teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 report.pdfthe historical association teaching...
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Teaching Emotive and Controversial History 3-19
A Report from The Historical Association on the Challenges and Opportunities for Teaching Emotive and Controversial History 3-19
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association �
A Report from The Historical Association on the Challenges and Opportunities for Teaching Emotive and Controversial History 3-19
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Contents Page Anintroductionproviding 3
contextanddefinition
Anexecutivesummaryofthe 4 keyfindingsandrecommendations
Thecurrentcontextwiththescopeof 7addressingtheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesgenerallyacrossthe 3–19agerangeandspecificallyateachkeystage
Thecurrentconstraintsthatinhibit 14 theteachingandlearningofemotive andcontroversialhistory
Thekeycharacteristicsandexamples 19 ofeffectivepracticewithregardtoteaching andlearningwithacasestudyforeachkeystage
Fourcasestudiesfromexpertson 37 thelatesthistoricalthinkingandissues relatedtoareasofcontroversy
Recommendationsfordeveloping 41practice;someareshorttermandothers longerterm,someprimarilyaimedatteachers andschools,andothersaimedatotherstakeholders
Acknowledgements 46
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 3
Therewasalsoanacceptancethatemotion,sensitivityandcontroversycanbeaffectedbytime,geographyandawareness.Forexample,anissueorpersoncouldhavebeenextremelyemotiveandcontroversialatthetime,butnolongerhassucharesonance,orthatsomethingmaybefeltmuchmorestronglyinsomeplacesandamongsomegroupsorindividualsthanothers,orthereareissuesthatcontinueornowhavecontemporarysignificanceorpersonalresonance.Likewise,thestrengthoffeelingaboutcertainissuescanbeaffectedbytheageofthestudents.Thustherearehistoricalissuesthat,atthetime,arousedstrongemotionsandweresubjectsofgreatcontroversy.Simultaneously,thereareissuesthatareemotiveandcontroversialbecausetheycontinuetohavegeneralcontemporarysignificanceorpersonalresonanceforstudents.
Theagreeddefinitionbythosepresentthathasdirectedmuchofthereportisasfollows:
The study of history can be emotive and controversial where there is actual or perceived unfairness to people by another individual or group in the past. This may also be the case where there are disparities between what is taught in school history, family/community histories and other histories. Such issues and disparities create a strong resonance with students in particular educational settings.
Thisreportisseenasthestart,ratherthantheendofanimportantprocess.Muchmoreresearchisneededthanwaspossibleforthisproject.Noristhecurriculumstatic.Thecontextischangingandthisdebatewillneedtoembracefuturechanges.Ifhistoryteachingistohelpplayakeyroleinhelpingyoungpeopleunderstandthecomplexityandbackgroundtotheworldinwhichtheyaregrowingupin,muchbetterresourceswillneedtobebothproducedandsignposted,andteachersmademoreawareofexamplesofgoodandeffectivepractice.Plansarealreadyinplacetoexpandthecasestudiesandreferencestoresources,particularlythroughelectronicmeans.
Agoodreportalsogeneratesfeedbackandideas.ItistheintentionoftheauthorsoftheT.E.A.C.H.projectthatthewidercommunitywillrespondtothepointsraisedinaconstructiveandpositiveway,drawingattentiontogoodpracticeandhowtheseissuesarebeing,orcouldbe,addressedinaneffectiveway.TheHistoricalAssociationwanttoencouragethisongoingactivity.DetailsofhowthiscanbedoneareprovidedintheAppendix.
ThispublicationistheresultofresearchcarriedoutbyTheHistoricalAssociationandsupportedbyagrantfromtheDepartmentforEducationandSkills.TheprojecthasbeenentitledT.E.A.C.H.(TeachingEmotiveandControversialHistory)andcoversthe3–19agerange.
TheNationalCurriculumforHistoryandGCSEandAS/A2specificationsoftentouchonsocial,cultural,religiousandethnicfaultlineswithinandbeyondBritain.Apremiseatthestartoftheprojectwasthatmanyteachersoftenavoidedcontroversyintheclassroomwhenfocusedonhistory.Atthesametime,thereiswidespreadrecognitionthatthewaymanypasteventsareperceivedandunderstoodcanstiremotionsandcontroversywithinandacrosscommunities.
