TestingSchool cultures dominated byhigh-stakes tests are creating moreand more reluctant learners.

Sharon L. Nichols and David C. Berliner

Since the passage of NoChild Left Behind (NCLB),students have been exposedto an unprecedentednumberof tests. EvetA year

in grades 3-8 and at least once in highschool, \irtually all public schoolstudents take tests in math and reading(and soon science). Students also takeregular benchmark tests—supposedly topredict performance on the mandatedtests—and district assessmentsthroughout the school year. The timespent talking about, preparing for, andtaking tests has increased exponentially.

What bas all this testing achieved?Five years after NCLB v 'as enacted,tbere is no convincing evidence thatstudent learning has increased in anysignificant way on tests otber than theslates' ovm tests. On measures sucb asthe National Assessment of EducationalProgress (NAEP), no reliable increasesin scores have occurred, nor baveacblevement gaps between students ofhigher and lower socioeconomic classesnarrowed. •^^

In contrast, a wealth of documenta-don indicates that tbe unintended andlargely negative effects of bigh-stakestesting are pervasive and a cause forconcern {see Jones, Jones, & Hargrove,2003; Orfield & Komhaber, 2001). Tnour own research, we have documented

hundreds of cases inwhich bigh-stakestesting bas bannedteaching and learning(Nicbols & Berliner,2007). For example,high-stakes testing basbeen associated witbsuspicious forms ofdata manipulation, aswell as outrightcheating. Tbe testsundermine teacher-student relalionsbips,lead to a narrowing oftbe curriculum,demoralize teacbers,and bore students.

Research bas not

fully examined tbe impact of tbis test-dominated scbool environment onstudents' attitudes and dispositionstoward learning. But we suspect ibat formost students, scbooling is less joyfulihan it was; and for reluctant learners,schooling is worse than ever.

Overvaluing Testing,Undervaluing LearningFrom the mouvation luerature, weknow tbat learners are more likely toenjoy learning when activities are mean-ingful, fun, or interesting. Yet, again andagain, higb-stakes testing dlminisbcs the

14 EDUCATIONAL LEAtiriisiin>/M..\Hcji 200H

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Out of Learning

The time spent talking about, preparing for,and taking tests has increased exponentially.

Fun and meaning of learning. Underpressure to prepare students lo performwell in math and reading, teachersengage in repetitious instruction thatboils down content lo isolated bits ofinformation, leaving little time to engagein creative inierdisciplinary activities orproject-based inquiry. One Coloradoteacher reports.

Our district told us to focus on reading,writing, and mathematics. . . . In the pastI had hatched out baby chicks in the class-room as part ol ihe science unii. 1 don'thave time to do thai. . . . We don't docommunity outreach like we used to, likevisiting the nursing home or cleaning upthe park that we had adopted. (Taylor,Shepard, Ktnncr, & Rosenthal, 2ai3, p. 51)

We also know ihat students are morehardworking and persistent when theyperceive the purpose of learning asself-improvement or achievement ofpersonal goals. Yet a higb-stakes lesiingclimate sends a message that theprimary purpose of learning is to scorewell on the test. Sometimes leaching tothe test is blatanl, as when teachersassign daily worksheets taken fromreleased older versions of the test.Sometimes it is less obvious, as wheninstruction is based on the specificinformation that will be on the test.One teacher explains,

I'm leaching more tesl-taking skills andhow to use your time wisely Also whatto look for in a piece of literature andhow to underline important details,rhere is a lot more ume spent onteaching those kinds of skills. . . . Readquesiions, restate the question in youranswer, write so the person grading thetest can read it, etc. (Taylor et al., 2003,p. 39)

As a result of the overvaluing of testresults, the curriculum has narrowed.All across the United States, tbe timedevoted to untested subjects like art,music, and social studies has beenreduced or eliminated completely sothat schools can teach more math,reading, writing, and now science. Forexample, in Kansas in 2006, highschool freshmen were required to"double dose" their English classesinstead of participating in electives. Ina California middle school, studentswere required to take two periods of allcore subjects and funding was droppedfor music, Spanish, art, and classes inthe trades and industrial design(Zastrow & Jane, 2006).

