the anti-apartheid movement in south africa: three cycles of contention

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The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

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Page 1: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa:

Three Cycles of Contention

Page 2: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Phase I- Society Challenges the State:The Rise of a Mass Movement, 1948-1960

Repertoires Boycotts, stay at homes, civil disobedience 1952 Defiance Campaign Women’s pass-law demonstrations, ’56-59

Goals & Framing 1955 Freedom Charter 1959 Creation of Pan Africanist Congress (splintering of

the organized movement): rivalry between PAC and ANC

Repression & Facilitation Expansion of Apartheid 1960 Sharpeville Massacre

Organized by PAC 67 people killed, 186 hurt

Page 3: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

The Freedom Charter (selections)Adopted at the Congress of the People, Kliptown, on 26 June 1955

We, the People of South Africa, declare for all our country and the world to know:that South Africa belongs to all who live in it, black and white, and that no government can justly claim authority unless it is based on the will of all the people;

that our people have been robbed of their birthright to land, liberty and peace by a form of government founded on injustice and inequality;

that our country will never be prosperous or free until all our people live in brotherhood, enjoying equal rights and opportunities;

that only a democratic state, based on the will of all the people, can secure to all their birthright without distinction of colour, race, sex or belief;

And therefore, we, the people of South Africa, black and white together equals, countrymen and brothers adopt this Freedom Charter;

And we pledge ourselves to strive together, sparing neither strength nor courage, until the democratic changes here set out have been won.

The People Shall Govern! Every man and woman shall have the right to vote for and to stand as a candidate for all bodies which make laws; All people shall be entitled to take part in the administration of the country; The rights of the people shall be the same, regardless of race, colour or sex; All bodies of minority rule, advisory boards, councils and authorities shall be replaced by democratic organs of self-government .

All National Groups Shall have Equal Rights! There shall be equal status in the bodies of state, in the courts and in the schools for all national groups and races; All people shall have equal right to use their own languages, and to develop their own folk culture and customs; All national groups shall be protected by law against insults to their race and national pride; The preaching and practice of national, race or colour discrimination and contempt shall be a punishable crime; All apartheid laws and practices shall be set aside.…

Let all people who love their people and their country no say, as we say here:THESE FREEDOMS WE WILL FIGHT FOR, SIDE BY SIDE, THROUGHOUT OUR LIVES, UNTIL WE HAVE WON OUR LIBERTY

Page 4: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Changing Repertoires: “No easy walk to Freedom”, by

Mandela, 1953 (excerpts) A political movement must keep in touch with reality and the prevailing conditions. … The old methods of

bringing about mass action through public mass meetings, press statements and leaflets calling upon the people to go to action have become extremely dangerous and difficult to use effectively. …

The intensification of repressions and the extensive use of the bans is designed to immobilise every active worker and to check the national liberation movement. But gone forever are the days when harsh and wicked laws provided the oppressors with years of peace and quiet. …

But in spite of all the difficulties outlined above, we have won important victories. The general political level of the people has been considerably raised and they are now more conscious of their strength. Action has become the language of the day. The ties between the working people and the Congress have been greatly strengthened. … In the past we talked of the African, Indian and Coloured struggles. Though certain individuals raised the question of a united front of all the oppressed groups, the various non-European organisations stood miles apart from one another and the efforts of those for co-ordination and unity were like a voice crying in the wilderness and it seemed that the day would never dawn when the oppressed people would stand and fight together shoulder to shoulder against a common enemy. Today we talk of the struggle of the oppressed people which, though it is waged through their respective autonomous organisations, is gravitating towards one central command….

Our immediate task is to consolidate these victories……Instructions were given to all provinces to implement the "M" Plan without delay.

The underlying principle of this plan is the understanding that it is no longer possible to wage our struggle mainly on the old methods of public meetings and printed circulars. The aim is:

to consolidate the Congress machinery; to enable the transmission of important decisions taken on a national level to every member of the

organisation without calling public meetings, issuing press statements and printing circulars; to build up in the local branches themselves local Congresses which will effectively represent the

strength and will of the people; to extend and strengthen the ties between Congress and the people and to consolidate Congress

leadership. … The hard, dirty and strenuous task of recruiting members and strengthening our organisation through a

house to house campaign in every locality must be done by you all. From now on the activity of Congressites must not be confined to speeches and resolutions. Their activities must find expression in wide scale work among the masses, work which will enable them to make the greatest possible contact with the working people. You must protect and defend your trade unions. If you are not allowed to have your meetings publicly, then you must hold them over your machines in the factories, on the trains and buses as you travel home. You must have them in your villages and shantytowns. You must make every home, every shack and every mud structure where our people live, a branch of the trade union movement and never surrender.