TheproposalsthatwereputbeforetheDfESenvisagedresearchingtheopportunities,constraintsandcasestudiesofeffectivepracticeacrossallkeystages.TheproposalswereacceptedinSpring2006andasteeringgroupofthreesetuptoplanandoverseetheproject.ThebasicstructureoftheT.E.A.C.H.projectwas:
torecruitfiveexperiencedresearchers,oneforeachofKeyStages1–4andoneforpost-16toinvestigatecurrentpractice,particularlytheopportunitiesandscopeforaddressingsuchissuesthroughschoolhistory,aswellastoseekexamplesofeffectivepractice;
toholdthreeweekendsinCambridgeshire(inJune,OctoberandDecember2006),bringingtogetherthesteeringgroup,researchersandthosewithexpertiseinteachingsuchissues.Therewereopportunitiesattheseweekendstohearfromandquestionthoseteachinghistoryinschoolswithdifferentethnicmixes;
toproduceafinalreportbyEaster2007.ThisreportwouldbedistributedinhardcopytoallmembersofTheHistoricalAssociation,aswellasplacedontheopenpartofitswebsite.
Oneofthefirstissuesthatneededtobeaddressedwasaworkingdefinitionofwhatconstitutedanemotiveorsensitiveissueinhistory.Thiswaswidelydebatedatthefirstweekend.Thedefinitionitselfgeneratedemotionandcontroversy,butitwasavitalfirststepinkeepingT.E.A.C.H.manageableandconsistent.Itwasrecognisedfromtheoutsetthatoneperson’sacceptancemightbeanother’scontroversyandthatsensitivitywasrelative.
Introduction1
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1. Theworkingdefinitionthatguidedtheproductionofthisreportisasfollows.
The study of history can be emotive and controversial where there is actual or perceived unfairness to people by another individual or group in the past. This may also be the case where there are disparities between what is taught in school history, family/community history and other histories. Such issues and disparities create a strong resonance with students in particular educational settings.
2. Thereareasizeablenumberofopportunitiesavailabletoschoolstoconsideremotiveandcontroversialissuesinhistory.Somearegenericacrossallkeystages.
Therangeofopportunitiesispotentiallygreaterbelowtheageof14afterwhichthedemandsofexternalspecificationsoftenactasabarrier,althoughtherearemanymoreopportunitiesthanteachersplanfor.
ThebestopportunitiesexistwhenteachersrecognisetherationalebehindtheNationalCurriculumandexternalexaminationspecificationswiththebalanceofknowledge,skillsandunderstanding,andwherestudentsareengagedactivelyintheprocessesofhistoryratherthanaspassivereceiversofdisjointedinformation.
Thekeytosuccessissystematicplanning,particularlyaspartofanenquiryapproachwherestudentshavetoworkindependentlyandwheretheyhavetimetoconsiderandaddressmattersinsufficientdepth.
Teachingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisunlikelytosucceedwherelittleornoattentionispaidtothepreciselearningobjectivesandideasassociatedwithsimilarityanddifference,changeandcontinuity,reasonsandresults,andinterpretationsandusingevidence.
Emotionalengagementisafeatureofeffectiveteachingofcontroversialissues.Thestudentshavetowanttocareenoughabouttheissuestoarouseboththeircuriosityandtheirwillingnesstoengagefullywiththequestionsthatarelikelytorequirehardthinkingandproblem-solving.
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Personalengagementismuchmorelikelywhenthestudentsarethemselves encouragedthroughhistoryteachingtohaveasenseoftheirownpersonalidentityandtheirplaceintheworld.
Teachingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisbestdonewhenthestudentsconsidertheirownloyalties,theirmultipleinterestsandidentities,andrecognisethefactthateveryoneisbothaninsideroroutsidertosomethingandthattheirvaluescanbeconflictingandcanchange.
Effectiveresourcesthatareattractiveandstimulating.
Opportunitiesareenhancedwhentheschooladoptsawhole-curricularapproach.Successismorelikelytobeachievedinhistoryifthereisaclearstrategyintheschoolforacceptingthatsuchissuesshouldbeengagedinbyallstudentsandinarangeofcontexts.Thesuccessofhistoryteachersislikelytobesomuchlessifitisaloneamongthecurricularareasincoveringsuchmatters.
3. Anumberofconstraintscurrentlyactasbarriers.Theseinclude:
thetimepressuresandstatusofthesubject;
teachershavebeenencouragedtoplaysafewithcontentselectionandpedagogy,whichactsasapowerfulconstrainttoteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Therearefewincentivestotakerisks;
thelimitedaccessthathistoryteachersandothershavetohigh-qualitytraininginthisarea;
apaucityofresources,whichmeansplanningisdictatedbyotherresourcesthataremoreavailable;
alackofteachersubjectknowledge,especiallyintheprimarysector.Thisinsecureknowledgecanleadtocoverageofcontentinequaldepth,orrathershallownessleadingtoroutine,superficiallearningratherthan“deep”learning;
thetendencyofteacherstoavoidemotiveandcontroversialhistoryforavarietyofreasons.Someofwhicharewell-intentioned,suchasfeelingthatcertainissuesareinappropriateforparticularage
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Executive summary�
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 5
groups,orthattheylackthematuritytograspthem,orawishtoavoidcausingoffenceorinsensitivity,orthattheyarebesttaughtelsewhereinthecurriculum,suchasincitizenshiporreligiouseducation;
manystudentsdonotwanttoseethesubjectascomplicatedandproblematical,whichisaninevitablefeatureofemotiveandcontroversialhistory;
thewaythatteachershandleemotiveandcontroversialissuescanhaveanegativeimpactonstudentssothattheyfeelalienatedanddisconnected;
thetendencytointroducestoriesofdisasters,technologicalandeconomicinferiorityandbrutalitytomotivatestudentsthatcanresultinpeopleinthepastbeingseenasstupidandinferior.
