has worked with John Koch as co-director.AbbreviationsBL British LibraryBret. Bretonxxxviii I NT RODUCT I ONCorn. CornishDIL Royal Irish Academy, Dictionary of the Irish Language, based mainly onOld and Middle Irish MaterialsEarly Mod.Bret. Early Modern BretonEarly Mod.Ir. Early Modern IrishEarly Mod.W Early Modern WelshGPC Prifysgol Cymru, Geiriadur Prifysgol CymruHib.E. Hibernian English (the English dialect of Ireland)IE Indo-EuropeanIr. IrishMBret. Middle BretonME Middle EnglishMIr. Middle IrishMod.Bret. Modern BretonMod.Ir. Modern IrishMod.W Modern WelshMW Middle WelshNLS National Library of ScotlandNLW National Library of WalesOBret. Old BretonOCorn. Old CornishOE Old EnglishOIr. Old IrishOW Old WelshR Red Book of HergestRIB R. G. Collingwood and R. P. Wright, The Roman Inscriptions of BritainRIG Michel Lejeune et al., Recueil des inscriptions gauloisesScG Scottish GaelicTYP Rachel Bromwich, Trioedd Ynys PrydeinI NT RODUCT I ON xxxixCeltic ChronologyThe following timeline is provided to help contextualize the various strands ofarchaeology, history, language, and literature within this encyclopedia with a relativechronology of major events. For brevitys sake, many dates from archaeology andthose known to be within a two- tove-year period have been approximated to asingle year, but especially with early dates these should not be taken as absolute.Less precise dates have been given as circa (about), abbreviated c.: thus c. 500 meansaround the year 500. For fuller details on any given event, see the relevant entry orentries in the encyclopedia.xliiThe Continental Celts in the Ancient WorldDate TRANSALPINE GAUL and BRITAIN Italy and Eastern Europe Iberia Greece and ROME32002400BC Late Neolithic; construction of megalithic stone circles (e.g., STONEHENGE)24002000BC Beaker Culture Early Minoan civilization onCrete1200750BC(or800BC)HALLSTATT A and B (Urneld Culture) Proto-Celtic castros Rome settled750BC (or 800BC) Hallstatt C begins Homer and Hesiodrstwritten down650BC Hallstatt D begins Earlier TARTESSIAN inscriptions600BC Massalia (Marseilles) founded Earliest LEPONTIC inscriptions Latin script developed475BC LA TNE A begins Initial Celtic castros400BC La Tne B begins400BC Earliest GAULISH inscriptions Gauls settlement of NorthernItaly390BC BRENNOS sacks Rome336BC Murder of Philip II of Macedonwith Celtic sword320BC Pytheas voyages to Britain Final Celtic oppida (seeOPPIDUM) begin to appear300BC Earliest CelticCOINAGE295BC Romans defeat Cisalpine Gaulsat the Battle of Clusium279278BC Gauls cross into GALATIA BRENNOS attacks Delphi250BC La Tne C begins225BC Romans defeat Cisalpine Gaulsat the Battle of Telamon218201BC Cisalpine Gauls aid Hannibal Second Punic War; Romans defeat Hannibal and conquer muchof Iberia202191BC Romans conquer CISALPINE GAUL175BC CELTIBERIAN inscriptions beginxliiiThe Continental Celts in the Ancient World(Continued)Date TRANSALPINE GAUL and BRITAIN Italy and Eastern Europe Iberia Greece and ROME150BC La Tne D begins143133BC Celtiberian War with Rome133BC Conquest of NUMANTIA85BC Works of Posidonius on theCelts58BC HELVETII move west, and aredefeated by Caesar and alliedGauls54BC Caesars invasion of Britain52BC Battle of Alesia; defeat ofVERCINGETORX5150BC Conquest of Gaul; End of LaTne Dc. 50BC Latest Celtiberian inscriptions Diodorus Siculuss HistoricalLibrary20BC23AD Strabos Geography1BC End of La Tne D; LatestLepontic inscriptionsAD 38 Celtiberian poet Martial bornin BilbilisAD 41 Death of CUNOBELINOSAD 43 Claudius invades BritainAD 58 Death of CARAT

ACOSAD 6061 Revolt of BOUDCA and the ICENIAD 6165 Lucans PharsaliaAD 79 Agricola becomes governor ofRoman Britain(continued )xlivThe Continental Celts in the Ancient World(Continued)Date TRANSALPINE GAUL and BRITAIN Italy and Eastern Europe Iberia Greece and ROMEAD 84 Battle of Mons GraupiusAD 122 HADRIANS WALL builtAD 142 Antonine Wall builtc.AD 150 Ptolemys GeographyAD 303 St ALBAN martyredAD 367 Barbarian Conspiracy againstRoman BritainAD 383 Magnus Maximus (MACSEN WLEDIG) proclaimed Roman Emperor in the Westc.AD 400 GAULISH and GALATIAN still survive as spoken languages accordingto St JeromeAD 410 Full Roman withdrawal fromBritainArmorican autonomy fromRomeRome sacked by VisigothsxlvCelts in the Early Medieval Period, to 1066Date Ireland (RIU) Great Britain Brittany (BREIZH)c. 400 Primitive IRISHrst attested inOGAM410 Full Roman withdrawal from Britain Armorican autonomy from Rome417 Roman authorityre-established in ARMORICAc. 425 DL RIATA cross into ALBA(North Britain)428 Death of NIALL NOGIALLACH431 Palladius brings CHRISTIANITY to Ireland441 ANGLO-SAXONCONQUEST of Britainc. 450 . AMBROSIUS AURELIANUS Heaviest period of BRETONMIGRATIONSbegins469 RIGOTAMUS leads autonomousBrittany493 Death of St PATRICK (latest date)c. 500 Age of Saints begins; St NINIAN foundsWhithorn monastery; death of Fergus Mr macErca of DL RIATAAge of Saints begins516 Battle of BADONICUS MONS525 Death of St BRIGIT537 Battle of Camlanc. 54045 GILDAS writes De Excidio Britanniae547 Death of MAELGWN GWYNEDDc. 550 MONASTERIES begin in Ireland (Bangor,Clonard, Clonfert, Clonmacnoise,Derry, Durrow). ANEIRIN563 Monastery founded on EILEAN ; CHRISTIANITYcomes to the PICTS565 Death of Diarmait mac Cerbaill(continued )xlviCelts in the Early Medieval Period, to 1066(Continued)Date Ireland (RIU) Great Britain Brittany (BREIZH)567 Council of Tours573 Battle of ARFDERYDD574 Beginning of AEDNMAC GABRINs kingship inDl Riata577 Anglo-Saxons take BATH and region597 Death of COLUM CILLEc. 600 Old Irish period; Irelands literaryGolden Age beginsHeaviest period of Breton migrationsends603 End of Aedn mac Gabrins kingship613 Battle of Caer (Chester)619 Anglo-Northumbrians conquer ELFED63436 Battle of Mag Roth Foundation of Lindisfarne; fall of GODODDIN;death of CADWALLONc. 650 Angles expand into what is now Scotland664 Death of CADWALADR673679 Adomnn becomes abbot of Eilean 692 Life of Saint Columbac. 700 Beginning of Eganacht dominance inMunster (MUMU)704 Death of Adomnn731 BEDEs Historia Ecclesiastica786 Charlemagne sends his army intoBrittany793 Viking raids on Britain and Ireland begin with Lindisfarnec. 