You must defend the right of African parents to decide the kind of education that shall be given to their children. Teach the children that Africans are not one iota inferior to Europeans. Establish your own community schools where the right kind of education will be given to our children. If it becomes dangerous or impossible to have these alternative schools, then again you must make every home, every shack or rickety structure a centre of learning for our children. Never surrender to the inhuman and barbaric theories of Verwoerd.

Page 5: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Listen to Nelson Mandela’s last public statement (made in 1964 before he was sentenced to life imprisonment) before he was jailed for 27 years. Recently recovered, and available at http://www1.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/africa/02/11/mandela.speech/

Nelson Mandela, lawyer & revolutionary, photos from the early years

“During my lifetime I have dedicated myself to this struggle of the African people. I have fought against white domination, and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the idea of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”

Page 6: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Phase II- The state strikes back: Suppression, militancy, and Black Consciousness, 1960-1976

Repression & Facilitation 1960: Govt bans ANC & PAC 1963 Rivonia Trial: ANC leaders sentenced to life

imprisonment ’63, ’67: New govt restrictions allowing for indefinite

detention of suspected activists Rise in harassment, torture 1976 Soweto Uprising

Schoolchildren protest against Afrikaans in schools Police violence leads to more protests In the next 10 months around 575 people killed, including

many school students Encourages thousands of young people to flee country and

join exiled ANC

Page 7: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Soweto, images

Famous photos: Mbuyisa Makhuba carries fatally-injured Hector Pietersen to the Naledi Clinic in Soweto on June 16 1976 after police opened fire on students protesting compulsory lessons in Afrikaans. The Photo, by Sam Nzima (The World/AP), was published around the world.

Page 8: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Photos from:

http://www1.ocn.ne.jp/~yeboo/sahistory/sahistory003.html

Page 9: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Organizing From Within:Black Consciousness Movement

Emerges from black-only universities

Establishment of South African Students Union (SASO)

Influenced by black power in the U.S., black theology

Black African empowerment through internal strength

Self-reliant struggle: black Africans must lead their own emancipation movement

Means: community re-organization, self-reliance, student activism

“The most potent weapon in the hands of the oppressor is the mind of the oppressed.” 

- Steve Biko, a leader of the Black Consciousness Movement

Page 10: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Death of Steve Biko in police custody, 1977

Page 11: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Another repertoire: MK attacks

1960s MK relatively quiet Problems: no internal

support structure Dramatic increase in

actions in late ’70s and ’80s Reasons: new regional

bases, new internal support structures

Main repertoires: from sabotage to bombings 190 acts of sabotage

between October 1961 and July 1963.

1976-1982: 150 attacks 1980s- 100s of bombings

1983- MK bombs air force headquarters. 19 people killed and more than 200 injured.

Page 12: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

MK targets:

“"(e) Selection of targets to be tackled in initial phase of guerrilla operations with a view to causing maximum damage to the enemy as well as preventing quick deployment of reinforcements. In its study the Committee should bear in mind the following main targets:

Strategic road, railways and other communications.

power stations police stations, camps and

military forces irredeemable Government

stooges."

(1969)

Page 13: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Phase III: State crisis and the resurgence of society, 1976-1994

A woman performs a piece of anti-apartheid resistance theatre, 1980s

Page 14: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Changing Political opportunity structures

State Crisis: Increasing Access

State under new regional & dom. pressure

Economic problems Growth of capitalism means

need for more skilled workers 1983 Limited Political Reforms:

New Constitution with tricameral parliament

1984 repeals of restrictions on interracial relationships

1990 ANC un-banned

State Crisis: Increased Repression

State of emergency,1985 and 1986.