A S S O C I A T I O N FOR S U P E R V I S I O N AND CURRICULUM 15

In 2006, the Bill and Melinda GatesFoundation released a report on thereasons students drop out of scbool(Bridgeland, Dilulio, & Morison, 2006).In tbis small survey of students who badalready dropped out, 47 percentreported that school was "uninter-esting." About 70 percent commentedtbat tbey didn't feel "mspired" at scbool.For such reluctant learners, theincreased test preparation and narrowercurriculum resulting from bigh-stakestesting exacerbates tbe problem. Facedwitb an increasingly disjointed, decon-textualized curriculum, many becomeactively disengaged; otbers simply leave.

I Pledge Allegiance to theTestA disturbing phenomenon popping upin more and more U.S. schools is tbeprevalence of scboolwide pep rallies, icecream socials, and other peculiar eventsmeant to "motivate" students to do wellon tbe state-mandated test. For example,one Texas high scbooi held a rally forparents, teachers, and students duringwhich tbe principal informed parents oftbe importance of the Texas Assessmentof Knowledge and Skills (TAKS) andcompared it to a marathon, in which"students need endurance." He was notsubtle wben be said, "This is tbe test ofyour lives!" This speech was followed bya class pledge in which students prom-ised to "pass tbe test and take ParkerHigh School to the top and lead us toexemplary" (Foster, 2006).

This is not an isolated incident. In oneNew York scbool, every spring just

before test time, the principal bringsstudents together to sing songs ibat will"inspire" tbem before and during thetest. Some songs included "I'm aBeliever" and "I've Been Working on MyWriting" (Toy, 2006).

Bulletin boards, posters, and dailymantras constitute additional forms ofexplicit empbasis on tbe importance oftests. Clicbed slogans often appear onposters and banners tbrougbout thescbool. Messages like 'Take Us to Exem-plary" are pervasive in many Texasscbools.

Wben teachers report that most oftheir time is spent preparing for tbe test.

bigbly as tbeir better-performing peers.Sadly some teacbers and principals bavedone all sorts of unprofessional things toensure that test-score suppressors eitherpass (because of rigorous test-prep activ-ities or even more questionable tneans)or are dropped from testing altogether.For example, more than 500 low-scoringstudents in Binningham, Alabama, wereadministratively "dropped" from schooljust days before state testing (Orel,2003). Scores rose, principals receivedsubstantial bonuses, and bundrcds ofstudents bad tbeir lives made infinitelymore difficult in the process. Sucbactions belp to transform slow learners

Chronic failure is demeaning, causingmany otherwise highly engaged studentsto give up, drop out, or becomeincreasingly cynical about schooling.

when we go into scboois and findbundreds of posters related to tbeupcoming test, when we bear of scboolswitb daily announcements about the"test standard of the day," and wbenstudents tell us tbat not a day goes byv-ithout mention of the test, we can bepreity sure tbat the test bas become tbeprimary focus for learning.

Marginalizing YouthHigh-stakes tesung encourages teacbersto view students not in terms of theirpotential, or wbat unique or new quali-ties they bring to the learning environ-ment, but ratber as test-score increasersor suppressors. Students quickly picktbis up and realize tbey are defined aswinners or losers on the basis of theirtest scores.

Test-score suppressors receive theclear message ibat tbey are not valued as

into reluctant learners, compoundingtheir problems in school.

Issues associated witb test scoresuppressors are exacerbated in stateswhere bigb scbool students bave to passa test to receive a diploma. Hundreds ofstudents are dropping out or opting totake tbe GED route, mainly becausepassing the test has become an insur-mountable obstacle to tbem. Tbis isespecially true for special educationstudents and Englisb language leamers(ELLs). Tbousands try as bard as theycan but cannot pass the test despitemeeting all other graduation require-ments. Chronic failure is demeaning,causing many otberwise bigbly engagedstudents to give up, drop out, or becomeincreasingly cynical about scbooting.Tbe bigh-stakes testing culture commu-nicates to students tbat tbeir other abili-ties are of no value. Outstanding talent

16 EDUCATIONAL 2008

in dance, welding, art, knowledge of theU.S. Civil War, computer programming,consensus building in small groups,foreign languages, acting, and so forthcount for little.