800 End of Irelands literary Golden Age Southwest BRYTHONIC (Old BRETON/Old CORNISH)become distinct from Old WELSH807 Notable Viking raid of Eilean (Iona)xlviiCelts in the Early Medieval Period, to 1066(Continued)Date Ireland (RIU) Great Britain Brittany (BREIZH)829 Historia Brittonum831 Beginning of Nomenos reign832 Foundation of Abbey of Redon837 Vikings establish Dublin (BAILE THACLIATH)843 CINAED MAC AILPN conquest ofPictlandTreaty of Verdun845 Battle of Ballon846 Beginning of Mael Sechnalls rule overmost of IrelandCharles the Bald recognizes Brittanysautonomy851 Death of Nomeno; beginning ofErispos reign857 death of Erispo858 Death of Cinaed Mac Ailpn878 Death of RHODRI MAWRc. 900 Middle Irish begins931 Breton uprising against the Norse(Viking) occupation936 thelstanxes the eastern boundary ofCornwall (KERNOW)937 Battle of Brunanburh ALAN VARVEG drives the Vikings fromBrittany950 Death of HYWEL DDA952 Death of Alan Varveg997 BRIAN BRUMA recognized as king of thesouthern half of Irelandc. 1000 Life of Saint Uuohednou (Goueznou)(continued )xlviiiCelts in the Early Medieval Period, to 1066(Continued)Date Ireland (RIU) Great Britain Brittany (BREIZH)1002 Brian Bruma becomes high-king ofIreland1014 Battle of Clontarf; death of BrianBruma1018 Battle of Carham: Scottish and British defeat ofNorthumbria; death of Owain the Bald andprobably the end of the British kingdom ofYSTRAD CLUD (Strathclyde)1042 MAC BETHAD (Macbeth) takes the throne ofMoray1057 Death of Macbeth1066 Norman invasion of England and CornwallxlixCeltic Countries to the Loss of Independence, 10671543Date IrelandScotlandand North Britain Wales (Cymru) CornwallIsle of Man(ELLAN VANNIN) Brittany1075 Accession of GRUFFUDDAP CYNANTYNWALD already c. 100 yearsold1079 Invasion of the Isle of Man byKing Orry (Godred Crovan);KINGDOMOF MANANDTHE ISLESrmly establishedc. 1100 Middle Welsh Middle Breton1113 Accession of Olaf I1124 Accession of King David I1130 Suppression of Mormaers ofMoray1137 Death of Gruffudd apCynan; reign of OWAINGWYNEDD begins;earliest GOGYNFEIRDD1139 Cumbria becomes part ofthe Kingdom of ScotsGeoffrey ofMonmouths HistoriaRegum Brittaniae1142 Cistercian housefounded atMellifontDeath of PierreAbelard1152 Synod of Kells1153 Death of King David I;accession of Malcolm IVOlaf I murdered; accession ofGodred II1156 Somerled of the Hebridesinvades Isle of Man(continued )lCeltic Countries to the Loss of Independence, 10671543(Continued)Date IrelandScotlandand North Britain Wales (Cymru) CornwallIsle of Man(ELLAN VANNIN) Brittany1169 Norman militaryconquest of Irelandbegins1170 RichardDE CLARE(Strongbow) arrivesin IrelandDeath of OwainGwyneddFirst ARTHURIANROMANCE ofCHRTIENDETROYES; BRETONLAYS of Marie deFrance1171 Strongbowbecomes King ofLeinster (LAIGIN);Henry II invades1176 EISTEDDFOD at Cardigan(Abertei)1194 Accession of LLYWELYNAB IORWERTHc. 1200 Early Modern Irish;beginning ofliterary ClassicalIrish periodEarliest divergence ofwritten SCOTTISH GAELICfrom Irish1240 Death of Llywelyn abIorwerthc. 1250 Middle Cornish1265 Glasney CollegefoundedliCeltic Countries to the Loss of Independence, 10671543(Continued)Date IrelandScotlandand North Britain Wales (Cymru) CornwallIsle of Man(ELLAN VANNIN) Brittany1266 Hebrides sold to the Kingof Scots by the King ofNorwayIsle of Man sold to theKing of Scots by theKing of Norway1282 Death of LLWELYNAPGRUFFUDD; loss of inde-pendence for Wales1284 Statute of Rhuddlan1286 Death of KingAlexander III1290 Death of Margaret, Maid ofNorway1296 Scottish Wars ofIndependence begin1298 Battle of Falkirk Earliest CYWYDDWYR1305 Death of William WALLACE1307 Robert the Bruce claimsScotland1314 Battle of Bannockburn1328 England recognizesScottish independence1333 Battle of Halidon Hill: Englishcontrol Isle of Man1337 Duchy of Cornwallcreated(continued )liiCeltic Countries to the Loss of Independence, 10671543(Continued)Date IrelandScotlandand North Britain Wales (Cymru) CornwallIsle of Man(ELLAN VANNIN) Brittany1341 Death of DukeJohn III; War ofthe BretonSuccession begins1348 Bubonic plague inAnglo-Irish townsBubonic plague insoutheast Wales andCornwallBubonic plague1349 Bubonic plague reaches most of the British Isles; death of Dafydd ap Gwilym1364 War of the BretonSuccession ends1366 Statutes ofKilkenny1399 Isle of Man comes under thedirect control of the EnglishCrown1400 OWAIN GLYND^ wRs revoltbegins1407 Isle of Man granted to LordStanley1411 Foundation of theUniversity of SaintAndrews1412 End of OwainGlynd^ wrs revolt1469 Control of the Orkney andShetland Islands passesfrom Norway to ScotlandliiiCeltic Countries to the Loss of Independence, 10671543(Continued)Date IrelandScotlandand North Britain Wales (Cymru) CornwallIsle of Man(ELLAN VANNIN) Brittany1485 First Tudor (TUDUR) monarch, Henry VII1493 End of the LORDSHIPOFTHEISLES1497 Cornish Rebellion1499 Catholiconpublishedc. 1500 Modern Welsh Life of Saint Nonn1510 Aberdeen Breviary,rstprinted book in Scotland1513 Battle of Flodden1514 Death of ANNAVREIZH1532 ACTEDUNION1534 Break with Rome Henry VIIIs formal break with the Roman Catholic Church (for England,Wales, and Ireland)1536 ACTOF UNION1541 Henry VIII declareshimself King ofIreland andannexes Ireland toEngland1543 Supplementary Act ofUnionlivThe Modern Celtic CountriesDate Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittanyc. 1550 Late Cornish1560 Scotlands formal breakwith the Roman CatholicChurch1567 First book in ScottishGaelic (Classical Irish)1588 William MorgansWelsh BIBLE1595 Hugh ONeill (Aodh Nill) leads a revolt1596 Spensers A Vieue of thePresent State of Irelandc. 