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JOURNAL OF TEACHING IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION, 1985, 4, 167-177

Teaching Sportsmanship in Physical Education and Recreation: An Analysis

of Interventions and Generalization Effects

M. Patricia Giebink San Diego Unified School District

Thomas L. McKenzie San Diego State University

This article reports two related studies designed to examine the effects of three intervention strategies (instmctim and praise, modeling, and a point system) on children's sportsmanship in physical education class and in a recreation setting. Four target boys (mean age 12.3 years) were monitored during 22 physical education class softball games and during 21 recreational basketball games. In softball, an ABCDA reversal design indicated that while the effects on individual children varied, all three interventions increased sportsmanship and decreased unsportsmanlike behaviors. The improved sportsmanship behavior of the softball class did not transfer to basketball, however, and fur- ther interventions were implemented in that setting. Here, an ABAC reversal design revealed that instructions and praise intervention were effective in reducing unsportsmanlike behavior but it had little effect on increasing sportsmanship. In both settings, the point system with contingent back-up reinforcers was the most effective intervention.

The importance of children developing competent social interaction skills has been well documented (Asher & Hymel, 1981; Cartledge & Milburn, 1980; Gresham, 1981a; Michelson & Wood, 1980) and, historically, social development has been stated as one of the main goals of physical education (see Siedentop, 1980). However, a review of the research literature reveals little evidence that social interaction skills are developed through participation in physical education classes. Although systematic efforts to teach social skills have been described (Austin & Brown, 1978; Locke & Dodds, 1982) and a few descrip- tive studies of the social interactions among handicapped and nonhandicapped students have been completed recently (Beuter & Bradish, 1980; Pearl, Knowles, & McKenzie, 1984; Sinclair, 1978), empirical studies of the systematic development of social skills in physical education settings have rarely been reported. In one recently published study, instructions, teacher modeling, and grade incentives were effective in increasing verbal support ainong males in a college basketball class (Rolider, Cooper, & Van Houten, 1984).

Training programs for developing the social skills of children have become in- creasingly popular outside of physical education during the past 10 years (Cartledge &

Request reprints from Thomas L. McKenzie, Dept. of Physical Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182.

168 GIEBINK AND MCKENZIE

Milburn, 1980; Combs & Slaby, 1977; Greshman, 1981b; Michelson & Wood, 1980). These programs typically have been based on operant psychology principles and have used one or more of these global intervention strategies: manipulation of antecedents, manipulation of consequences, modeling, and cognitive-behavior modification. Each of these strategies has been shown effective both in increasing the rates of positive interactions and decreasing the rates of negative interactions (Gresham, 1981b).

Stimulus generalization across situations is one of the major issues related to social skills training. That is, once social skills are developed, do they transfer to other settings? Without stimulus generalization, social skills learned in one situation do not transfer beyond the training setting. Unfortunately, under the assumption that social skills transfer naturally, most studies have neither trained nor examined for generalization (Stokes & Baer, 1977).

In educational environments, opportunities for peer interactions are often the highest during physical education and recreation, when children are likely to interact, share equip- ment, and overtly compete with one another. In such settings appropriate social interactions are generally referred to as sportsmanlike behaviors while inappropriate interactions are referred to as unsportsmanlike behaviors. This paper examines the effects of different intervention strategies on the rates of both types of behaviors of adolescent boys in a physical education class and in a recreation setting. The first study investigated the effects of three strategies (instructions and praise, modeling, and a point system) on the development of sportsmanship in a physical education softball class. The second study examined a recreation basketball setting to determine if the sportsmanship skills learned in the instructional class generalized to a free-play environment. This study also investigated the effectiveness of an instructions and praise and a point system intervention in this setting.

Methods and Procedures for Both Studies

Subjects and Setting

Subjects were selected from a group of 45 boys attending a residential 7-week summer health and fitness program at a large university campus. Four boys (mean age 12.3 years), identified by camp staff as poor sports, were selected for observation. They became part of a group of 13 boys who participated in a 22-day instructional softball unit and a 21-day recreational basketball class. The softball class, held in the morning, served as the training setting, while the basketball class, held in the evening, served to test for generalization.

