Thai Architecture

Presentation prepared by:Cruz, Maria Cecilia

Tinawin, Michael AndrewPido, Michael Angelo

ThailandThailand -Prathet Thai, meaning "land of the free"

-previously known as Siam-21st most populous country -one of the most devoutly Bhuddist countries in the world

Bangkok - capital- also called Krung Thep, meaning "city of angels“-Krung Thep was adapted from it’s original name.(listed in guinness world book of records as tha longest name of a place):

Krungthep Mahanakhon Bovorn Rattanakosin Mahintharayutthaya Mahadilokpop Noparatratchathani Burirom Udomratchaniveymahasathan

Amornpiman Avatansathit Sakkathattiya- avisnukarmprasit.

GeographyBorders• North- Laos and Myanmar• East- Laos and Cambodia• South- Gulf of Thailand and

Malaysia• West- the Andaman Sea and

Myanmar. Maritime boundaries • Southeast- Vietnam in the Gulf

of Thailand• Southwest- Indonesia and

India in the Andaman Sea

Climate• Tropical – with temperatures ranging from 28-

35°C • The area of Thailand north of Bangkok has a

climate determined by three seasons whilst the southern peninsular region of Thailand has only two.

National SymbolsNational Flower: “Ratchaphruek“ (or golden shower)The color of flowers is shining yellow contrasting great

importance similarly to the color of our national religion ‘Buddhism' and the color of Monday when His Majesty King of Thailand was born.

National Animal: “Chang Thai” (or Thai elephant)According to ancient royal Thai traditions, a white elephant is a

noble beast of special importance, exemplifying a king's honor and glory.

National Architecture: “Sala Thai” (or Thai-style arbor)Sala Thai reflects knowledge of Thai people. It retains beauty,

which is different from architectures of other countries, and foreigners can acknowledge ‘Thai-ness' through Sala Thai.

MaterialsSandstone- was used to form door parts, lintels, and rectangular windowsBrick- (around 12th century)replaced sandstone as the favoured mortar, bound with vegetable glue, and then sheathed in carved stone Stucco- a sand, lime, and glue mixture strengthened by a terra cotta armature, was later used to cover the brick wallsWood- was employed in temple construction and craftsmen attained great skill in carving decorative elements, in the heavily forested north.

MaterialsPorcelain fragments- influenced by the Chinese, it can be seen in some ornamental decorations

Materials such as glass mosaic pieces highlighted gables and pillars, as well as wooden and stucco figures, and other decorative techniques utilized lacquer, gilt, mother-of-pearl inlay, gold leaf, and porcelain fragments to obtain the desired effect of gleaming elegance.

Religious InfluencesBuddhismHinduism

IslamJudaismSikhism

Christianity

BuddhismTheravada Buddhism reached Thailand around the 6th

century AD.- (228 BC) Sohn Uttar Sthavira ( one of the royal monks )to Ashoka the great came to Thailand (Suvarnabhumi or Suvannabhumi) with other monks and sacred books.- it was made the state religion only with the establishment of the Thai kingdom of Sukhothai in the thirteenth century A.D.- nearly 95% of Thailand's population is Buddhist of the Theravada school

Buddhism• One of the major influences

on Thai Buddhism is Hindu beliefs received from Cambodia, particularly during the Sukhothai period.

• Vedic Hinduism played a strong role in the early Thai institution of kingship, just as it did in Cambodia, and exerted influence in the creation of laws and order for Thai society as well as Thai religion.

Detail of the entrance gate of Wat Phra That Lampang Luang, showing the influence of Cambodian's architectural style.

Hinduism- Southeast Asia was frequented by traders from eastern India, particularly Magadha, as well as from the Tamil kingdoms of South India.-Numerous rituals derived from Brahminism are preserved in rituals, such as use of holy strings and pouring of lustral water from conch shells.- The city, Ayutthaya, is named after Ayodhya, the birthplace of Rama.

Hinduism• Hindu deities are

worshipped by many Thais alongside Buddhism, such as the famous Erawan shrine, and statues of Ganesh, Indra, and Shiva, as well as numerous symbols relating to Hindu deities are found, e.g., Garuda, a symbol of the monarchy.

The four-faced Brahma (Phra Phrom) statue, Erawan Shrine

IslamIslam is most popular

in southern Thailand, near the border with Malaysia, where the vast majority of the country's Muslims, predominantly Malay in origin, are found.