1600 Modern Irish Modern Scottish Gaelic EarlyModernBreton1601 Battle of Kinsale (CionntSile)1602 Complete Irish NewTestament1603 Union of the Crowns1607 Flight of the Earls1608 Acceleration of UlsterPlantations1609 Irish Book of CommonPrayerStatues of Iona1641 Rising of 16411642 English Civil War begins1649 English Civil War endslvThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1689 Battle of Killiecrankie1690 Battle of the Boyne1695 Death of poet HenryVaughan1707 UNIONWITH SCOTLAND creates United Kingdom; Edward Lhuyds ArchaeologiaBritannica1735 Methodist Revivalbegins1745 Death of Jonathan Swift Beginning of JACOBITEREBELLIONS1746 Battle of CULLODEN; DressAct bansTARTANS1752 Last STANNARYPARLIAMENT1758 Methodism arrives onMan1760 First OSSIAN poem of JamesMACPHERSON1765 Isle of Man sold to theEnglish Crown1782 Irish legislativeindependence1789 First moderneisteddfodFrenchRevolution begins1790 Last Bretonparliament1791 United Irishmentfounded(continued )lviThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1792 Edward WILLIAMS (IoloMorganwg) foundsGORSEDD BEIRDD YNYSPRYDAIN1796 Death of RobertBURNS1798 Wolfe TONE and UnitedIrishmen in rebellion1800 ACTOF UNION; MariaEdgeworths CastleRackrentApproximate dateof death of LateCornish1819 Eisteddfod linked toGorsedd Beirdd YnysPrydain1827 Breton NewTestamentpublished1828 Thomas Pritchardsnovel The Adventuresof Twm Shn Catti1829 Emancipation of IrishCatholics1830 William CarletonsTraits and Stories of theIrish Peasantry1832 Death of Walter SCOTTlviiThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1839 Rebecca Riots begin Hersart de laVillemarqusBARZAZ BREIZ1844 Rebecca Riots end1845 Potato FAMINE begins1846 Charlotte Gueststranslation of theMabinogion1847 Treachery of the BlueBooksc. 1850 Potato Famine recedes Revived Cornish1866 Greater autonomyvia political reforms inTynwaldComplete BretonBIBLE published1872 University of Walesfounded inAberystwyth1879 Land League founded1882 Highland Land Leagueformed1884 Gaelic AthleticAssociation (CumannLthchleas Gael)founded1893 Gaelic League (CONRADHNA GAEILGE) founded;rst edition of The CelticTwilight by W. B. YEATS(continued )lviiiThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1898 First Oireachtas Kevredigez BroadusBreiz founded1899 Yn CheshaghtGhailckagh founded1900 FirstGoursez1902 Lady GregorysCuchulain of Muirthemne1905 Sinn Fin founded1907 National Library ofWales founded1911 UnvaniezArvorfounded1914 Irish Home Rule Bill World War I begins1915 David LLOYD GEORGE becomes Prime Minister1916 Easter Rising1918 Sinn Fin victory in Irish elections World War I ends1919 Irish War of Independence begins1920 Partition of Ireland(IRE)1921 War of Independenceends; Northern IrelandsParliament establishedin BelfastlixThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1922 Irish Civil War begins;Irish Free State (Saorsttna hireann); JamesJOYCEs Ulysses; death ofArt GROFA1923 Irish Civil War ends1926 Fianna Fil founded1928 First Gorseth1935 Irish FolkloreCommission active1936 Autobiography of PeigSAYERS1939 James Joyces FinnegansWake; death of YeatsWorld War II begins1941 Death of author JamesJoyce1945 World War II ends1949 Republic of Ireland(Poblacht na hireann)established1951 Mebyon Kernowformed1953 Death of poet DylanThomas1957 France a foundingmember ofthe EuropeanCommunity(continued )lxThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1958 British governmentreleases control overManxnances1959 First appearanceof ASTERIX1962 Tynged yr Iaithlecture; Cymdeithas yrIaith founded1963 MecVannin founded1966 Aberfan Disaster1968 Beginning of theTroubles1971 Institute for CornishStudies established1972 Bloody Sunday; DirectRule imposed inNorthern Ireland1973 Ireland joins theEuropean CommunityUnited Kingdom joins the European Community1974 Stannary Parliamentre-formedDeath of the last nativeManx speaker1977 First Diwan1982 S4C established1985 Anglo-Irish Agreement1988 Lockerbie bombing1993 Welsh Language BoardestablishedlxiThe Modern Celtic Countries (Continued)Date Ireland Scotland Wales Cornwall Isle of Man Brittany1998 Good Friday Agreement1999 Modern ScottishParliament established;Scottish Ofce dissolvedNational Assembly forWales established;Welsh Ofce dissolved2000 Death of poet R. S.ThomasTV Breizhlaunched2001 First recorded increasein the number ofWelsh speakers2002 BEUNANS KE manuscriptdiscovered; UnitedKingdom recognizesCornish as a Europeanregional minoritylanguageSchool offered throughthe medium of MANX2004 Complete Cornishtranslation of the NewTestament2011 Scottish National Partywins a majority in theScottish electionAABERFFRAWAberffraw, ontheestuaryoftheriverFfrawinthesouthwestoftheislandof Anglesey (MN), was the royal site of the kings of GWYNEDD until 1282. Aberriver-mouth (< Celtic *ad-ber-) is common in coastal place-names originating inthe P-CELTIC languages.Excavations in 197374 revealed a Roman fort of the later 1st century, with refor-tication in the 5th or 6th century. The post-Roman re-defence may reect thearrival of Gwyneddsrst dynasty, who claimed descent from CUNEDDA. That the sitewas already a royal centre in the 7th century is further indicated by the Latin com-memorative inscription to king Cadfan ab Iago ( c. 625) at the nearby church atLlangadwaladr.Aberffraw remained a principal seat for Gwynedds second dynasty, which cameto power with the accession of Merfyn Frych in 825. Under the patronage of KingGRUFFUDDAP CYNAN (r. 10751137) or that of his son and successor OWAIN GWYNEDD(r. 113770), a stone church was built with Romanesque features similar to 12th-century churches on the pilgrimage route to Santiago de Compostela in Spain.This churchs chancel arch, pictured above, possesses the most elaborate stoneworkof any surviving example of its type from Wales, a reection of the internationalimportance of Aberffraw. King LLYWELYNAB IORWERTH (r. 11941240) used TywysogAberffraw ac Arglwydd ERYRI Leader of Aberffraw and Lord of Snowdonia as his of-cial title. Only after King Edward I of ENGLAND defeated LLYWELYNAP GRUFFUDD in 1282was the Aberffraw complex systematically dismantled. In the time of Edward III,c. 1340, Aberffraw was recorded as amanor held by the kings surgeon, RogerHayton.John T. KochABERYSTWYTHAberystwyth is in the Welsh county of Ceredigion. The 2001 Census reported14,966 inhabitants withingreater Aberystwyth, including adjacent towns such asLlanbadarn Fawr. There were 6,555 Welsh speakers, representing 43.8 percent ofthe year-round resident population.The town is situated at the mouths of the rivers Ystwyth and Rheidol, and hasbeen occupied since approximately 6000BC. A largehill-fort on Pendinas hasyielded a few datable items from the 2nd centuryBC. The foundation of the nearbymonastery of Llanbadarn Fawr