Observation Instrument and Data Collection

For the purpose of these studies, sportsmanlike behaviors were defined as positive social interactions related to game play, such as a player giving another player encourage- ment, support, assistance, feedback, or explanation. Unsportsmanlike behaviors were de!in- ed as negative social interactions regarding game play, such as those conveyed through intimidation, provocation, animosity, or disapproval. These behaviors could be physical, verbal, or nonverbal.

Trained observers used systematic techniques to gather specific information on the

'Specific definitions, examples, and coding conventions may be obtained from Thomas L. McKenzie, Department of Physical Education, San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182.

TEACHING SPORTSMANSHIP 169

type and valence of interactions that were sportsmanlike or unsportsmanlike. During data collection, observers equipped with coding sheets, tape recorder, earphones, and cueing tapes alternately focused on one of two subjects for 1 minute each. In this manner, a target student was observed for 10 minutes during each 20-minute observation period. The cueing tape paced observers during alternating 5-second observe/record intervals.

Three observers were trained to use the system. Observer training consisted of clarifying and operationally deflning target behaviors, coding videotapes, and observing students in different classes. To ensure accurate data collection, observers met periodical- ly throughout the studies to review behavior definitions. Additionally, to obtain interobserver agreement checks, two observers simultaneously recorded the same subject on eight oc- casions. Using the methods of Hawkins and Dotson (1975), the following interobserver agreement scores were obtained: (a) interval by interval, 96.5% to 100%; (b) scored interval, 75% to 100%; (c) unscored interval, 98.5% to 100%; and (d) mean of scored and unscored interval, 87.8 % to 100%. To reduce the possibility of reactivity, observers were in the setting for 2 weeks prior to collecting the data. They also attended all treatment and baseline classes and their exact purpose was not revealed; therefore their presence had minimal effect, if any, on the boys' sportsmanship behavior.

STUDY 1: SOFTBALL

Setting and Procedures

Thirteen boys, including the four target students, participated in a 50-minute softball class for 22 lessons. During each class, 30 minutes of instructions, drills, and discussion preceded 20 minutes of game play. Each class was taught by the same teacher, a 29-year-old male with a master's degree in physical education and 3 years of public school experience. During game play students played "over-the-line" (OTL), a modification of softball that emphasizes batting and fielding. OTL was selected because (a) it is played in a restricted area that permits accurate coding of observations, (b) the activity level is higher than regulation softball, (c) team membership can be changed daily, (d) it requires few rules and no umpires, and (e) it permits interactions between both teammates and opponents.

This study employed an ABCDA reversal design involving five phases: Baseline 1, Instructions and Praise, Modeling, Point System, and Baseline 2. All conditions except Baseline were announced. Sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike behaviors were recorded only during the 20 minutes of game play.

Baseline 1 (Phase One-4 days)

Instruction Time. Using traditional methods, the teacher gave instructions and demonstrations about softball techniques and strategies while the students practiced pit- ching, batting, and fielding through a combination of drills and exercises.

Game Play. During game play the teacher provided skill feedback and clarified rules but made no comments to the students about sportsmanship behavior.

Instruction and Praise (Phase Two-5 days)

Instruction Time. Students were asked to define sportsmanship and to give good and bad examples. Three components of sportsmanship were stressed: (a) compliment your teammates and opponents, (b) play fair, and (c) accept the consequences. Each day the


teacher reiterated the importance of practicing these general behaviors. Both he and the students identified instances of sportsmanship and cited examples from play during the previous day.

Game Play. b c h day, after announcing the teams, the teacher reminded the students to observe the three rules of sportsmanship. During play he provided feedback to individuals and teams regarding sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike behavior. After the games the students and teacher discussed instances of sportsmanship that occurred that day.

Modeling (Phase lhree-5 days)

Instruction Time. Feedback and discussion regarding sportsmanship continued. The three components of sportsmanship were reemphasized and some role-playing occurred.