Matsayit Klang (Central Mosque), Patanni, Thailand

Judaism- Jewish community life in

Thailand dates back to the 17th century, first with the arrival of a few Baghdadi Jewish families, although the current community is comprised mainly of Ashkenazi descendants of refugees from Russia, and later the Soviet Union

Chabad house, Chiang Mai

Sikhism- Ladha Singh-first Sikh to migrate to Thailand (1890)-Sikhs began migrating to the Kingdom of Thailand in the early 1900s. By the year 1911, many Sikh families had settled in Thailand

Guradwaras (Thailand)

Christianity-Christianity was first introduced to Thailand by European missionaries in 1662, with the establishment of the Vicariate Apostolic of Siam led particularly Portuguese and French fathers.-5 major Christian denominations: The Roman Catholic Church, The Southern Baptists, The Seventh Day Adventists, the Church of Christ in Thailand and the Evangelical Fellowship of Thailand

Samruan Church, Samruan Thailand

Historical and Political Influences

five different historical periods where significant changes can be seen in the various religious architecture styles:

Khmer- (9th to 13th Century) Sukhothai- (Mid 13th to 15th Centuries) Ayutthaya- (Mid 14th to late 18th Centuries) Lanna- (Mid 13th to 19th Centuries) Rattanakosin- (Late 18th Century to present)

Khmer InfluenceDvaravati- Mon civilization that occupied the central and

western area of Thailand during the 9th -11th century.-shares the same common lineage as the Khmers and settle in southern Burma latter-include Nakhon Pathom, Khu Bua, Phong Tuk , and Lawo (Lopburi)-this was an Indianized culture, Theravada Buddhism was remained the major religion in this area-by the 11th – 12th centuries, it’s influence went all the way to the center of Thailand-Khmer cultural influence was brought in the form of language, art and religion

Khmer Influence• The "Sanskrit" language was entered

in Mon-Thai vocabulary during the Khmer or Lopburi Period.

• The influence of this period has affected many provinces in the north-east such as Kanchanaburi and Lopburi. The Architecture in "Angkor" was also constructed according to the Khmers style

• The Khmer built stone temples in the northeast, some of which have been restored to their former glory, those at Phimai and Phanom Rung and further cultures are stone sculptures and stone Buddha images

Khmer InfluenceKhmer Architecture -

was totally dictated by Hindu beliefs, astrology and subjugation to the Gods and their God Kings- The role of architecture was to demonstrate these beliefs for the believers and enforce by demonstration the system to those subjugated to the system

Khmer Temple, Lop Buri Thailand

Khmer Influence-Architecture was based on a system where boundaries, axes, and other architectural parameters have measurement or size based on their physical extent and internal divisions [ that is subdivided parts into logical parts with each measurable against the whole ] but where additionally these structures contained calendar and cosmological concepts.

Phimai Temple, Isaan, Thailand

Sukhothai InfluenceFounded in 1238 by two Thai governors, Khun Bang

Klang Thao (Si Inthrathit) and Khun Pha Muang who rebelled against the Khmers; and gave independence to the region.

Golden age of Thai culture– gained independence in 1238 and quickly expanded its

boundary of influence– boundary of Sukhothai stretched from Lampang in the

north to Vientiane, in present day Laos and the south to the Malay Peninsula

Sukhothai influenceKing Ramkhamhaeng- the most

famous and dynamic monarch ever to rule the Sukhothai kingdom -Much of what we know about Sukhothai in the 13th century derives from a 1292 stone inscription attributed to King Ramkhamhaeng-tells about King Ramkhamhaeng's rule, the power and prosperity of Sukhothai

King Ramkhamhaeng's famous stone inscription, for the first time written in Thai, survived intact through the centuries, and

was discovered in Sukhothai by King Mongkut during his monkhood

Sukhothai influenceWat Si Chum, Sukhothai – The Temple of the Bodhi Tree

- the largest, the most puzzling and historically important Buddhist temple from the Sukhothai period

- famous for the enormous stucco Buddha over 11 metres in width called Phra Achana (one who is not frightened)

-In a book entitled Phra Ratchaphongsawadan Krung Si Ayutthaya written in the late Ayutthaya period, the temple is referred as a place where King Naresuan and his troops assembled before the army marched on Sawankhalok and from which the legend of talking Buddha Image (Phra Achana) derives

Sukhothai Influence

The buddha image covered in stucco and is seated inside a

square brick Mandala building with a tapering wall structure which opens in the center of

the top.