is traditionally dated the 6th centuryAD. Originallyaclas(anativeenclosedmonasticcommunity),itlaterbecameaBenedictinemonastery.In the course of the Anglo-Norman conquest of Wales, a motte and bailey castlewas built at the mouth of the Ystwyth. The present town was ofcially founded in1277 by Edmund, brother of the English king Edward I. In 1404 the castle wasseized for a short period by OWAIN GLYND^ wR, and in 1649 it wasnally destroyedby Oliver Cromwells troops during the English Civil Wars (16429).In the 19th century, the town was connected to the railway and grew into such asignicant seaside resort that it was known as theBiarritz of Wales. In 1872, therst constituent college of the University of Wales was founded here, followedbytheLlyfrgell Genedlaethol Cymru(National Libraryof Wales)in1907.Aberystwyth has since become the main location for several national Welsh organi-zations,suchasCYMDEITHAS YRIAITHGYMRAEG(WelshLanguageSociety),UrddGobaith Cymru, and Merched y Wawr (the national Welsh womens group). It iswidely recognized as an intellectual and cultural centre for Wales as a whole andan urban stronghold of the Welsh language.Aberystwyth takes its name from the river Ystwyth, mentioned in PtolemysGeography (2nd centuryAD). This place-name is probably ultimately the same wordas the common Welsh adjective ystwyth, meaningsupple, bendable.Peter E. BusseACTOFUNI ON,I RELAND( 1800)TheUnionbetweenGreatBRITAINandIreland(IRE)waspassedbytheIrishparliament in 1800. Several factors were involved: the recent French Revolution(178999) and its anticlerical sentiments; the threat of revolutionary measuresamong both Protestants and Catholics in Ireland (see CHRISTIANITY, IRELAND); and,most of all, the failure of the Irish parliament to secure the interests of the BritishCrown.Under the terms of the Union, there were to be 100 Irish Members of Parliamentin Westminster, ENGLAND, with 28 lords temporal and 4 spiritual, and the two mili-tary establishments were to merge. The Church of England and that of Ireland wereto formally unite as a condition of Uniona move that formally consolidatedProtestant privilege. Ireland was to gain some protection for its domestic industryas the price of opening its markets. Tithes would be abolished, the Ulster linen tradeprotected, and weights and measures standardized. Irish laws would remain, but theUK parliament would henceforth legislate for Ireland without further protection forthem (cf. Union with Scotland). Ireland began by paying a smaller proportion of thekingdoms imperial expenses (11% from its 40% of the population). Due to theexpenses of the French wars, even this proportional contribution had materiallyincreased Irelands debts by the time of fullscal union in 1817.The Union of 1800 came under attack almost as soon as it was passed. Catholicemancipationin1829underminedtheunionofEnglishandIrishProtestantchurches, while arriving too late to bring Catholic support to the political union,2 ACTOFUNI ON, I RE L AND( 1800)and the economic disparity between Britain and Ireland contributed to the politicalfriction.Murray G. H. PittockACTE D UNI ON,BRI TTANY( 1532)After the death of Anne, duchess of Brittany (Breton Anna Vreizh), Brittany passed toher descendants in the French royal family. Her grandson Franois was establishedas Duke Franois III of Brittany in 1532. On that occasion his father, King Franois I,published the dit dUnion (Act of Union) at Nantes (Naoned). Some important fea-tures of an independent Brittany continued until the French Revolution: The Bretonparliament, for example, was reorganized, but continued until 1790.After 1589, the Breton succession nominally went to Isabelle of Brittany, thedaughter of Henri IIIs sister, Elizabeth of Valois, while the French crown was takenby Henri IV of the House of Bourbon, who married another of Henri IIIs sisters,Margaret of Valois.Antone MinardACTSOFUNI ON,WALES( 153643)The 1536 Acts thatunited and annexed Wales (CYMRU) to ENGLAND are collectivelyknown as the Act of Union, with details provided in a supplementary piece of legis-lationin 1543.Theyear1536formallybroughtan end tomanyrightsoftheMarcher lordships, which had arisen shortly after the Norman conquest, and for-mally integrated Wales into England. The Marches were organized into counties:Dinbych (Denbigh), Trefaldwyn (Montgomery), Maesyfed (Radnor), BRYCHEINIOG(Brecknock/Brecon), and Mynwy (Monmouth). Abertei (Cardigan), Caerfyrddin(Carmarthen), MORGANNWG (Glamorgan), and Penfro (Pembroke) were all enlarged,as were the English border counties. Wales was to send 24 representatives to theEnglish Parliament from its 12 counties. Justices of the Peace were to be appointedand conduct all business in English, and the Welsh shires were to be divided intohundreds (seeCANTREF). Laws and customs at variance with English law were abol-ished (seeLAWTEXTS, CELTIC, WELSH), and land tenure by gavelkind (equal divisionbetween sons) was abolished in favour of primogeniture (inheritance to therst-born son).The Union with Wales was the most successful of the three unions with England,due in part to the Welsh origins of the Tudors (see TUDUR), the long-standing orien-tation of the Welsh aristocracy toward England, and the absence of political alterna-tives. The cult of ARTHUR was used to incorporate the patriotic sentiments of Welshlites into a fundamentally English polity. The language of most of the people of thishardly urbanized country remained Welsh, undisturbed by English in most contextsuntil the 19th century.Murray G. H. PittockACT SOFUNI ON, WAL E S( 153643) 3AEDNMACGABRI NAedn mac Gabrin was king of Scottish DL RIATA (r. 574c. 603,17 April 608)andoneofthemostpowerful andbest-documentedleadersinthisperiod.Adomnns Vita Columbae (Life of COLUM CILLE) of c. 692 shows that Aedn was aChristianwhohadundergoneaninaugurationritualonIonaatthehandsofColum Cille himself (Enright, Iona, Tara, and Soissons), an early example of theChurch endorsing the notion of a Christian kingship in the CELTICCOUNTRIES.According to the IrishANNALS, Aedn attacked Arcaibh (the Orkneys, then underPictish rule) c. 579. Then, c. 581, he was the victor of bellum