4. Goodpracticeresultswhen:
thereisaclarityofpurposeandarationalefortheschoolthatemphasisesidentity,valuesanddiversity;
historyistaughtbothasabodyandaformofknowledge.Thebestpracticeplacesahighpremiumonplanning,ensuringthattheworkhastherightblendofcontentandhardthinkingappropriatetotheagesandability;
thereisastrongemphasisonindependentenquirywithitsownproceduresandconventions,ensuringthatemotiveandcontroversialissuesaretaughtwithinasecurepedagogicalandhistoricframework.Theimportanceofgoodquestioningisparamount;
theplanninganddeliverybuildsinsufficienttimeandopportunitiestoreflectandtocoverthedifferentperspectivesandbeliefsinvolved.Wheredonefleetingly,learnersfailedtoseewhatthehistoricalproblemwasatallaboutanissue;
theteachingmatchesclaritywitharecognitionofthecomplexityofemotiveandcontroversialhistory;
anemphasisonexploringmultiplenarrativesandthepastfromdifferentperspectives.Theteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisseriouslycompromisedifstudentsdonotseehistoryasasubjectthatisopentodebateandargumentastheystudydifferentandcompetingviewsofthesameevents;
balanceisheededacrossathemeortopicandacrossakeystage;
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learnersareexposedtoarichvarietyofappropriateandstimulatingresources,suchasmusic,filmandpictures.Qualityresourcescanbeameansofmakingpersonalengagementmorelikely.
5. Thereportmakesanumberofrecommendations.Manyarespecifictoparticularkeystages,butthereareanumberthatseemtohaverelevanceacrossallagegroups.Theseareasfollows:
givingmoreattentiontotheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialaspectsininitialteachereducationandthroughcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment;
ensuringthattheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesisawholeschoolissue;
planningthemesandapproachestoensurecoherence;
providingteacherswithbothencouragementandguidance;
encouragingratherthanpenalisingteachersforthepromotionofdebateandrisk-takingintheclassroomandschoolsgivingsupportwhenfacingchallengesfromparentsandcommunities;
improvingtherangeandqualityofresourcesavailabletoallowschoolstointroduceamorevariedandrelevantcurriculumfortheirstudents;
findingbetterwaystocommunicatetherangeandeffectiveuseofresources;
improvingtheresearchandevidencebaserelatedtotheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
Thereportalsoidentifiessomeactionsthatmightbepossibleintheshorttermandothersthatmaytakelongertoaddress.
Shortterm:
TheGovernmentandkeyagencies,includingQCAandOfsted,reinforcetheimportanceoftheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
Givemoreattentiontotheissuesandstrategiesininitialteachereducation.
Providemoreopportunitiesforteacherstoaccesstrainingandideasaspartoftheircontinuingprofessionaldevelopment,includingatexternalcoursesandthroughdistancelearning,suchastheQCA’sInnovatingwithHistorywebsite.
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Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 6
Provideguidanceonthestrategiesforaddressinggoodpracticeoutlinedinthekeystagespecificrecommendationsabove.
Commissiontheproductionofresourcesforschoolsandtraining,includingwebresourcesandthroughTeachers’TV.
Provideguidanceandsupportforplanningtheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryasawholeschool/curricularissue.
QCAproducemoreschemesofworkwhereemotiveandcontroversialissuesareaddressedexplicitlyandwherehistoricalissuesarelinkedtomodern-dayparallels.
Communicatetherangeofresourcesmoreeffectivelythatcansupporttheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory,includingtheexistingfellowshipsandvisits.
Commissionmoreresearchintotheissues,perspectivesandconcernsheldbydifferentindividuals,groupsandsocieties,includingtherelationshipbetweenpersonal,communityandschoolhistory.
Devisecriteriaforprogressionwithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissues,sothatteachersandschoolscanbenchmarkprogressagainstnationalcriteria.