Game Play. The teacher stopped play to point out specific instances of sportsmanship modeled by students. Occasionally, the teacher himself participated in game play and modeled sportsmanship frequently and emphatically.

Point System (Phase Four-5 days)

Instruction Time. This phase was similar to Phase Three, except that the teacher also described the point system to be used for rewarding sportsmanship during game play.

Game Play. On the first day of this phase the teacher introduced a contingency system whereby players could earn points for displaying sportsmanship during games and could exchange them for access to a special treat during the last week of class. Points were awarded privately or by public announcement which specified why a point was earned. At the end of each game, students were told how many points they had earned and how many they had accumulated over time.

Baseline 2 (Phase Five-3 days)

Instruction Time and Game Play. Baseline 1 conditions were reintroduced. Com- ments regarding sportsmanship were not made during class instruction or game play.

Results and Discussion

Mean percentage data for the occurrence of sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike intervals for each target student are displayed in Table 1. The top portion of Figure 1 through Figure 4 shows time-series graphs for each student during softball. These graphs show there was individual variation in response to the different conditions, but the general findings indicated in Table 1 and reported below held across students. The results indicate that sportsmanship can be taught systematically during physical education classes and evidenced during game play. Rates of sportsmanlike behavior for all four target subjects increased substantially during the various phases, and following a return to baseline conditions they were well above original baseline levels.

The Point System was the most powerful condition for three of the students. Lance and Gregg tripled their mean percentage of sportsmanlike intervals from the previous phase (Modeling), and James doubled his. Because a Baseline phase did not immediately precede the Point System, it is probable some of the effect was a cumulative one that resulted from the Point System being preceded by the Instructions and Praise, and Modeling phases.

Equally important as the rates of increased sportsmanship was the decrease in rates of unsportsmanlike behavior by all four subjects. With the exception of James dur-


Table 1

Mean Percentage of Sportsmanlike(S) and Unsportsmanlike(U) Intervals for Boys During Each Phase in Softball Games

Condition

Subject Baseline Instructions Modeling Point System Baseline

Lance S U

Greg s U

Mike S U

James S U

Total S U

LANCE INSTRUCTIONS POINT BASE.

30- f3ASSELlNE 1 PRAISE MODELING SYSTEM LINE2 a >

25-

a W ' I ' I - - - - - - 2 I t 25- BASELINE 1 INSTRUC- BASELINE 2 POINT 07 , POSITIVE

TIONS SYSTEM --- NEGATIVE

I' I

0 u 0- , , , , , , , * , , , , , , , , , , , , , r W a 5 10 15 2 0

DAYS

Figure 1 - Percentage of sportsmanlike (positive) and unsportsmanlike (negative) intewals for Lance during different conditions in softball and basketball games.

GIEBINK AND MCKENZIE

(I) _I

a MIKE INSTRUCTIONS

BASELINE 1

I I POINT

MODELING SYSTEM I

I BASELINE 1 INSTRUC-

, POSITIVE

'\ --- NEGATIVE

\

I I I 't I

,d' \ ,' \ // B--- e c h - I I

5 10 DAYS

BASE- LINE 2

BASELINE 2 POINT SYSTEM

Figure 2 - Percentage of sportsmanliie and unsportsmanlike intervals for Mike during different conditions in softball and basketball games.

JAMES

? I / " I ? ", : a / I / ' . I

Y - POSITIVE ---NEGATIVE

INSTRUC- TIONS

10 DAYS

BASELINE 2

BASE. LINE 2

POINT SYSTEM

20

Figure 3 - Percentage of sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike intervals for James during dii- ferent conditions in softball and basketball games.