Manonnthe battleofManu,whichmightmeaneitherELLANVANNIN(IsleofMan)orthedistrictknown as Manau Guotodin (Mod.W Manaw Gododdin) in what is now east centralScotland.The names of both Aedn and his father, Gabrn, are Old Irish and indisputablyCeltic. Aedn mac Gabringures in several early Irish tales, including Scla Canomeic Gartnin (Tales of Cano mac Gartnin). In the story Compert Mongin (Birthof Mongn), hegures as king of ALBA (Scotland) at the right period and is also real-istically involved in warfare with the Anglo-Saxons (see ANGLO-SAXONCONQUEST). InPeiryan Vaban (Commanding boy), a prophetic poem connected to the cycle ofMYRDDIN, Aeddan son of Gafran appears as the enemy of a historical 6th-centuryKing RHYDDERCH HAEL of YSTRAD CLUD. In the Welsh TRIADS, hegures in Triad 29 asleader of one of theThree Faithful War-Bands.There are several indications that Aedn made an impression on Welsh culture.The death of Aidan map Gabran is recorded in Annales Cambriaethe only DlRiatan king mentioned there. OW Aidan is one of very few Gaelic names with anycurrency in Wales in the earlier Middle Ages. Aedan occurs as a proper name inthe elegies of the GODODDIN, which could possibly be a reference to Aedn macGabrin himself.John T. KochAGRI CULTURE,GAULGaulish farms can be inferred from the 6th centuryBC. From the 2nd centuryBConward, they appeared in greater density and variety across the northern half ofFrance. Such farms were enclosed settlements located in the centre of the territorythat they exploited. The typical farm consisted of a ditch surrounding farm build-ings (houses, barns, silos). The social status of these sites varied considerably, rang-ing from simple family farmsto aristocratic residences. The richestsites weredistinguished by ostentatious architecture and elaborate furnishingfor example,Mediterranean amphorae (large jars used for wine or olive oil), jewellery,COINAGE,arms and armour, and sets of iron tools. The multiplication of isolated settlements,which precede and anticipate the Gallo-Roman villas (residential farming estates),coincides with other features of rising socioeconomic complexitythe developmentof artisans villages andnally with proto-urban oppida (seeOPPIDUM).Stphane Marion4 AE DNMACGABRI NAGRI CULTURE,I RELANDEarly PrehistoryIt appears that in Ireland (RIU), as elsewhere in northwest Europe, farming wasfrom its inception a mixture of crop growing and stock (mostly cattle and swine)rearing. Evidence of agriculture appears in the archaeological record from the early5th millenniumBC, including the cultivation of wheat. Pollen analysis from the 4thmillenniumBCindicateswidespread treeclearancein some areas.TheearliestNeolithic (New Stone Age) farming appears to have been mainly of the landnam orslash-and-burn type, with small areas of woodland cleared and then abandonedwhen the soil nutrients were depleted. In the later Neolithic (c. 32002400BC),farming became more sedentary.Later PrehistoryFor cattle, meat was the main requirement; milk production was of secondaryimportance. Sheep were of little importance as a source of food, but the presenceof spindle whorls shows that their wool was being exploited. In the Later BronzeAge (c. 1400500BC), small-scale mixed farms remained the norm, with cattle andswine as the main stock and barley and wheat as the primary crops. Some evidenceexists for other agricultural products: Flax was grown as early as c. 2000 BC for linen,though the earliest evidence for the fabric is much later.For most of the Irish Early Iron Age (c. 500 BCAD 400), agriculture was in decline,with wilderness reclaiming territory. Grain production continued to a lesser degree.The dominance of pastoral farming in the Early Medieval period may well havebegun at this time.Early Medieval PeriodHighly detailed legal documents (LAWTEXTS) written in the 7th or 8th centuriesADillustrate a highly regulated and complex integration of agriculture within the earlyIrish social structure. The archaeological and documentary both recognize the cen-tral role of cattle in this structure. Dairying was now clearly the prime purpose ofcattle rearing. There is strong evidence for transhumancethat is, the practice ofseasonal movement of the herds to the uplands in the warmer months. This practicecontinued in Ireland up until the 18th or 19th centuries and was known as booley-ing (from Irish buaile, a cattle enclosure).The pig also has a high prole in the written texts, with itsesh being consideredbetter food than other meats. Sheep were primarily important for their wool; they,like cattle, were used as a unit of currency in the law tracts. Wheat was the mosthighlyprizedcerealgrain,thoughalsothemostdifculttogrowinIreland.Barley, rye, and oats were the staple cereals of the majority, being better suitedclimatically to Irelands terrain.Land and stock ownership rested on the twin principles ofKINSHIP and clientship.Inheritance was a complex legal issue on which generalization is difcult. In short,AGRI CUL T URE , I RE L AND 5land was generally held from the extended kin group or ne. In most cases inherit-ance was restricted to the smallest division of the kin group, the gelne, based on themale line of a common grandfather. The practice of subdivision of land, whereby thefathers holding was divided amongst his sons, led to the diminishment in the size ofthe holding, with the result that holdings eventually became economically unviable.This was one of the contributory factors to the Great FAMINE a millennium later.Clientship was a system whereby a landowner could receive a grant (Irish rath) fromhis chief, usually in the form of cattle, on which a set annual return was due to thegrantee for a set length of time, generally seven years. This system supplied the cli-ent with capital through which he could, by careful husbandry, increase his holdingwhile the chief gained not only interest, but also prestige and status based on thenumber of clients he could take on.The focus of the holding in early medieval Ireland was the lios (ring fort), adefended settlement of which many still survive. The lios was a home, but also asecure enclosure for the stock at night and other times