Longterm:
Considerthebenefitsofanentitlementforhistoryteacherstosustainedcontinuousprofessionaldevelopment.
Devisecoursesthatallowteacherstobeaccreditedthroughdevelopingtheirunderstandingandskillswithregardtotheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissues,suchasthroughthePostgraduateProfessionalDevelopmentinitiative.
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Requireschoolstohavearationalefortheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesthatismonitored,suchasbyOfstedandbyotherssuchastheSchoolImprovementPartners.
Ensurethathistoryhasthestatusandtimeinschoolstoenablejusticetobedonetotheteachingofsuchissues.
MaketheimportanceofteachingemotiveandsensitiveissuesmoreexplicitandprominentwhenreviewingtheNationalCurriculum,GCSE,AS/A2orotherspecifications.
EvaluatethelessonsoftheGCSEPilotintermsofteachingandassessingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
Developstrategiesthatallowallstudents,includingthelowerattainersandthegiftedandtalented,toaddressemotiveandcontroversialissuesinchallengingways.
Alterthecultureinschoolssothatrisk-takinganddebateareencouragedandteachersfeelsupportedandconfidentaboutengagingallstudentsemotionallyandchallengingperceptionsandmisconceptions.
Workwithpublishersandotherstoimprovetherangeandqualityofresources.
Consideropportunitiesforeffectivework,linkingdifferentcurriculumareastoimprovetheknowledge,skillsandunderstandingwithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissues.
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The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 7
Context and opportunities at each key stage
wherestudentshavetoworkindependently;
whenthereissufficient time forin-depthanalysis.
4. Teachingemotiveandcontroversialissuesisunlikelytosucceedwherelittleattentionispaidtothepreciselearningobjectivesthatlinkthekeyconceptstospecificcontent.Inparticular,thereisaneedtoengagethestudentsinthekeyideasrelatedto:
similarity and difference—emphasisingnotjustthatpeopleandsocietieshavedifferences,butalsothattherearesimilarities;thatallshareacommonhumanityandthat,evenwheretherearedifferences,muchshouldbecelebratedratherthancondemned.
change and continuity—indicatingthatsocietyisinacontinuousstateofflux,thatsituationsthatprevailinoneperiodareunlikelytoremainlikethatandalsothatsomethingshavestayedthesame.Thiscanhelpyoungpeoplerealisethattheythemselvesarepartofachangingsceneandthat,althoughthereissomecontinuitywiththepast,theworldinwhichtheygrowupisnotoneofabsolutes.Teachingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisoftenmoreeffectivewhenaccompaniedbyconsiderationofwhatthereistorespectandadmireinpastsocieties.
reasons and results—devotingsufficienttimetoexplainingwhythingswereastheywereandnotjustdescribingorreconstructingwhathappened.
interpretations—focusingonthewaypasteventsandsituationshavebeeninterpretedaftertheirtimeandthefactthatthereisnearlyalwaysmorethanonewayoflookingatahistoricaleventorsituation.Almostmorethananyotheraspectofstudy,theideathatthereisnooneuniversalversionofhistoryandthathistoryitselfisnotaproductwaitingtobecaughtinanetisvitalifpupilsaretodiscussemotiveandcontroversialissuesinanydepth.Ifexplicitattentionisnotpaidtothisaspect,studentsalsofindithardtounderstandtheideaofsignificance.Thoseputtingtogetheraccountsneedtomakedecisionsaboutwhatisimportantandcentralandwhatislessso.Pupilsalsoneedtoappreciatethecomplexitiesthatcontributetotheproductionofalater
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Opportunities across all key stages
1. Evenwiththeyoungestpupils,thereareopportunitiestoplacepeopleandtheissuestheyfaceinarangeofcontexts.Theseopportunitiesaremuchgreaterthanmostteachersplanfor.Whilstitispossibletofindopportunitiesforeveryagegroup,therangeispotentiallygreaterforpupilsbelowtheageof14,afterwhichthedemandsofexternalexaminationspecificationsoftenactasabarrier.Theseexaminationspecifications,however,offeropportunitiesforconfrontingemotiveandcontroversialissues.
2. ThebestopportunitiesexistwhenteachersrecognisetherationalebehindtheNationalCurriculumandtheexternalexaminationspecifications.Thisinvolveshistorybeingseennotjustasabodyofcontentorasetofskillsdivorcedfromcontent,butwherethereisabalanceofknowledge,skillsandunderstanding,andwherestudentsareactivelyengagedintheprocessesofhistoryratherthanaspassivereceiversofdisjointedinformation.Thisintegrationofknowledge,conceptsandprocesseswasrecognisedastheessentialframeworkforschoolhistoryevenbeforethelaunchoftheNationalCurriculum,anditprovidesafirmfoundationfortheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissues.
