Teori-Teori KerjayaParsonsHollandSuperKrumboltz

Gottfredson Tret dan Faktor Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran Tempoh hayat Teori Pembelajaran Sosial tentang Pembuatan Keputusan Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri

Tret dan Faktor(Frank Parsons)Memadankan individu dengan pekerjaanMengenalpasti tret individuMengenalpasti faktor-faktor di tempat kerjaMemadankan individu dengan SATU pekerjaan yang tepat dan sesuai

Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran(John Holland)Individu mempamerkan personaliti mereka melalui minat terhadap pekerjaan tertentu Individu mencari persekitaran kerja yang membolehkan mereka menggunakan kemahiran dan keupayaan serta mempamerkan sikap dan nilai mereka Individu and persekitaran boleh dikategori (6) berdasarkan personaliti dan keperluan personaliti

Kesepadanan Individu-Persekitaran(John Holland)RealistikSeniSosialKeusahawananKonvensional

Tempoh Hayat 5 peringkatPertumbuhan (lahir-14thn)Penerokaan (15-24thn)Pemantapan (25-44thn)Pengekalan (45-64thn)Pengunduran (65+thn)

Life RainbowGrowthExplorationEstablishmentMaintenanceDisengagement

Teori Pembelajaran Sosial tentang Pembuatan Keputusan (John Krumboltz)4 faktor mempengaruhi pembuatan keputusan kerjayaGenetik dan keupayaan istimewa Suasana dan keadaan persekitaranPengalaman pembelajaran instrumental dan bersekutu Kemahiran4 cara mempengaruhi keputusan kerjayaPemerhatian individuPerspektif global/umumKemahiranTindakan

Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri(Linda Gottfredson)Batas Proses pembatasan dengan membuang kerjaya alternatif daripada senarai berdasarkan umur dan status. 5 prinsip utama:Kanak-kanak mampu memahami dan meyusun informasi yang kompleks. Occupational preferences reflect attempts to implement and enhance self-conceptKanak-kanak menggabungkan perbezaan yang kompleks (contoh:prestij) dan fenomena yang lebih kompleks (contoh: peranan gender) Kanak-kanak memadamkan pilihan kerjaya tertentu secara berperingkat apabila konsep kendiri semakin kompleks dan jelas. Proses berlaku secara berperingkat dan tidak terlalu ketara

Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri(Linda Gottfredson)Prinsip-prinsip tersebut beroperasi melalui 4 tahap kognitif: Orientasi tentang saiz dan kuasa Orientasi tentang tentang peranan genderOrientasi tentang nilai sosialOrientasi tentang keunikan diri sendiri

Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri(Linda Gottfredson)Kompromi Mengubah pilihan kerjaya dengan mengambil kira faktor (dalaman atau luaran) yang membataskan. Ia akhirnya membawa kepadakompromi tahap usahaKompromi berdasarkan gender Zon alternatif dan kemungkinan yang boleh diterima fikiran

Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri(Linda Gottfredson)Pembentukan Diri Termasuk proses pembatasan, merubah konsep diri berdasarkan faktor persekitaran dan pembangunan

Batas, Kompromi, dan Pembentukan Diri(Linda Gottfredson)Sextype RatingFeminineHighLowMasculinePrestigeConstruction WorkerPsychiatristReceptionistNurseReal Estate AgentSurgeonElementary TeacherFederal JudgeHigh School TeacherTolerable-Level BoundaryTolerable-Effort BoundaryTolerable-Sextype BoundaryZone of Acceptable Alternatives

Teori Kerjaya - BaruLent, Brown, & Hackett

Peterson, Sampson, Reardon, & LenzHansen Teori Kerjaya Kognitif Sosial Social/Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) Pemprosesan Informasi Kognitif/Cognitive Information Processing (CIP) Perancangan Integrasi Kehidupan/Integrative Life Planning (ILP)