“Total Onslaught” ’84-’86: 24,000 arrests Divisions within the state

Influential Allies: U.S.

divestment movement: more than 200 U.S. companies pull out of S. Africa in 1980s

Economic sanctions against S. Africa

UN Economic & Military

Sanctions In 1974 S.A. was suspended

from the UN General Assembly

Diplomatic isolation of SA in international arena

Cultural resistance to Apartheid around the world

New regional realities

Page 15: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Expanding repertoires

Trade Unionism: New consumption & worker

power in black African communities

New multi-racial unions & labor orgs

Black union membership jumped from 40,000 in 1975 to 247,000 in 1981 and to 1.5 million in 1985

Congress of South African Trade Unions (COSATU): umbrella org representing more than 500,000 trade union members

Strikes & protests: African labor unions legalized in 1979

1984: 464 strikes; 1987: 1,148 strikes

In 1985 more than 390 strikes involving 240,000 workers

Schoolchild activism Urban migration Poor state of schools

In 1970s a black child’s education cost one-tenth of a white child’s

Schoolchildren increasingly involved in political demonstrations Class boycotts

Page 16: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Movement reorganization ‘Civics’

Created in part to protest and supplant local govt. in townships

Neighborhood organization & direct action

Consumer boycotts Political theatre

1984-86 uprising: “ungovernability”

Urban revolt & clashes between youths & security forces

Collapse of state authority in some areas

Creation of township “shadow” governments

Upsurge in political violence

’84-’88: around 3,500 people killed;

Around 45,000 detained

without trial Black on black violence

Inkatha Freedom Party, est. 1975

“All the mothers and the fathers, the brothers and the sisters, the grandmothers and the grandfathers, the dogs and the cats– they all have joined in the struggle.”

Page 17: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Street barricades in Cape Town, 1985.

Page 18: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

The United Democratic Front (UDF)

est. 1983, ANC-supported Primary goal: to

coordinate activities of anti-apartheid orgs, and to resist state’s recent constitutional reforms

Organized as a federation of regionally based fronts

Umbrella federation for more than 600 local orgs

Prominent church leaders, civic leaders, former ANC reps, students

(mostly) Espoused nonviolence

Page 19: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Framing…Repertoires…

Page 20: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Eastern Cape UDF leader Mathew Goniwe salutes a crowd at the funeral of a youth activist in 1986. Two months later Goniwe was assassinated, probably by state-sponsored death squads. Photo from Beyond the Barricades: Popular Resistance in South Africa

Page 21: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Mkhuseli Jack: grassroots community activist

“And as this organization broadened and broadened and broadened and broadened, it became extremely difficult for the security forces to crush these people. Because now you have created a big, big center of resistance within the community. And then slowly you started [to include everyone] in the struggle for justice. And slowly everyone saw his role in the various methods of struggle that were available to us.”

Page 22: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

This phase of mass action was much more successful than the ANC’s in the 1950s. Why?

Increased urbanization 1951: 27% black population lived in urban areas 1981:49 % black pop. in urban areas 2nd gen. Urban kids rose to lead UDF

Much larger educated population Rapid expansion of schools & education in cities from

1960s-1980s Created new sense of student identity and new

student culture Demographics: new black purchasing and worker power Transformation in employment: rise of new & upwardly

mobile working class (esp. skilled labor) Technology: phones, TV, fax, planes

Page 23: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

From movement to government: the End of Apartheid, 1994

Secret negotiations Mandela released from jail, 1990; ANC legalized Political violence

Zulu vs ANC Afrikaner

Negotiated settlement agreement reached on November 13, 1993, which

pledged to institute a nonracial, nonsexist, unified, and democratic South Africa based on the principle of “one person, one vote.”

PR voting (list system), semi-federalism, property protection, civil liberties

Page 24: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

Reasons for the end of Apartheid S. African economic problems that split the white

community Collapse of the Rand, foreign investment S. African economy depended on African labor

International pressure Sanctions Diplomatic isolation inc. U.S.

Demographic shifts 1911: 21% S.A. pop white, 67% black 1991: 13% white, 75% black

Movement pressure: “ungovernability” Economic cost of maintaining apartheid

New geostrategic realities End of the Cold War De-colonization of southern Africa

Page 25: The Anti-Apartheid Movement in South Africa: Three Cycles of Contention

1986