3. Theenvironmentforcoveringemotiveandcontroversialissuesisbroadlysimilaracrossthewholeagerange.Thebestopportunitiesoccurwhentheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesisplannedtofitintoawiderframeworkandtheplanningisexplicit,althoughthereisalsoconsiderablescopewhenissuespresentthemselvesineverydayclassroomsituations.Theseopportunitiesoccur:
as part of an enquiryapproachwherestudentsaregivenspecificinvestigations,gearedaroundenquiryquestionsthatrequireengagementwiththehistoricalprocess.Thesequestionsandactivitiesarethemselvesdevisedtoelicitanunderstandingthathistoryisitselfproblematicalandnotstraightforward;
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interpretationofearlierevents,suchastheviewoftheauthorofanoriginalsourceandtheviewofthegrouporpersonusingthesourcetocompileanaccount.Inaddition,thereaderorvieweralsobringstheirownideasinunderstandinganhistoricalinterpretation.
evidence—introducingstudentstoarangeofsourcematerialthathastobeevaluatedandusedasevidenceforvalidenquiries.Wherepracticeispoorer,youngpeoplecanberequiredtocarryoutsuchactivitiesinamechanisticandformulaicwaythataddslittletotheirunderstandingofthecomplexityofthehistoricalprocessandtheworldinwhichtheylive.
5. Emotional engagementisalsoafeatureofeffectiveteachingofcontroversialissues.Thestudentshavetowanttocareenoughabouttheissuestoarouseboththeircuriosityandtheirwillingnesstoengagefullywiththequestionsthatarelikelytorequirehardthinkingandproblem-solving.Itisanironicfactthatprogressioninhistoricalunderstandingischaracterisedbyagrowinguncertaintyasonerealisesthatthereis,atbest,likelihoodratherthandefinites.Studentsdonotalwaysfindthiseasyordesirable.Manywantclarityandcertaintyandneedtobemotivatedtoengagewithissueslackingclear-cutanswers.Ifstudentsaretoengagewithcomplexandextendedissues,teachershavetoplantasksandquestionsthattheyseeasrelevantandsignificanttotheirlivesleadingtoadesireonthestudents’parttoprobetheissuesandexciteawishtodigdeeper.
Teachingemotiveandcontroversialissuesthereforerequiresthatthethemesandissuesarebroughttolifewiththepeoplebeingmadethree-dimensionalratherthanactorsinfancydress.Studentsneedtoacquiresomepersonalfeelingstowardsthepeopleinvolved,aswellasthechoicesanddilemmastheyface.Successismuchmorelikelywhentheyareencouragedtoimagineissuesfromdifferentperspectivesandviewpoints,seeingmuchofwhathappenedasfarfromclear-cutwithcontemporariesoftenviewingthingsasconfusing,uncertainandwithoutthebenefitofhindsight.
6. Thestudentsareencouragedtohavea sense of their own personal identity and their place in the world throughhistory.Theresearchindicatesthatthisissomethingthatisbestfosteredfromanearlyageandreinforcedthroughouttheyearsofschooling.Thinkingabouttheirownplaceinthingsandtheirattitudesandvalueshastheinevitableside-effectofrecognisingtheidentitiesofothers.Opportunitiesfordebatingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryareenhancedwhenstudentsseethemselvesasmembers
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ofdifferentcommunitieswithidentitiesthatareshapedbyarangeofdifferentinfluences—theirfamilies,localcommunities,religion,ethnicity,socialandeconomicstatus,education,politics,region,nation,continentandsoforth.
7. Studentsneedtoconsidertheirownloyalties,theirmultipleinterestsandidentities,andtorecognisethefactthateveryoneisbothaninsideroroutsidertosomethingandthattheirvaluescanbeconflictingandcanchange.Suchcanbeseenasagrowing emotional intelligenceinrelatingtooneselfandothers.Itmeansprobingissues,suchaswhohasclaimstoberightandwrong,whetherchangescanbeseenasprogressorregression,andhowindividualsandsocietieshavetocopewithconflictingvaluesandbeliefs.
8. Effective resources arecrucialtothissuccessfulengagement.Studentsexpectattractive,stimulatingandaccessibleresources.
9. TheRespect for allwebpagesoftheQCAwebsitegiveguidanceonplanningahistorycurriculumthatisinclusiveandencouragesrespectfrompastandpresentpeopleandsocieties.