Teori Kerjaya Kognitif SosialRobert W. LentSteven D. BrownGail Hackett

Pengaruh..Pemboleh ubah dan proses kognitif Agen peribadi Konstruktivisme

Matlamat.Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara individu dan konteks kerjaya Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara faktor kognitif dan interpersonal Untuk mengenalpasti hubungan antara pengaruh dalam diri dan pengaruh luaran Untuk membina jaringan konseptual dengan teori pembangunan kerjaya yang lain (Holland, Krumboltz, Super, Dawis dan Loftquist)

SCCT Central concepts and assumptionsInteraksi individu-persekitaran adalah dinamik dan berlandaskan situasi tertentu Individu adalah hasil dan penghasil kepada persekitaran merekaKonstruk Utama:Efikasi kendiriJangkaan hasil Matlamat

Sources of Self-Efficacy and Outcome ExpectationsSelf-EfficacyInterestIntentions/ Goals for Activity InvolvementActivity Selection and PracticePerformance Attainments (e.g., goal fulfillment, skill developmentDevelopment of Basic Career Interests over Time(Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1994)Perceived AbilitiesValuesOutcome Expectations

Learning ExperiencesSelf-EfficacyInterestChoice GoalsChoice ActionsPerformance Domains and AttainmentsPerson, Contextual, and Experiential Factors Affecting Career-Related Choice Behavior(Lent, Brown, & Hackett, 1993)Outcome ExpectationsPerson Inputs-Predispositions-Gender-Ethnicity-Disability/Health StatusBackground Contextual AffordancesContextual InfluencesProximal to Choice Behavior121234567891011moderatemoderate

Implikasi IntervensiMemperluas minat dan membantu dalam pemilihan kerjaya Menangani halangan bagi pilihan dan kejayaan Membina dan merubah persepsi efikasi kendiri

Perancangan Integrasi Kehidupan(L. Sunny Hansen)Memfokus kepada pembangunan kerjaya individu Perspektif BaruMembincangkan isu diversiti Integrasi menyeluruh Agensi peribadi Hubungan

AndaianPerubahan ilmu menuntut cara baru dalam menimba ilmu Hubungan dalam kehidupan adalah penting Ilmu tentang diri dan ilmu kemasyarakatan adalah kritikal.

6 Fungsi Pembangunan KerjayaMenyediakan pekerjaan yang sesuai dengan konteks global yang berubah-ubah Membentuk kehidupan yang lebih bermakna Menghubungkan keluarga dan kerjaya Menghargai pluralisme dan diversiti Menguruskan transisi individu dan perubahan organisasi Meneroka kerohanian dan matlamat kehidupan

*Social Cognitive Career TheoryDevelopersRobert Lent, Steven Brown, Gail Hackett*InfluencesShift in field of psychology away from behaviors towards study of cognitive variables and processesTrend toward viewing people as active agents in their career development (personal agency)People are not victims of social and environmental forcesConstructivist*GoalsTo trace connections between persons and their career-related contextsIndividuals view of themselves as workers or future workers.What is the total environment in which individuals make career-related choicesTo trace connections between cognitive and interpersonal factorsHow are individuals processing the self-information they get from others?To trace connections between self-directed and externally imposed influencesWhat limitations do individuals place upon themselves because of perceived external influencesIntended to build conceptual linkages with other theories of career developmentOffer a potentially unifying frameworkHow Holland types developHow learning experiences influence interests in Krumboltzs theoryWhat factors affect differential role salience in Supers theoryHow people acquire abilities in Dawis and Loftquists Theory of Work Adjustment

*Central concepts and assumptionsInstead of being trait-oriented or typologically related, person-environment interaction is dynamic and situation specificPersonal attributes, environmental factors, and overt behavior interlock and affect one another bidirectionally. In essence, people are products AND producers of their environmentsKey Theoretical ConstructsSelf-efficacy, not a fixed trait, but a dynamic set of self-beliefs, specific to particular performance domainsAcquired through:1) Personal attainments *MOST INFLUENTIAL*2) Vicarious learning3) Social persuasion4) Physiological states and reactions