Ayutthaya Influence-Ayutthaya, the capital of the Thai Kingdom was found by U-Thong King in 1350-Ayutthaya as an island is formed by the gathering of three rivers, the Chao Phraya, the Pasak, and the Loburi and surrounded by rice terraces-King U-Thong and his immediate successors expanded Ayutthaya's territory, especially northward towards Sukhothai and eastward towards the Khmer capital of Angkor-The greater size of government could not remain the same as during the days of King Ramkhamhaeng-The society during the Ayutthaya period was strictly hierarchical. There were, roughly, three classes of people, king at the top of scale. At the bottom of social scale were commoners and the slaves.

Ayutthaya InfluenceAyutthaya was a society of

builders rather than sculptors.• It was preoccupied with

building monuments to impress outsiders by sheer imensity.

• it erected a major portion of its 400 wats in Ramathibodi's reign and completed most of its major monuments in the first 150 years of its existence.

Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya Historical Park

Ayutthaya InfluenceAyutthaya had three palaces for its

rulers:• Wang Luan (Royal Palace)- occupied

by the principal king, situated on the northern rim of the city

• Wang Na (Palace to the Front) built for the second or Vice-King, situated on the northeastern corner of the city

• Wang Lang (Palace to the Rear) later occupied by princes of the royal blood, situated on the western part of the city

Lanna Influence• -Lanna or Lannathai is the given

name of a prosperous self ruling kingdom, once the power base of the whole of

• Northern Thailand as well as parts of present day Burma (Myanmar) & Laos.

• -means "Land of a million rice fields'.

• -Was a state in what is now northern Thailand from 13th to 18th century.

• -emphasized in the solidifying of religious and cultural foundations.

• -founded by King Mengri (1259 - 1317) The town was built in 1296 and named Nopburi Sri

• Nakorn Ping Chiang Mai which was later shortened to Chiang Mai.

• -most powerful period of this kingdoms history was during the reign of King Tilorokarat (1548-1580).

• -began to wane by the end of the 15th century-

• -Chiang Mai swayed between Burmese and Central Thai control with intermittent spells of self-government;

Lanna Influence• -Influenced by chinese,indian

and mon with mixture of harpunchai,chiang saen and sukhothai but developed

• its own character.• -made use of wood but more

of stones and bricks.• - Lanna Architectural Style

was found in the northern region of Thailand while Chiang Mai being its center.

• This architectural style had its own distinctive characteristics which emphasizes on the enormous size of the

• shrines and relatively small sermon or temple’s hall. Stupas were later built from mid 14th century onwards

• since the entrance of Lankawong Buddhism sect. The stupas were then built in Lanka style.

• -Wats or temples were the main structures built at this era.

Rattanakosin Influence• It included vassal states of Cambodia, Laos, and some Malay

kingdoms. The kingdom was • formation by Chakri Dynasty until 1932• came into being when King Rama I ascended the throne in 1782. • King Rama I was determined to build a new capital to revive the glory

and splendor of old Ayutthaya. • The new capital was located on the island of Rattanakosin, protected

by river to the west, series of canals to the north, east and south. • Economic activity in the Rattanakosin Era was primarily, agriculture.• Thai art, culture, philosophy, and literature was created, developed

and mainly influenced by Buddhism and Hinduism religion.

Rattanakosin InfluenceArchitectures of this period are divided into 4

groups:

Architectural style of the declining period of Ayuthaya (lopburi style and prang)-Lopburi Architectural Style were mostly constructed from bricks and cut stones with influences from both the Mahayana Buddhism sect and the Hinduism religion.-This architectural style flourished in Kampuchea and later spread to Thailand. - A prang is a tall finger-like spire, usually richly carved. Prang at Wat Arun

Rattanakosin Influence-Architectures constructed during

the reign of King Rama III had either one of the two distinctive characteristics (‘in’ or ‘out’). The ‘in’ type was the -one with traditional gable ends decorating the roof while the ‘out’ type’s, the gable ends of the roof were plainly constructed with bricks and stucco or -mortar without traditional decorations of gable ends.

--Thai architectures with adaptation of western architectural style (subsequent to King Rama III’s reign) with prominent western building style.

-Modified Thai architectural style (subsequent to King Rama V’s reign) with characteristics of applied or modified architectural style of various nations, -and blent them together before applied with Thai vision and main characteristics to pass on the greatness of national architecture.