10. Whilstthecentralscopeofthisprojectisontheroleofhistorywithregardtotheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissues,opportunitiesareenhancedwhentheschooladoptsawhole-curricularapproach.Successismorelikelytobeachievedinhistoryifthereisaclearstrategyintheschoolforacceptingthatsuchissuesshouldbeengagedinbyallstudentsandinarangeofcontexts.Thesuccessofhistoryteachersislikelytobemuchlessifitisaloneamongthecurricularareasincoveringsuchmatters.Thereareobviouslinkswithmanyareasofthecurriculum—citizenship,personal,socialandhealtheducation,religiouseducation,geographyandscienceallhavemajorcontributionstomake.Norneedeverythingbedonethroughthesubject-basedcurriculum.Thedebatingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesshouldpermeatetheethosoftheschool,bothpastorallyandacademically.Extendedprovisionalsoallowsscopeforstudentstocomeintocontactwithaworldoutsidetheclassroom,suchasthroughvisits,visitors,workplacementsandengagementwithsporting,artsandculturalactivities.
Alloftheissuesraisedaboveapplythroughoutthe3–19agerange.Inshort,theyrefertoopportunitiesthatshouldbeavailableanywaythroughtheteachingandlearningofhistory.Nevertheless,thenatureandextentoftheopportunitiesdoesvaryacrossthekeystages.Thenextsectionfocusesonsomeareasthataremorekeystagespecific.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 �
Opportunities across particular key stages
FortheFoundation Stage and Key Stage 1,thereareplentyofopportunitiestointroducepupilstoissuesthroughtheirsocialisationintoschool.Establishingsocialrelationshipswithotherchildrenandcomingintocontactwitharangeofadultshelpsthatprocess.Earlyyearspractitionersencouragechildrentodeveloppositivesocialrelationships,fostertheunderstandingofrulesandbehaviours,providemodelsfordealingwithconflictanddisagreement,andsupportchildrenintheirinteractionswitheachotherandwithinbroadersocialgroups.
Childrenarebeginningtolearntheirplaceintheworld,theirownuniqueidentityandtheidentitiesthattheysharewiththerestoftheirgroup.Ineffect,childrenexperiencemanyofthecircumstancesthatunderpinthecontroversialnatureofhistoryintheirdailylives.Consequently,studyingthedilemmasandconflictsexperiencedbyearliersocietiesandindividualsinthepastmaycontributetochildren’sowndevelopingunderstandingofdilemmasandissuesthattheyfaceintheirownpersonalanddailylives.
TheFoundationStagecurriculumincorporatesamoreholisticapproachtocurriculumplanning.SpecifichistoryinputisidentifiedwithintheEarlyLearningGoal,“Find out about past and present events in their own lives and in those of their families and other people they know”.Studyingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryhelpscognitivedevelopment.Theprocessesofdoinghistory,askingquestions,makingobservations,explaininganddrawingconclusions,areallkeyskillsthatsupporttheiroveralllearning.Theroleoflanguageisalsocrucialincommunicatingtheirunderstanding.Studyingemotiveandcontroversialhistorymayprovideopportunitiestousetalkforavarietyofpurposes:communicatingthoughts,feelingsandideas;negotiatingroles;makingfriends;askingforhelp,clarificationorinformation;relating;reflecting;reporting;narrating;arguing;presentingideas;persuading;explainingandinstructing.
FoundationStagechildrencanbeintroducedtoquestionssuchas:Who am I? How do I know that it is me? What other things make me, apart from how I look? What is the same about me and other children? What is different about me that makes me who I am?
Key Stage 1islikelytopresentthemwithmoreopportunitiesandteachershaveconsiderablefreedomtodevelopthehistorycurriculumtomeettheneedsandinterestsoftheirchildren.WithinthebreadthofstudyatKeyStage1,childrenlearnabouttheirownpersonalhistoriesandthoseoftheirfamiliesthroughstudying
“changes in their own lives and the way of life of their family and others around them”.
Suchhistoriesmayrequiresensitivehandlingbytheteacher,takingintoaccountchildren’sdifferentbackgroundsandexperiences.Anythinglinkedwithfamilyhistoriesneedsdealingwithsensitively,aswellasrequiringasoundawarenessofdifferenthomesituationsandfamilystructures.Forexample,issueslikedeathmightbecoveredthrougheventssuchasthedeathofpetsandpeopleorwhatitmeanstobeinsideandoutsidesocialandothergroupings.Theymightbeabletoexploredifferencesbetweenboysandgirlsandrecognisedifferencesinlanguageandethnicity.KeyStage1historyallowsthemplentyofscopetoexperiencedifferentculturesandwaysoflife,suchasthroughexamininghousesandhomes,anniversaries,celebrations,leisure,foodandfamouspeople.