Outcomes expectations, imagined consequences of engaging in particular behaviors BeliefsAbout extrinsic reinforcement (tangible rewards)About intrinsic reinforcement (pride in achievement)About outcomes derived from task process (absorption)Goals, determination to engage in particular activity or to effect a particular future outcome

*SCCT Segmented ModelsSCCT conceptualizes interests, choice, and performance within three overlapping modelsInterest Development ModelVocational and academic interests are standard fixtures in career psychologySCCT model focuses on experiential and cognitive factors that influence interests and the role interests play in choice and skill acquisitionUnderlying premise We will be interested in doing something that we perceive were good at doing, AND were more likely to practice and become good at something were interested in.Thus, self-efficacy and outcome expectations highly influence interestAs people begin to like an activity that they believe they are good at and expect positive outcomes, they set goals for continuing to participate in that activity at the same or a higher level.These goals increase the likelihood for actual increased participation in that activity.As people participate more, their performance increases and they are rewarded, either intrinsically (enjoying improvement, skill development, etc.) or extrinsically (good grades, trophies, accolades, etc.)Ultimately these attainments become influencers of self-efficacy and outcome expectations.SCCT emphasizes that this is a dynamic process.Note that perceived abilities and values are important parts of process that shapes interests.Perceived abilities primarily affect self-efficacy, in turn, influencing interestsValues, defined as preferences for particular reinforcers or work conditions (money, status, autonomy, etc.) are incorporated into outcome expectations. That is, we expect to receive these things when we engage in certain activities*This model offers a couple of perspectives on how career choices are made and what influences these choicesFirst, we have the basic interest development model, with slightly different labelsBasic interests influenced by self-efficacy and outcome expectations which, in turn, affect our goals in terms of choices, leading to specific actions with their respective reinforcers, and, ultimately, feedback in the form of learning experiencesHowever, Lent, Brown, and Hackett now are attempting to demonstrate how other personal and contextual influences come into play.First, lets consider personal inputs such as gender and ethnicity. Lent, Brown, and Hackett purposefully elected to use these terms as opposed to sex and race. Gender and ethnicity connote that they are socially constructed characteristics. That is, they are the result not only of biological and genetic factors, but are the result of the experiences an individual has because of being a member of a particular race or either male or female. It includes opportunities afforded or denied because of these biological factors as well as the interpersonal experiences (support, indifference, hostility, suspicion, etc.) individuals are exposed to. For example, regardless of intentions, teachers and parents tend to treat boys and girls differently in terms of performance expectations, participation expectations, and the social reactions they are afforded.This model also incorporates the diverse person, contextual, and learning influences on choice behavior.Following the numbered paths, we see:1-2 That self-efficacy and outcome expectations together promote particular interests;3 That interests serve to influence goals;4 That goals stimulate actions designed to implement an individuals goals;5 That goal-related actions lead to particular performance experiences;6 That the outcomes from these performance experiences, in turn, revise or strengthen self-efficacy and outcome expectationsAdditionally:7 Shows the influential relationship between self-efficacy and outcome expectations;8-11 Show that self-efficacy and outcome expectations may influence goals and actions directly, explaining why many individuals, in real world instances, compromise their interests in selecting vocational paths. These influences may include job availability operating in concert with beliefs about whether one can perform the required tasks and whether the incentives (rewards) are sufficient.Lastly, background contextual affordances are those resources an individual perceives as being provided by the environment. For example, a scholarship to a particular college to study a particular subject or that a new company is moving into an area and is providing training for those wishing to be employed there.Other influences are more proximal, such as emotional and/or financial support from family for particular education or training, job availability in a preferred field. Also included in this group are employment practices such as discrimination, glass ceilings, and cultural influences (e.g., parents choosing a childs occupation or college)*Expanding interests and facilitating choiceTargets studentsTendency to prematurely foreclose on potentially rewarding occupationsRestricted range of efficacy building experiencesInaccurate self-efficacy beliefsInaccurate outcome expectationsStrategiesUse of assessment tools to assess interests, values, and aptitudesTarget later discussions on those occupations suggested on the basis of aptitudes and values information but not generated by interest dataModified card sortInitial sort into 3 stacksMight chooseIn questionWould not chooseSecond sort sort in question and would not choose stacksMight choose if I thought I had the skills (Self-efficacy)Might choose if I thought they would offer me what I value (Outcome expectations)Wouldnt choose under any circumstances (Interests)OtherOvercoming barriers to choice and successUse Janis & Manns decisional balance sheetIdentify perceived potential barriers to career pursuitsAnalyze likelihood of encountering barriersPrepare strategies to manage potential barriersDeveloping and modifying self-efficacy perceptionsNote that clients entering counseling with weak efficacy beliefs AND deficient skills are unlikely to benefit from attempts to raise self-efficacy. Recommended that these clients engage in extensive basic skill building activities or helped to consider alternative vocational or academic pursuits.Self-efficacy enhancement strategiesFoster personal mastery experiences in areas where clients severely underestimate abilitiesAugment with verbal support, modeling, anxiety reductionPromote reconsideration of past performance experiencesEncourage clients to interpret past and present successes in manner that enhances perceived competenceREBT strategies for disputation of irrational beliefs, applied to career beliefs (Referred to self-efficacy manipulation by Krumboltz)*Integrative Life Planning (ILP) Sunny HansenFocuses on adult career development Described by Hansen as new worldview for addressing career developmentAddresses diversity issuesEthnicityRaceGenderSocioeconomic statusSpiritualityEmphasis on integrating mind, body, spiritPlanning connotes a sense of personal agencyHolistic approach by encouraging people to connect various life aspects