Rattanakosin InfluenceWat Phra Keow• Wat Phra Keow, commonly called the

Temple of the Emerald Buddha, was constructed in 1782 to house the Emerald Buddha, the most revered possession of the ruling Chakri dynasty. Just 60 cm tall, the Emerald Buddha is an ancient statue believed to have magical powers. It is said that whoever possesses the statue will rule the entire kingdom. No one knows the origin of the statue, but it first surfaced in the 15th century in the northern town of Chiang Rai

• Unlike most monasteries, there are no resident monks at Wat Phra Keow. The temple is reserved for the exclusive use of the royal family.

Architectural Character• Thai Architecture

– reflects the influences of the Buddhist countries and of the various groups with which it has mingle and associated for two millenia.

– At various stages down the years, the cultures of Burma, China, Khmer, India and Sri Lanka, can all be seen to have had an important and distinctive influence on architecture in Thailand.

– Most noticeable in Thai architecture are the swooping multi-tiered rooflines, the distinctly ornamental decorations, the stunning interior murals, the vivid colors and the lovingly crafted and gold-adorned Buddha images.

Traditional ArchitectureThai House- the basic thai house

of the past, rarely seen today, was simple structure of bamboo and thatch, raised off the ground for protection against floods and wild animals-Most family life took place on a veranda-like platform outside the one or two rooms that served as sleeping quarters. -this model evolved into more complex structures of wood, varying both in form and decoration to suit conditions in different regions but always retaining their essential simplicity

Traditional ArchitectureCentral Plains Houses

-Elevated on stout round posts, it has steep roofs with curved bargeboards and paneled walls leaning slightly inward; the various components are prefabricated to enable easy dismantling and reassembly. The simplest house consists of a single unit with an outside veranda, while those accommodating larger families might have several separate units arranged around a central platform.

Traditional ArchitectureRoyal houses

-were similar in design to those of commoners except that they were generally closer to the ground and had more decorative features.

Tamnak Daeng (The Red House)-Built by King Rama I as a residence for one of his queens, it was originally in Ayutthaya style but acquired more Rattanakosin elements during several moves

Traditional ArchitectureRoof Gable (Ngao)

-A distinctive feature of the Central Plains house is the elegant curved decoration at the ends of the peaked bargeboards surrounding the gables. -Known as ngao, it evolved from Khmer architecture and appears in elaborate form on religious buildings and palaces. A Stylized version can also be seen in domestic houses.

PanelingPaneled walls are a relatively recent addition to the Thai house

Roof Gable (Ngao)

Traditional ArchitectureGate

-Houses belonging to more prosperous families usually have a gate, often sheltered by a Thai-style roof that opens on to the central platform. -A jar of water is placed at the bottom of the steps so that visitors and residents can wash their feet before coming inside the house.

Traditional ArchitectureThe Sala

-An open-sided pavilion-familiar structure in Thailand found in the courtyards of temples and along heavily traveled routes.-serves as a shelter, giving shade from the hot tropical sun and heavy monsoon rain. -It also is a ‘living room’ and a hub for community social gatherings and village activities.

Traditional ArchitectureThe Northern houses

-The northern Thai houses differ significantly from its counterpart in the Central Plains.- The walls lean outward, giving it a sturdier look, and windows are often smaller.- Kalae- V-shaped decorative feature at the ends of the roof- Some authorities believe they represent a pair of buffalo horns.

Traditional ArchitectureNorthern rice barn

-A rice barn is a component of most traditional compounds in the northern region. -Raised on pillars and with a ladder for access, it is a solid structure with few windows, used to store grain

Religious ArchitectureRegardless of historical period, the

most important area of religious architecture is the Thai temple or wat.

The Thai wat is a group of buildings each serving various purposes and usually set within a walled enclosure.

In addition to being a place where the lessons of Buddha were taught, the Thai wat was traditionally a school, hospital, community center and even an entertainment venue. Wat Pho

Religious Architecture• follows a similar set of design

principles and the same can normally be said for the functions of the various buildings within the complex

• Architectural modifications have been made and the overall style of each of the buildings may vary considerably

• There is also a symbolic significance to each and every part of the Thai wat complex. The capitals of the columns, for example, are shaped like lotus buds or water lilies symbolizing the purity of Buddha's thoughts.