KeyStage1involvesstudyingthewayoflifeofpeoplelivinginthelocalityorelsewhereinBritaininthemoredistantpast.Thisrequirementissufficientlybroadtopermitteacherstointroducepotentiallycontroversialandsensitiveissues,suchastheexperiencesofchildrenorthedifferencesbetweenrichandpoorpeopleinsocietiesatdifferentperiodsoftime.Inobservingchangesinwaysoflife,teachersmayquestionwhobenefitedfromthesechangesandinwhatways.Didallpeoplenecessarilybenefit?Thereareopportunitiestoexplorecontroversialissuesthroughstudyingthediversityofdifferentsocietiesinthepast.
Changesinthelocalcommunity—themovementofpeoplesto,fromandwithinthecommunity—mayalsobestudied.Forexample,howdifferentbuildings,shops,schoolsandleisurefacilitieshavechangedorremainedthesame.Somechangespermitchildrentoexplorechangingcommunityneeds.Forexample,traffic-freezonesorthelocationofmarketsandshops.Inaddition,childrenmayconsiderhowchangeshaveimpactedonindividualswithinthecommunity.Forsomeindividuals,changesmighthavehadapositiveimpact,buttheymighthavebeenmoreproblematicforothers.
Thereshouldbeplentifulopportunitiestointroducechildrentopeoplefromarangeofcultures.Research,suchasfromMilner,suggeststhatchildrenasyoungasthreeorfourareawareofracialdifferences,andmanyenterschoolwithpreconceivednotionsaboutdifferentracialandethnicgroups(PlinneyandRotherham,1987).Ifthisisthecase,itisimportantthatchildrenareintroducedtodiversehistoriesfromanearlyage.Moreover,foryoungchildren,thisisalsoimportantforthedevelopmentoftheirownsenseoftheiridentity.
Teacherschoosewhichsignificantpeopletocover.Teacherscurrentlytendtomaketheirselectionfroma
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restrictednumberofpeoplewithIsambardKingdomBrunel,FlorenceNightingaleandMarySeacolebeingthemostpopularfigures.However,therearemanyopportunitiestoincludeothersignificantpeopleincludingthosefromthelocality.Selectionofparticularpeoplemaybecontroversialandsomesensitivitymayberequiredindealingwithdifferentgenderroles.Forexample,positivefemalerolemodelsmightbeantagonisticforsomecultures.
Similarly,teachersmayalsoselectpasteventsfromthehistoryofBritainandaroundtheworld.TheGunpowderPlot,theOlympicsandRemembranceDayarepopulartopics.However,amorejudiciousselectioncouldraiseyoungchildren’sawarenessofcontroversyfully.Re-tellingthestoryoftheGunpowderPlotisoftencloselyalliedwiththecelebrationslinkedwithBonfireNight.Inthecurrentcontext,itmightbeappropriatetoencouragechildrentoexploremotivationmorefullyandalsotoquestionwhetherGuyFawkes’attemptstoblowupparliamentwerejustifiedandshouldbecelebrated.Whatotherwaysmayconflictberesolved?
Thetopicofremembrancemayraiseseveralsensitiveissuesforchildrenwhohavealreadyexperiencedconflictorwhosefamiliesmightbeinvolvedinwarfare.QuestionssuchasWhy do we remember?andIn what ways should we remember?arepotentiallysensitivesincetheycouldrelatetochildren’simmediateexperiencesorthoseoftheirfamilies.
Imagesthatchallengestereotypesareimportantsourcesofinformationforyoungchildren,suchasfemaleexplorerslikeMaryKingsleyortheblackpresencesinEnglandbothbeforeandafterWorldWar2.Misconceptionsalsoneedtobechallenged.Forexample,Clairecitestheexampleofchildrenlookingatschoolpictures25yearsagoandnow.Achildnoticesthatmostofthechildrenintheoldpicturearewhite,whereasinherclasstheyarenownearlyallblack.Thechildrenwereaskedwhythismightbewithonepupilreplying, “because in that picture the children prayed to God to make them white, so that white people wouldn’t say horrible things to them”.
ByKey Stage 2,thechildrenaremorelikelytobeabletocopewithandunderstandsomeoftheissuesthanatKeyStage1.TheKeyStage2areasofstudyalsooffermoreopportunities,farmorethanisoftencurrentlycoveredinschools.Thereisarequirementthatpupilsstudyhistorycontentthatreflectsdiversity.ThereisalsooftenadistinctpedagogicaldifferencewithKeyStage1asthepupilsareusuallyaskedtoreadandwritemore,andtheyareexpectedtoworkmoreindependentlywithouttheteacher.
Severaloftheareasofstudyprovideopportunitiesforteachingemotiveandcontroversialissues.Forexample,
thelocalhistoryrequirement,whichinvestigatinghowanaspectofthelocalareahaschangedorbeenaffectedbyeventsorpeople,couldexamineimmigrationandculturaldiversity.