of danger. Evidence fromone excavated example, Deer Park Farms, Co. Antrim (Contae Aontroma), indicatesthat sheep, cattle, horses, goats and pigs had all been present within the enclosingbank.Anglo-Norman Influence and BeyondEven before the Norman military conquest of Ireland began in 1169, the effects ofthe feudal system of agriculture were being experienced in a limited way throughthe presence of the Cistercian order a generation prior (see CISTERCIANABBEYS INIRELAND). The Normans introduced many agricultural innovations, including thepracticeofhaymakingandmoreefcientploughswithwheelsandamould-board. The new breeds of stock introduced by the Normans were generally larger,more productive, and well suited to the fertile lowlands where their settlementwas concentrated. Manorial records indicate that sheep replaced cattle as the stockof most importance in Norman areas. The picture that emerges involves increasingpolarization of the two agrarian systems, Gaelic and Norman. This situation contin-ued for centuries, with much of the Gaelic west and north remaining an essentiallycattle-based society up until the 17th century. Following the Geraldine and NineYear Wars, these areas became integrated into the English feudal system, althoughsome Irish practices lived on for a further century or so.The Modern PeriodThe 18th century saw the transformation of the west of the country from a sparselyinhabited landscape into a thickly settled small-farming area. This process wasenabled by two major factors. Therst was the adoption of the Rundale system ofsemi-communal land management, with itselds arranged around a central settle-ment or clachan often occupied by a single extended family group. The characteris-tic radial eld boundaries of the Rundale system are still seen particularly in thelandscapes of Co. Donegal (Contae Dhn na nGall) and the barony of Erris, Co.6 AGRI CUL T URE , I RE L ANDMayo (Contae Mhaigh Eo). The second factor was the mass cultivation of the potato,which was nutritious and well adapted to the poor soil and damp climate of thewest. The agrarian reforms that followed the devastation of the Great Famine ofthe 1840s saw the end of the native Rundale and clachan system.Further famine in 185964, and again in 187984, steeled the British govern-ments resolve to push ahead with radical long-term land reorganization. Manyimprovements in farming techniques and land management were wrought, particu-larly in the west. Recognition of the serious injustice of the Irish land ownership sys-tem, coupled with the agrarian agitation of the Land League, led successive Britishgovernments to adopt a policy of land redistribution. In conjunction with a seriesof Land Acts coercing landlords to sell land, this policy resulted in two thirds ofIrish tenants owning their own land by 1914.After Irelands partition in 1921, this trend continued under the newly formedLand Commission. The effectiveness of the reforms was hampered, however, bythe ideological outlook of the Fianna Fil governments of the 1930s and 1940s,which attempted to create a classless rural Gaelic society, in part by limiting farmsizes to an unviably small size of between 8 and 12 hectares (between 20 and30 acres).Irish membership in the European Community from 1973 onward resulted infurther evolution of the farming economy. Increased specialization, encouraged byample grant funding, saw the previous pattern of ubiquitousmixed farms trans-form into large zones dedicated almost exclusively to one specic activity. TheMunster dairying area and east-central dry cattle area are examples of this pattern.European Community grants have disproportionately favoured larger farms overthe smaller holdings, located mostly on the poorer land of the west.Simon FaolinAGRI CULTURE,I SLEOFMANFarming was a dual occupation on the Isle of Man until the mid-19th century, withshing regarded as the main interest to bring money to the family. Men went to seabetween July and October, leaving the women to run the farms. Fields were mostlyenclosed by the mid-18th century, but before that main boundaries were onlyfenced andelds with growing crops had temporary sod hedges to protect them.Grazing livestock animals were also restricted bylankets made ofsuggane (strawrope), which were tied to their legs. Varieties of oats and barley suited to poor,exposed soils were grown. Rye, once in favour, had gradually declined by the 17thcentury and wheat, popular by the 18th century, thrived in the productive lowlandareas of the northern plain and southern limestone districts. Root crops came late tothe island, with potatoes appearing by c. 1706 and turnips by the late 18th century.Spuds and herring thus became part of the diet alongside oats.Celtic farmers in Man (ELLAN VANNIN) relied upon their livestock, with breedsnative to the island dominating until the 19th century. The cattle were similar tothe Kerry: small, hardy animals capable of producing good-quality milk. Theirhorses were again small, approximately 13 hands high, and were used as farm andAGRI CUL T URE , I SL EOFMAN 7pack animals. The pigs, known asPurrs, were small, multicoloured animals; theybecame extinct by 1840. Sheep were bred for milk, wool, and meat; the nativebrownLoghtan breedsurvivestothisday.TheManxeconomyhaschangedradically in the modern era: By the last decade of the 20th century, agriculture andshing on the island produced no more than 2 percent of the national income.Chris PageAGRI CULTURE,SCOTLANDEarly PrehistoryEvidence for farming in Scotland (ALBA) is quite poor before c. 3500BC. As elsewherethroughout Britain and Ireland in prehistoric times, mixed farming was the norm,with barley the main cereal crop; emmer wheat and oats were also grown, and thereis some limited evidence of ax cultivation. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs werereared from the Neolithic onward, as indicated by the bone assemblages unearthedatexcavated sitessuch asKnap ofHowar,Orkney(Arcaibh).Nevertheless,itappears that gathering, hunting, andshing remained integral parts of the ScottishNeolithicandlaterforalongerperiodthanelsewhere,especiallywithinthemarine-oriented economies of the west and north coast and the islands.Later PrehistoryPollen diagrams indicate a sudden rise in agricultural activity around 250BC, whichseems to have been accompanied by population expansion in the Lowlands. It hasbeen suggested that the eastern Scottish ring-ditched houses were over-winteringbyres for livestock, a practice considered necessary in the northern climes. Cattleare generally considered the most important stock in the Scottish IRON AGE, as indi-cated by the evidence from many sites, though not all. Special status may have beenattached to cattle ownership, as demonstrated by evidence at Cnuip wheelhouse,Lewis, where the terrain was far more suitable for sheep. The bone assemblage fromthis site indicates that the cattle raised here were stunted.Medieval PeriodIn the north and west, the wheelhouses, DUNS, andBROCHS seem to have been thehomesteads of single extended families engaged in mixed farming, eked out throughthe exploitation of marine resources. Later on, some of these settlements expand(e.g., Broch of Gurness) to form small nucleated villages. In the later Middle Agesthere was a move away from purely subsistence farming, with cattle and sheep beingraised for export, although the farmers themselves lived mainly on a diet of oats andbere (a form of barley), along with some dairy products and a little meat. Bone evi-dence from the manorial farm at Rattray, Moray (Moireibh), suggests that sheep andgoats were the main source of milk, while cattle were raised primarily for meat. Kale(for both humans and stock) was also important;ax and hemp were produced for8 AGRI CUL T URE , SCOT L ANDfabricmanufacture.Ruralsettlementtooktheform of fermtouns,consistingof small, nucleated groups of long-houses or single dwellings of thePitcarmicktype.Early Modern TimesBy c. 1700 the HIGHLANDSAND ISLANDS and the Lowlands could be seen to share formand structure with regard to landholdings, land use, and modes of cultivation.Fields and grazing rights were owned or leased by several families rather than indi-viduals.AtownshipbaileinGAELICortouninSCOTSwouldtypicallyfarminelds andoutelds. Inelds, with fertile soil improved by the animal manure,would be permanently cropped; outelds, by contrast, were cropped until resultsfell off and then left to recover for some years. For drainage, theelds would beploughed into runrigsthat is, ridges into which surplus water drained. Beyondtheeld systems lay the common grazing lands, by far the greater part of the land.In the summer, cattle and sheep would be driven up to the mountain pastures,known as iridh, shielings, or setter. Labour and resources would be pooled and landuse rotated between families.The agricultural revolution, which called for improvement of the land to create aprot for its owners, came to the Lowlands in the 17th century. Larger and moreprotable holdings were created, often robbing the majority of families in a toun oftheir land and leaving only one or two farmers to cultivate the whole holding.More modern farming methods, such as crop rotation, were developed and newbreeds of animals and strains of crops introduced. The mechanization of agricultureset in with the development of agricultural machines in the late 18th and 19th cen-turies. In the course of the 19th century, the runrigs were replaced by subsoil drain-age systems that enabled the draining of marshland. Previously common land wasenclosedand planned villageserected sothattheindustrialrevolution oftheLowlands could be fueled, with these efforts primarily devoted to the textile indus-tries and brewing and distilling. A more mixed agriculture developed, with oats andbarley being the most common crops.Highland farms increasingly had to be purchased. Consequently, the relationshipbetween clanspeople and clan chiefs changed into that of tenants and landlords. Inthe Highlands, improving the lands to maximize prot largely meant creating graz-ing pasture. Often, the resident population was resettled or evicted in a processknown as theCLEARANCES. The potato blight of 1846, which hit Scotland as muchas Ireland, resulted in furtherEMIGRATION. The countryside was depopulated, withpeople migrating to industrial centres or leaving Scotland altogether. In 1951,approximately 88,000 people worked in Scottish farming full-time; by 1991, theirnumber had fallen to no more than 25,000, with many now engaged in sh farming.Todays empty heather landscape, inhabited mostly by sheep, deer, and grouse, withpoor, marginal, or coastal lands given over to crofts, is a product of 18th- and19th-centuryimprovement (see alsoLANDAGITATION).Simon Faolin and Marion LferAGRI CUL T URE , SCOT L AND 9AGRI CULTURE,WALESUp to the Norman conquest, there was a continuity of agricultural tradition inWales(CYMRU)fromthepre-RomanIRONAGE.ThearrivaloftheNormanandFlemish population began in the late 11th century and changed patterns of propri-etorship and agricultural techniques considerably. Subsequently, theWelshryof areas under Anglo-Norman lordship was largely conned to land above the600-foot (about 180 m) contour line. These areas were characterized by a consider-able survival of traditional tenurial customs and free population. TheEnglishry,located in the lowland and coastal areas, was strongly inuenced by the new settlers;it featured both bond tenants and a manorial system.The inclement weather and acidic soils meant that the bulk of the agrarian popu-lation of medieval Wales lived in tiny, scattered homesteads. Native legal sources(seeLAWTEXTS) describe several types of land found in medieval Wales. The normaltenure was hereditary land (tir gwelyog). The rights to this land passed to descen-dants in equal shares, and after a period of four generations the possession devel-oped into legal proprietorship. This type of tenurends certain parallels in earlyIrish institutions; it collapsed after the population decline in the wake of the BlackDeath (1349).Barley and oats were cultivated as spring cereals, while rye and wheat were culti-vated as winter tilth. Some cereals were less common in some areas of Wales thanothers. For example, rye was grown less generally than wheat in south