Even students who score high maybecome less motivated as a result of thehigh-stakes testing culture. These test-score increasers often feel "ustid"—forexample, when they are pressured totake the test even when they are sick. Asa resull, they may adopt cynical attitudesabout the purpose of being in school. Asone student points out,

The TAKS is a big joke.. . . This is theeasiest test you could ever lake. . . . I m e a n ,forget logarithms and algebra. Forgetknowing about government and the Bill ofRights. Instead, we read a two-page storyand then answer 11 short questions aboutit such as, "What was the meaning of thewordjudie in paragraph two? A: generous,B; deceptive, C: useless, and D: apple-sauce." ("Teen Talk," 2007)

Learners Weigh In^A'hc many studeiiis see education aspunitive and uninteresting, and whenthey have their abilities narrowly definedby a single test score, the potential forirreparable and damaging consequencesis high. For students who struggleacademically, htgh-stakes testing candiminish their sense of sell worth,leading to decreased motivation to dowell in school. And for students who seetbe tests as an easy rite of passage, aschool culture formed around high-stakes testing is boring and unconnected.Thus, high-stakes testing cultures buildreluctant learners out of even theseacademically talented students.

How do we know ibis? Tbe voices ofyouth are pretty clear. They understandihe exaggerated importance cf tests inibeir lives, and it frustrates them, A 12th

writes.

Students (teachers as well) focus on onlythe TAKS. Its almost as if they have beengiven an ultimaium: Either p£.ss the lestand get the ticket out of there, or pass the

test months later and live with the disap-pointment all your life. Its not fair. ("TeenTalk." 2007)

Others find tbe tests debumanizing andfeel angry about the narrow curriculumbeing forced on them. They worr)' thattbeir schooling ignores other aspects ofibeir lives. An 1 lib grade student writes,

In Texas many public school dislricts bavefound raising their standardized testingaverages to be tbe No, 1 goal of classroomcurriculum. Consequently, school is nolonger a forum where students can discussthe effects of alcohol, or tbe best methodto achieve a life filled with value andpleasure, or the simple antics of their dailylife. ("Teen Talk," 2007)

The pressure to achieve is highest inhigh-poverty schools because they aremost likely to be shut down or reconsol-idaied under NCLB. There, the scoresuppressors are often force-fed a dailycurriculum that includes bits of informa-tion devoid of any connection to tbeirreal iives, Foster (2006), talking wilbLatino students attending a high-povertyhigh school heard, "We learn in isola-tion. We leam one skill one day or in aweek and then we never see it again

until test time." (p. 143), Another Latinostudent in the same school commented,

1 was written up and sent to the officebecause 1 didn't wani to do a TAKS assign-ment, I was told in ibe oflice tbat I had todo it because it was important that 1 passthis test. 1 atn tired of doing TAKS, TAKS,TAKS. I am not learning anything, (Foster,2006, p. 144)

Especially revealing are the followingexcerpts from a transcript of oneteachers attempt to motivate her 16Latino 11th graders. Tbe teacher badjust handed out an essay similar to thosetbat would be on tbe upcoming statetest. Her goal was to motivate andinspire students to perform well on tbeLest. But students were savvy about whatwas happening,

TEACHER: OK, this is last-minute work forTAKS. You can pass the test. You don'twant to take it again, right?

STUDENTS: NO response.

TEACHER: Please say yes.

STUDENTS: NO response.

TEACHER: YOU are brilliant The test isnot hard. Take your time; in fact take allthe time you need.

ASSOCIATION FOR SUPHRVIMON ANO CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 17

STUDENTS: NO respome.

TEACHER: OK, there will bt- three types ofopen-ended questions and three types ofliterary seleciions. What does "literary"mean?

STUDENTS: NO response.

TEACHER: IS it fiction, nonfiction, orbiography?

S'lTJDENTS: No response.

TEACHER: Are you going to talk to me oryou don't know?

STLIDENTS: Nti response.

TEACHER: (in an angry voice) It's fiction,you all. (puH.sf) First thing you do isanswer tbe question. It must be insightfuland thoughtful. Do not restate the ques-tion. You have five lines to fill in. Thenyou have to support a response. If yousummarize in an open-ended questionyou get a zero. But if you use suppon forthe passage, you get points- Look at thisessay. Do you see how this student usedtextual suppon?

STUDENTS: NO response.

TEACHER: (in an angry voice) Come on!

STUDENTS: NO response. (Foster, 2006, pp,155-158)

And on it goes. Another exciting day atscbool marked only by passive resistanceto what students accurately perceive tobe an inferior (and boring) education.