Religious ArchitectureThe Bot

-All wats usually include an ordination or assembly hall known as the bot or sometimes known as an ubosot. The bot is reserved for monks to perform ceremonies, meditate and sermonize. It faces east and usually houses the main Buddha image.

Bai Semas -Surrounding the bot are bai semas. These are sacred boundary stones, used to demarcate the sacred ground of the bot and to keep away evil spirits. Normally eight are used in total, but double slab stones for royal wats. This is also an example of how animist beliefs coexist with Buddhism.

Ubosot: Wat Benchamabophit, Bangkok

Religious ArchitectureThe Chedi

-The Chedi is a solid dome-shaped structure where relics of Buddha may be housed, such as a bone fragment or hair, or the ashes of a past king. Some Thai wat complexes are specifically designed and built around the sacred Chedi.

The Vishnu-At the top of a Chedi may be a stylized thunderbolt sign of the Vishnu, an ancient Hindu lord of the universe. Chedi at Wat Kuu Kham, Chiang

Mai, Thailand

Religious ArchitectureThe Wihan

-A second assembly hall, similar to the bot but usually larger, is the wilhan. Within a complex, there may be several wilhan and each may have an eclectic mix of architectural styles. The wilhan is used by laypeople to make their offering before a large Buddha figure. Normally there are no bai semas surrounding the wihan.

The Prang-A few wats have prangs, which are towering phallic spires as can be seen in the famous Wat Arun on the banks of the Chao Phraya river in Bangkok.

Viharn at Wat Phrasat, Chiang Mai, Thailand

Religious ArchitectureThe Chofa

-The chofa is perhaps the most recognizable architectural detail in any wat. Chofa means, ‘tassel of air’ and its shape is thought to derive from a highly stylized Garuda, a fierce bird featured in Hindu mythology. The Garuda is also a royal symbol and can be seen on other buildings denoting that they operate ‘by royal appointment’.

The Mondop-The mondop is a square-based structure topped with either a cruciform roof or a spire. The edifice contains sacred text or an object of worship.

Chofa on the top of a roof of Wat Pangsank

Taii.

Mondop at Wat Arun

Religious ArchitectureThe Bodhi tree

-Most wats will also include a Bodhi tree (Ficus religiosa), also known as the Sacred Figar Pipal tree. The Buddha is thought to have attained enlightment (Bodhi) while neditating under a Bodhi Tree at Boghi-Guy in India.

The Cloister-The cloisters or main wall will enclose the main area of the wat complex (known as the phutthawat). The cloisters are sometimes painted with decorative murals and also may house a row of Buddha images.

Cloister at Wat Phra Kaew

Religious ArchitectureThe Sanghawat

-These are the monks' living quarters and dormitories and are usually in a separate compound.

The Ho Rakangs-These are bell towers and are used to toll the hour and summon the monks to prayer. Ho Rakang

Religious Architecture

The Minor Salas-This hall acts as a meeting place for Pilgrims.

The Ho Trai-This is the wat library and houses Holy Scriptures. A ho trai is a rare feature of the wat complex. In the countryside they are usually on a high base or surrounded by water to minimize insect damage by insects.

Ho Trai at Wat Phra Singh, Chiang Mai

Royal Architecture• Royal houses and mansions are

typically a mixture of Thai wat, traditional Thai house style and western architecture.

• Teak wood is the main structural material of such buildings, giving them their distinctive rich red color. The doors and windows usually have ornate pediments and frames, which are sometimes decorated in gilt bronze.

• Like the Thai wat, the roof of the royal building will have a chofar and normally the roof tiles are made of finest teak wood.

•The 'red house' at the National Museum in Bangkok is a typical royal house and a good example of Thai royal architecture. •Royal wats can be identified by the prefixes of Rat, Raja or Racha in their names. There are only 186 such wats under royal patronage in the whole of the country.

The Grand Palace• When Siam restored law and

order after the fall of Ayutthaya the monarch lived in Thonburi on the west side of the river

• Rama I, on ascending the throne, moved the centre of administration to this side of the Chao Phraya; and, after erecting public monuments such as fortifications and monasteries, built a palace to serve not only as his residence but also his offices--the various ministries, only one of which remains in the palace walls.

This palace came to be known as the Grand Palace, in which the earliest edifices contemporary with the foundation of Bangkok were the two groups of residences named the Dusit Maha Prasat and the Phra Maha Monthian.