TEACHING SPORTSMANSHIP

v) 2

GREG Q INSTRUCTIONS POINT BASE

> 25 BASELINE1 PRAISE MODELING SYSTEM LINE2 n W

W Q 15-

z 5- /'- - - - - - - W

25- BASELINE 1 INSTRUC- BASELINE P POINT k - POSITIVE TlONS --- NEGATIVE

SYSTEM

-1 20-

t 1

t; I I

I \ I :: \ // ? // \ -

w 5 10 15 2 0 a DAYS

Figure 4 - Percentage of sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike intervals for Greg during different conditions in softball and basketball games.

ing the Instructions and Praise condition, none of the subjects approached their Baseline 1 rates for unsportsmanlike behavior. Overall, during Baseline 2, unsportsmanlike behavior was eight times lower than during Baseline 1. Perhaps one of the factors controlling this reduction was that at the end of the study (Baseline 2) unsportsmanlike behaviors were no longer being reinforced by peers.

STUDY 2: BASKETBALL

Subjects, Setting, and Procedures

Students in the morning softball class also participated together in a 30-minute evening recreational basketball class. In order to examine for the generalization of sportsmanship to the recreation setting, the four students studied in softball were also monitored during basketball play. Basketball was selected as the setting because (a) it is played in a restricted area that permits accurate coding, (b) it provides high activity levels, (c) team membership can be changed daily, and (d) it permits interactions between both teammates and opponents.

The same 13 boys participated in each of the 21 basketball sessions but different recreation supervisors were present. Each evening the supervisor provided a short introduc- tory warm-up and instruction period, followed by a 15-minute game. The supervisor was directed to keep score but not to officiate too strictly. Daily scores were not posted, nor were game statistics kept. The teacher of the morning softball class was not in the im- mediate area.


This study employed an ABAC reversal design which included the following four phases: Baseline 1, Instructions and Praise, Baseline 2, and Point System. Observations were made only during game play.

Baseline 1 (Phse One-9 days)

Instruction Time. Different supervisors provided 10 minutes of instruction, skill practice, and warm-up activities. No comments were made regarding sportsmanship.

Game Play. The supervisor in charge organized teams, officiated, clarified rules, and kept score during a 15-minute modified basketball game. No feedback regarding sportsmanship was provided.

Instructions and Praise (Phase Two-4 days)

Instruction Time. The same supervisor was present throughout this phase. He reviewed sportsmanship in general and indicated specifically how it might apply to basketball. During drills he provided specific praise and feedback for instances of sportsmanship. He stopped the activity when unsportsmanlike behavior occurred and demonstrated how that particular behavior could be made more sportsmanlike.

Game Play. During game play the supervisor continued to provide teams and individuals with specific praise and feedback for sportsmanlike behavior. Occasionally he stopped the game to point out unsportsmanlike behavior and to indicate how it could be improved. Each game was followed by a brief discussion regarding the presence or absence of sportmanship during the session.

Baseline 2 (Phase Three-6 days)

Instruction Time and Game Play. This phase was a repetition of Baseline 1.

Point System (Phase Four-3 days)

Instruction Time. The supervisor was present throughout this phase. On the first evening he explained that a lottery would be held during the last class for a tee shirt, a poster, and a sportsmanship certificate. Students could enter the lottery by earning sportsmanship points during game play. They could also lose points for unsportsmanlike behavior. The supervisor reviewed behaviors to identify which ones earned and lost points.

Game Play. Using specific feedback to players during the game, the supervisor publicly announced the awarding or removal of points. These were recorded by a volunteer, and after the game each player wrote his name on the number of ballots equal to the sportsmanship points he had accumulated. The ballots were deposited in a lottery box and drawn during the last class to determine which player won the awards.

Results and Discussion

Mean percentage data for the occurrence of sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike intervals for each target student are displayed in Table 2. The bottom portion of Figures 1 through 4 shows time-series graphs for each student during basketball. These graphs show there was individual variation in response to the different conditions, but the general findings indicated in Table 2 and reported below held within students. Baseline 1 data indicated that the students rarely emitted sportsmanlike behaviors but instead interacted


Table 2

Mean Percentage of Sportsmanlike (S) and Unsportsmanlike (U) Intervals for Boys During Each Phase in Basketball Games

Condition Subject Baseline 1 Instructions Baseline 2 Point System

Lance S U

Greg S U

Mike S U

James S U

Total S U

in an unsportsmanlike manner at high rates during approximately 12% of the recorded intervals. During the second half of Baseline 1 the students were in the Instructions and Praise phase for teaching sportsmanship in the morning softball class. The graphed data indicate that there was minimal generalization of the effects of this condition to student behavior in the basketball setting. That is, although sportsmanship increased and unsportsmanlike behaviors decreased during softball games, these same results were not evidenced during the basketball play.