What Can We Do?High-stakes tests are not likely to goaway, but schools can and should try tominimize their harmtul eifects. Schoolsshould at least refrain from engaging tntest-prep rallies, ice cream socials, orsocial events that focus specifically ontbe test. Sucb activities only reinforce theimpression that the test is tbe primarygoal of schooling. If schools want tobold such events to create a sense ofcommunity, tbey might simply renamethe events to emphasize learning, nottesting (for example, a Rally forLearning). Of course, tbe learning cele-brated has to be genuine: completingoutstanding science fair projects;

A high-stakes testingclimate sends amessage that theprimary purpose oflearning is to scorewell on the test.

presenting classroom projects to tbetown council; writing poetry, essays, or aplay; and so fortb. Schools need loreward demonstrations of learning in allits varieties.

Aditiinistrators and teachers shouldwork together to reframe the purposes oflearning in their school. As a start, elitTii-nate tbe word "test" from any banner,poster, or encouraging slogan. Instead,use language tbat focuses on masteringknowledge, improving indi\idualperformance, or seeing tbe value ofschooling for enhancing one's future.

In addition, teachers and administra-tors should strive to create a climate ofcaring and cooperation, instead ofcompetition. We know that students aremore likely to attend scbool and excelwhen they feel they belong. Feelings ofconnection lead to greater effort, greaterpersistence, and positive attitudes. Feel-ings of rejection bave tbe oppositeeffects.

Significant changes in NCLB areunlikely to occur soon. This law bas notonly exacerbated the problems of reluc-tant learners already in our schools, butalso manufactured additional reluctantleamcrs for tbe schools to deal vvith. It isup to administrators and teachers tomitigate the damaging effects of thisuntenable law on many of our studentsby proactively working to diminish theimportance of bigb-stakes testing inschools. 10

ReferencesBridgeland,J. M,, Dilulio,J. j . , &r Morison,

K. B. (2006). The silent epidemic Perspec-lives oj iiigli school dropouts. Wasbington,DC: Civic Enterprises. Available: www, civicenterprises.net/pdfs/tbesi lentepidemic3-06.pdl

Foster, S. L. (2006). How iMtino slLidenis nego-tiate the demands oj high-stakes lesling: Acase study of one school in Texas. Unpub-lished doctoral dissertation, Arizona StateUniversity, Tempe.

Jones, M. C , Jones, B., & Hargrove, T.(2003). The unintended consequences ofhigh-stakes testing, bmbain. MD: Rowmanand Littlefield,

Nichols, S, L, & Berliner, D. C. (2007).Collateral damage: How high-stakes testingconupis America's schools. Cambridge, MA:Harvard Fducation Press.

Orel, S. (2003). Left behind in Birmingbam:522 pushed-out students. In R. C. Lent (SiG. Pipkin, (lids.), Siknt no more: Voices ofcourage in American schools (pp. 1-14).Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Orfield, G., & Kornhaber. M. L. (Eds.),(2001), Raising standards or raisingharners? Inequalily and high stakes testing inpublic education. New York: Century Foun-dation Press.

Teen taik: Tackling TAKS. (2007, Marcb 9),San Anlonio Bxpress-Ncws, pp. Fl, 5.Available: www.mysanantonio.conVsalife/ieenteam/stories/MYSA030907.01RTAKS.llxllOchtml

Taylor. G., Shepard, L., Kinner, E, 6?Rosenthal, J. (2003), A survey of teachers'perspectives an high-slakes testing inColorado: WIitK gets taught, what gets lost(CSF Technical Report 588). Los Angeles:University of Calilomia.

Toy, V (2006, January 1). Elmontfe scboolsuccess is a lesson to others. New YorkTimes, Sec. 14LI. p. 1.

Zastrow, C, &Janc, H. (2006). The conditionof the liberal arts in America's pubhc schools:A report to the Carnegie Corporation of NewYork. Washington, DC: Council lor BasicEducation.

Sharon L. Nichols is Assistant Professor,College of Education and Human Devel-opment, tjniversity of Texas at SanAntonio; Sharon.Nichols@utsa.edu.David C. Berliner is Regents Professor,Mary Lou Fulton College of Education,Arizona State University, Tempe;berliner@asu.edu,

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