The Art of

ArgumentReading and Understanding

Arguments

Getti

ng S

tarte

d

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From

an

AP

Test

Rea

der

"Carefully read the following passage by Susan Sontag. Then write an essay in which you support, refute, or qualify Sontag's claim that photography limits our understanding of the world. Use appropriate evidence to develop your argument." There followed a provocative and somewhat cryptic three-paragraph excerpt from On Photography.

Key

to S

ucce

ss

Perhaps the single most important key to success on an AP Exam is the student's ability to see that the prompt identifies a task to be performed. Students who were successful on Question Three recognized key words in the prompt and were able to determine the task they were being asked to do.

Clai

m a

nd

Argu

men

t

This question was not merely an invitation to write discursively on the subject of photography. The word "claim" in the prompt should have alerted students to the need for writing in argumentative form. This point was reinforced by the explicit mention of "argument" in the last sentence. The question requires that students understand what an argument is and know how to construct one.

Supp

ort,

Refu

te, o

r Qu

alify

The words "support, refute, or qualify" are technical terms that were not decoded in the question. Students need to know and need to have practiced these forms of argument during the term. (Some students misunderstood "qualify"; for example, "Sontag is not qualified to talk about photography.") In addition, these three words should signal to students that taking a position, even if a qualified one, is essential.

Evid

ence

and

De

velo

p

The word "evidence" is also important. Students need to know not only what constitutes evidence, but the difference between evidence and example. Even "develop" conveyed important signals -- their argument needed to move forward; they couldn't just make one little point and assume they were developing it by adding six redundant illustrations.

Wha

t do

we

mea

n by

ar

gum

ent?

Can an argument really be any text that expresses a point of view?

What kinds of argument – if any – might be made by the following items?

a Red Sox cap the health warning on a

packet of cigarettes a Rolex watch

Why

do

we

mak

e ar

gum

ent?

To win – politics, business, law (to convience [agreement] or persuade [actin])

Invitational arguments – mutual exploration based on respect.

To find common ground – Rogerian arguments (both/and or win/win)

Reasons to Argue

Winning

Convincing

Persuading

Inform

Explore

Make Decisions

Reflect

Meditate

Pray

ActivityWhat are your reasons for making

arguments. Keep notes for two days

about every single argument you make,

using our broad definition to guide

you. Then identify your reasons: How

many times did you aim to pursuade?

To convince? To explain or inform? To

explore? To decide? To medtate?

Argu

men

tatio

n

While writing a classical argument may seem daunting at first, it is mainly common sense.

From arrangement to fallacies, we encounter these principles routinely.

We will be studying formally concepts and strategies we observe and use in daily life.

Two Types of

Logical Appeals

Induction and Deduction

Indu

ctio

n

The compiling of evidence to support an argument

The amassing of reasons The more evidence, the

better, but often three good ones will do

What lawyers do

Indu

ctio

n

When arguing inductively, ask yourself these three questions:

1. Are the examples sufficient in number? (Do you have enough?)

2. Are the examples truly representative of the issue? (Are they relevant?)

3. Do the examples come from a reliable authority or from logic?

General

Specific

Dedu

ctio

n

Involves premises—statements upon which all parties agree, which, when considered logically, lead to a strong conclusion

Getting all parties to agree on the premise is often the cause of the debate.

Dedu

ctio

n

When arguing deductively, ask yourself these questions:

1. Are the premises themselves valid or resulting from strong inductive evidence?

2. Does the conclusion follow logically?

                                                            

General

Specific

More on this later . . .

The Five Cannons of Rhetoric

The

Five

Cann

ons o

f Rh

etor

ic

The ancient Romans called the formal study of argumentation “rhetoric.”

By the time of the great Roman orator Cicero, five parts of discourse had been named.

The

Five

Cann

ons o

f Rh

etor

ic

1. Inventio2. Dispositio3. Elocutio4. Memoria5. Pronuntatio

The pattern is more important than the actual terms

Inve

ntio

Discovery or invention Given a topic, the orator had

to find arguments to support his point of view.

Inventio is a system for finding those arguments, coming up with something to say

He had to make some carefully thought out choices such as the three appeals (ethos, logos, pathos).

There were others that we’ll discuss later, but for now we are interested in the basics.

Disp

ositi

o

Arrangement or organization Romans had six parts:

Exordim—introduction Narratio—statement of the

case under discussion (thesis) Divisio—outline of points to be

covered (usually omitted now unless book length)

Confirmatio—the proof of the argument

Confutatio—refute the opponent’s argument

Peroratio—conclusion These provide a set of

simple, definite principles to follow.

Eloc

utio

Style—same things we look at today

Levels of style—informal vs. formal; vary by purpose

Diction—word choice; simple vs. ornate, clarity, etc.

Syntax—the arrangement of words; sentence structure, patterns of words; tropes and schemes

Mem

oria

Memorization; had specific techniques

We are not especially concerned with this today, especially since we will be writing not speaking.

However, what we can recall from memory about an issue or topic can help in responding to writing prompts.

Pron

unta

tio

Delivery; the use of the voice Today, this refers to the

medium in which the argument is delivered: spoken, written, visual, etc.

A final word of warning—don’t use these Latin terms on the exam, especially if you can’t spell them correctly; you will look pretentious.

Rogerian Approach

Roge

rian

Appr

oach

Carl Rogers—a renowned therapist

The goal of therapy is often the same as argumentation—attitude change

This approach tries to bring about that change by rational argument

“Each person can speak up for himself only after he has first restated the ideas and feeling of the previous speaker, and to that speaker’s satisfaction.”

Roge

rian

Appr

oach

Introduction Summary of Opposing

Views Statement of

Understanding Statement of Your

Position Statement of Contexts Statement of Benefits

Clas

sica

l M

odel

Exordium—the introduction; introduces the reader to the subject (ethos)

Narratio—the narration; provides factual information and background material; begins the developmental

paragraphs or establishes

why there is a problem that

needs addressing (pathos)

Clas

sica

l M

odel

Confirmatio—the body (confirmation); the main part

of the text; includes the proof

to make the writer’s case

(logos) Refutatio—the refutation;

addresses the counterargument; classically

just before the conclusion,

but if opposing views are well

known or valued by the audience may be before the

confirmatio (logos)

Clas

sica

l M

odel

Peroratio—the conclusion; brings the essay to a satisfying close; answers the question “so what” (pathos and reminds of ethos)

Classic rhetoricians believed the last words and ideas are the ones remembered the most

Patterns of Development

Arrangement is based on purpose Include a range of

logical ways to organize an entire text or (more likely) individual paragraphs The way we will study

different types of writing