Because of this absence of generalization, an Instructions and Praise condition (Phase Two) was also implemented during basketball. This condition increased sportsmanlike behaviors minimally, but it had a marked effect on reducing unsportsmanlike behaviors. During Baseline 2 (Phase Three), rates of sportsmanlike behavior did not change from the Instructions and Praise level but rates of unsportsmanlike behavior almost doubled. This increase occurred despite a Point System (Phase Four) simultaneously being implemented to effectively control these behaviors in the morning softball class. It appears then that there was minimal generalization across the two settings.

In basketball, rates of sportsmanship were four times higher during the Point System (Phase Four) than they were during the previous Baseline 2 condition, and rates of unsportsmanlike behavior were five times lower. The point system was particularly effective with Mike, who increased his rate of sportsmanlike behaviors from 0.0% to 11.3 % from Baseline 1 while reducing his unsportsmanlike behavior from 10.2% to 0.0%. The Point System was clearly more powerful than the Instructions and Praise condition; mean- while both interventions were more effective in reducing unsportsmanlike behavior than they were in promoting sportsmanlike interactions.


General Discussion

These two studies indicate that these three strategies-instructions and praise, modeling, and point systems-can be implemented to enhance sportsmanship in physical activity settings. Of these three strategies, point systems with back-up reinforcers were clearly the most powerful in both settings. This finding concurs with the results of a study by Rolider et al. (1984), who found grade incentives to be more effective in increasing positive interactions of college males during basketball games than either instructions or teacher modeling.

In both the class and recreational settings the strategies were more effective in reducing unsportsmanlike behaviors than increasing sportsrnanship interactions. For these target students, who initially had extremely low rates of positive interactions and high rates of negative interactions, it was easier to reduce inappropriate behaviors than it was to learn new social interaction patterns. Practicing new social skills seemed awkward and unnatural. It appears, at least with some children, that learning new social skills takes time and practice, and it may be necessary to implement extrinsic reinforcement systems to bring about acceptable changes.

According to Gresham (1981b), the most critical type of generalization in teaching social skills is stimulus generalization (across settings). Without it, "social skills training would be a waste of time because social skills would occur only in the training setting" @. 158). Previous research in social skills training has indicated that generalization does not occur automatically but must be planned and programmed as part of the training pro- cess (Cartledge & Milbum, 1980; Gresham, 1981b). Study 2 examined a recreation basketball class to determine if sportsmanship learned during a morning softball class generalized to a different setting. Planning for generalization involved keeping these stimulus conditions similar in both settings: (a) group composition (the same 13 boys), (b) teammates and opponents changed daily, (c) the same two observers were always present, and (d) the game involved a team sport. Despite the similarity of these conditions, minimal generalization of sportsmanship changes were evidenced in the recreational basketball setting. These results suggest that in order to meet social skill objectives in physical education, instructors need to implement systematic and well planned strategies frequently, over a long period of time, and in a variety of settings.

These studies are among the first to complete an experimental analysis of sportsmanlike and unsportsmanlike behaviors in physical activity settings. Sportsmanship is an important and integral component of physical education, and therefore continued research is recommended. Such efforts could lead to an analysis of antecedent and consequential events that control sportsmanship. Game score, team composition, and teacher behavior are only a few elements that need to be studied so that eventually more effective approaches to developing sportsmanship can be implemented.

References

Asher, S.R., & Hymel, S. (1981). Children's social competence in peer relations: Sociometric and behavioral assessment. In J.D. Wine & M.D. Smye (Eds.), Social competence @p. 125-157). New York: Guilford Press.

Austin, D.A., & Brown, M. (1978). Social development in physical education: A practical applica- tion. Jounurl of Physical Education and Recreation, 49(2), 81-83.

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