The Grand PalaceThe chapel Royal of the

Emerald Buddha-Just north of the Royal Residence of the Maha Monthian from which there is a connecting gate lies The Chapel Royal of The Emerald Buddha. -It consists of all the architectural features of the monastery without however the residential quarter, for monks do not live here.

The Grand PalaceThe Upper Terrace

-consists of 12 smalls pavilions surrounding the Ubosot (Chapel). Beside that, Phra Sri Rattana Chedi is on the left, Phra Mondop (Library) is on the middle and on the right is Prasart Phra Thep Bidorn- On this are four main monuments: -the Reliquary in the shape of a golden chedi- the Repository of the Canon of Buddhism with its mother-of-pearl cabinet that displays the palm leaf scriptures at various times of the year,

-the model of Angkor Wat crafted by Royal Command of King Mongkut (Rama IV)-and the Royal Pantheon where statues of past sovereigns of the ruling dynasty are enshrined.

The Grand PalaceSubsidiary BuildingsTo the north of the terrace on the

level ground there are three interesting buildings:-the Scripture Library, the west facade of which is said to be the finest in Bangkok-the gabled Wiharn decorated with tiles and porcelain-and the mausoleum of the Royal Family where are kept the crematory relics of a number of members of the Royal Family.

The Grand PalaceThe Galleries

- The Chapel Royal ground is enclosed by galleries, the murals of which depict the story of the Ramakien of the first reign version. - If we start at the east gate we come to the initial stages of the war waged by Rama of Ayodthaya to rescue his wife who had been abducted by Thotsakan (Ravana), King of Longka.

A famous Scene from the Ramakien Epic (Mural)

The Grand PalacePhra Maha MontianThis consists of three main buildings,

namely :1. The Audience Hall of Amarin

Winitchai- where the ceremonies of the Court usually take place

2. Paisal Taksin Hall where the coronation of a monarch takes place with its coronation chair and the octagonal seat where the monarch receives the people's invitation to rule

3. Descending from here we come to the antechamber to the Chakrapat Phiman building

Chakri Maha Prasat Hall-The Chakri Group was built and resided in by King Chulalongkorn, Rama V (1868-1910). Only the reception portion is now used, consisting of two wings for reception purposes decorated with galleries of portraiture

The Grand Palace

Dusit Maha Prasat Hall-Here we have an audience hall with a throne of mother-of-pearl surmounted by the usual nine-tiered white canopy, the mark of a duly crowned king. At the back of this audience hall is yet a living quarter. All are built in pure Siamese architecture of perfect proportions

Boron Phiman Mansion-Phra Thinang Borom Phiman: built in the western style in 1903 by King Rama V for the Heir Apparent, the future King Rama VI, this mansion was also used at various times as a royal residence by King Rama VII (1925-1935), King Rama VIII (1935-1946), and the present King Rama IX.

The Grand PalacePhra Asada Maha Chedi

-The “Eight Prangs” The form of a Thai Prang (tower) derives from the Khmer prasat, but whereas a prasat is “a residence of a king or a god,” a prang has the same function as a chedi.

Amarin Winitchai Hall-Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai ( Throne Hall )Originally this was the Principal Audience Hall of the Middle Palace in which officials of state and foreign ambassadors were received in audience.

Wat Phra Keo Museum-This museum exhibits the seasonal costumes of the Emerald Buddha, various offerings presented to that sacred image, and samples of architectural temple fragments that have been replaced by new ones.

The Grand Palace

Sources• Beek & Invernizzi’s The Art of Thailand• Sir Banister Fletcher’s History of Architecture• http://www.thailandsworld.com/index.cfm?p=733• http://www.cvl.iis.u-tokyo.ac.jp/gallery_e/Wat_Si_Chum/Wat_Si_Chum.html• http://www.thailand.com/travel/arts/art_architecture.htm• http://www.orientalarchitecture.com/thailand/lampang/index.php• http://www.library.ohiou.edu/sea/blog/?p=1157• http://www.su.ac.th/sukhothai/Virtual_reality/WatSrichum/Eng/

indexWatSriChum_Eng.html• http://www.thailand.com/travel/arts/art_architecture_religious_elements.htm• http://www.travelhops.com/thailand/bangkok/bangkok/architecture-plus-historic-

building-plus-monument-page-1.htm• http://www.usmta.com/Thai-History-Frame.htm• http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0108034.html