*ILP 4 Assumptions1.Changes in the nature of knowledge support the addition of new ways of knowing to career development theory, research, and practice.Career professionals need to help students, clients, and employees develop skills of integrative thinking seeing connections in their lives and in their local and global communities.Broader kinds of self-knowledge (beyond interests, abilities, and values) and societal knowledge (beyond occupational and educational information) are critical to an expanded view of career, including multiple roles, identities, and critical life tasks in diverse cultures.Career counseling needs to focus on career professionals as change agents, helping clients to achieve more holistic lives and become advocates and agents for positive societal change through the choices and decisions they make.

Emphasis on social justice, social change, connectedness, diversity, and spirituality*ILP 6 Career Development Tasks

Finding work that needs doing in changing global contextsAdults consider focusing on work that will result ina more socially just worldEnvironmental preservationUnderstanding and celebrating diversityAdvocating for human rightsExploring spiritualityWhat can you do to contribute to positive change for social and environmental justice?Weaving our lives into a meaningful wholeFew things more personal than career choiceOccupational choices are intertwined with other life-role choicesMust be considered within this life-role contextConnecting family and workExtension of secondEmphasizes life-role integrationEmphasizes importance of negotiating roles and relationshipsHighlights need to examine gender role expectations and stereotypesLife partners are partners in home and workplaceValuing self-sufficiency and connectedness in both men and womenValuing pluralism and diversityMulticultural competencies critical for work and nonwork activitiesRecognizes the importance of differenceManaging personal transitions and organizational changeDeveloping skills to cope effectively with transitionSuggests that transition counseling may be one of most important skills in career counselingImportant basic skillsTolerating ambituityDeveloping personal flexibilityBeing able to draw upon reservoir of self-awareness and social supportIncorporate logical and rational decision making skills with intuitive orientations that typically value positive uncertainty and planned happenstance will help these types to be better preparedExploring spirituality and life purposeSpirituality embraces purpose, meaning, connectedness, and sense of community.Spirituality may or may not include religionCareer choices are spiritual in that they are expressions of ones gifts and talentsSpiritual questionsWhat does work mean in my life?What do I want to mean to others through my work?OutcomesCareer intertwines with human developmentIndividuals embrace and celebrate life journeys, regardless of the path followed or led downAttitudes of flexibility and openness foster development and give way to opportunities for learning and growthCelebrate and embrace changeCareer development interventions become more subjective and incorporate intuition as well as reason