Wales.Beans, peas, vetch, andax were also cultivated.Two kinds of plough (with wheels and without) were in use, both of them heavy.Oxen were the only plough animals recognized by the law; the horse had no place inthe plough team. GIRALDUS CAMBRENSIS reports that four oxen abreast were the mostcommon in his time.Horse breeding was generally an important part of the Welsh medieval economyand parts of Wales were famous for their horses. Giraldus reported thatthe horseswhich are sent out of POWYS are greatly prized; they are extremely handsome andnature reproduces in them the same majestic proportion and incomparable speed.The rearing of sheep, which was greatly encouraged by the Cistercians, representeda major branch of agriculture in several parts of Wales.The cattle of medieval Wales comprised a variety of breeds. The best descriptionsof the cattle come from WELSHPOETRY. Black cattle that gave rise to the famous WelshBlacks of modern times became the prevalent breed by the 14th and 15th centuries.Red cattle with white faces, to which the modern Hereford breed is normally traced,were common in southeast Wales.Following the ACTSOF UNION, greater stability and links to the London marketenhanced the prospects of landowners and farmers. Herds of hardy cattle weredriven overland by intrepid Welsh drovers to the major fairs and markets of south-east ENGLAND and were subsequently fattened prior to slaughter. Economic growthwas reected by an increase in the Welsh population: Between the Acts of Unionand therst population census of 1801, the population more than doubled toapproximately 600,000. Yet farms remained small (the norm was less than 50 acres)10 AGRI CUL T URE , WAL E Sand most peasant farmers, lacking capital, remained suspicious of change. From the1750s, however, the formation of progressive county agricultural societies intro-duced improvements in the quality of livestock and crop rotation.Progress was severely curtailed by the French wars (17931815). Galloping ina-tion; high taxes, rents, and tithes; and the enclosure of common land caused theWelsh people enormous distress. In the post-war years an acute agricultural depres-sionaccentuatedthegulfthathademergedbetweenNonconformistWelsh-speakingfarmersandthelandlesspoorontheonehand, andthewealthyAnglican, non-Welsh-speaking landowners on the other hand. In their frustration,small farmers in southwest Wales launched the Rebecca Riots (183944), a protestmovement that destroyed the hated toll-gates established by turnpike trusts andthereby drew public attention to their plight.Economic conditions improved briey beginning in the mid-19th century. Thecoming of the railways not only provided farmers with direct access to markets,but also brought about the demise of the drover. By 1914, the coal industry hadovertaken agriculture as the largest employer of people in Wales. The numbersengaged in farming had declined from 33 percent in 1851 to 11 percent in 1911.By the 1990s Welsh farmers, as a result of the effects of harsh milk quotas, severecuts in subsidies, the bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) and foot-and-mouth crises, the outward migration of young people and the inward migration ofretired people, and the increasing demands upon them to develop resources andskills that would enable them to diversify, were poorly equipped to meet the chal-lenges of the 21st century. In 2001, slightly more than 56,300 persons were at workon agricultural holdings in Wales.Alexander Falileyev and Geraint H. JenkinsAI DED NFI R A FEAND OI DHEADH CHONNLAOI CHMHEI C CON CULAI NNAided nr Afe and Oidheadh Chonnlaoich mheic Con Culainn (The violent death ofAfes only son andThe violent death of Connlaoch son of C CHULAINN) are twoversions of the Irish story of how the central hero of the ULSTER CYCLE killed hisson Connla or Connlaoch, committing the crime ofngalkinslaying. The storyhas analogues in Indo-European tradition, notably in the Persian Shahnameh andin ARTHURIANLITERATURE.See alsoHEROICETHOS; ULSTER CYCLE.John T. KochAI SLI NGAisling (vision) is a type of IRISH-language poem recounting the visit of a woman fromthe OTHERWORLD in a dream. The three principal types are the love-aisling, the proph-ecy-aisling, and the allegorical aisling, in which the woman usually represents IRE.The allegorical form, which may have roots in French literature, became commonAI S L I NG 11in the 18th century. It is the best known of the three forms, popularized by poets per-forming for an Irish-speaking population hostile to the English occupiers of Ireland.The allegorical aislings principal traits are: (1) a localization of the action, often ina mystical place; (2) a formalized description of the woman; (3) a request for heridentity, comparing her to classical and Irish beauties; (4) a response in which sherejects these comparisons and identies herself; and (5) a message of hope for theIrish people (e.g., predicting Irelands liberation).The allegorical aislings master was the Munster (MUMU) poet Eghan RuadhSilleabhin(174884).Thebest-knownaisling,however,isprobablythedespairing Mac an Cheanna (The redeemers son) of Aogn Rathaille (c. 1670c.1726), in which the beauty dies before the poet.See also IRISHLITERATURE;SOVEREIGNTYMYTH.Brian BroinAI THBHREACNI GHEANCOI RCEADAI LAithbhreac nighean Coirceadail (. 1460) was a Scottish poet and the author of alament for her husband, Niall mac Nill of the Hebridean island of Giogha (Gigha),preserved in the Book of the DEANOF LISMORE. The poem, A Phaidrn do Dhisg moDhar, movingly combines both the intimate perspective of the spouse reecting onher dead husbands rosary and the stately rhetoric of classical Irish elegy. The poemthus is testimony to the practice of classical Irish poetry (see IRISHLITERATURE) amongthe middle ranks of the nobility within the LORDSHIPOFTHE ISLES, and to the educationof women in its arts. Aithbhreac (her name comes from the word for Africa) is the ear-liest in an impressive sequence of Scottish Gaelic women poets whose work has beenpreserved from the 15th to the 19th century (see SCOTTISH GAELICPOETRY).Thomas Owen ClancyALANVARVEGAlan Varveg (Alan the Bearded, r. 93752), reconquer