TheBritishareasoffermuchscopetoconsiderissuessuchasthemovementofpopulations,includingtheusageandmeaningsofemotivetermssuchasnative, immigrant, invasion, settlementandcolonisation.TherearealsomanyopportunitiestoconsiderthecompositionoftheUnitedKingdomandhowithasevolvedovertime.ThecoverageoftheRomans,Anglo-SaxonsandVikingsprovidesparticularscopeforthat.
BritainandthewiderworldinTudortimesalsoallowsteacherstoraiseissuesrelatedtotheimpositionofimperialrule.Thenatureof“Britishness”canalsobeaddressedinseveralBritishunitsindicating,forexample,theblackpresenceinTudorandVictoriantimes.GoodteachersarealreadypointingoutthedistortionthatoftenresultsinKeyStage2fromapredominantfocusonwhite,male,wealthyChristianpeoplewithoutplacingtheminthecontextofthewiderdiversity.
TheEuropeanandworldhistoryareasclearlyofferscopeforintroducingcontroversialissuessuchasslavery,methodsofgovernment,conquestandtheroleofwomen,butthecurrentsituationsometimeshastheendresultoftokenisticandsimplisticviews.
Supportforteachingsuchaspectscomesfromarangeofresources,includingtheDfES/QCAschemesofwork,althoughmanyneedtobeadaptedtobringouttheemotiveandcontroversialissues.Forexample,theschemeaddressingwhatlifewaslikeforchildreninVictoriantimescaninvolvepupilsdiscussingissuessuchassocialinequalityandfamilybreakdown.Debatecanensueaboutthenegativeconnotationsattachedtothepoorandthedangerofgeneralisationsregardingsuchgroups.
TheopportunitiesavailableatKeyStage2canbeexploredfurtheratKey Stage 3.Formanystudents,thiswillbethelasttimetheystudyhistoryatschool.Asinotherkeystages,thecurrentstructureisalreadysupportiveofsuchexplorationthroughtheintegrationofknowledge,skillsandconceptualunderstanding,andparticularlythesupportgiventocriticalthinkingthroughindependentenquiryandstudentsmakingjudgementsfollowingtheirevaluationofdifferentinterpretations.
KeyStage3islikelytoresultinamoresustainedpursuitofindependenthistoricalenquiries.ThisisalreadyinthecurrentProgrammeofStudyanditislikelytobestrengthenedfurtherinthe2008revision.Studentshavetheabilitytoengagewiththehistoricalprocessbyplanningtheirownenquiries,posinghypotheses
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 11
andquestionsandusingrelevantevidencethatallowsthemtoreflectanddeliverwell-consideredconclusions.Thissecurepedagogicalandhistoricalframeworkisanecessarypartofdealingwithemotiveandcontroversialhistoryeffectively.
The2000revisiontotheNationalCurriculumforHistoryincludedastatementemphasisingtheimportanceofschoolhistorybyunderliningtheconnectionbetweenitsstudyandthepupils’ownlives.ThishasbeengivenanevensharperfocusinthestatementontheimportanceofhistoryinthedraftKeyStage3ProgrammeofStudyfor2008.Forthefirsttime,thestatementmakesexplicitreferencetohistory’sroleinfosteringpersonalidentityanditspecificallymentionshistory’scontributiontopromotingmutualunderstandinginamulticulturalsociety.
History helps pupils to ask and answer questions of the present by engaging with the past. It fires their curiosity and imagination, moving and inspiring them by the dilemmas, choices and beliefs of people in the past. It helps them to develop their own identity through an understanding of history at personal, local and international levels.
Studentsatthisagearemorelikelytoidentifyandadjudicatebetweendifferingrepresentationsandinterpretationsthroughexploringmultiplenarrativesandseeingthepastfromdifferentperspectives.Therearemanyopportunitiestodiscusshowthoseinlatertimeshavereconstructedandpresentedthepast,thepurposeofdifferenthistoricalinterpretations,andtherelationshipbetweenaninterpretationandtheevidenceavailable.Studentscanbeencouragedtoseehistoryasasubjectthatisopentodebateandargument.
ThecontentrequirementsatKeyStage3alsoencouragecoverageofawiderangeofemotiveandcontroversialhistoricalissues.Almostanyaspectofhistorytaughtwithinthisframeworkcouldpotentiallybedescribedasemotiveandcontroversialgiventhatitisasubjectofon-goingdebateamonghistorians,evenifsomeissuesaremoredirectlysensitiveastheyinvolvedunfairnessorharmtopeoplebyanindividualorgroup.
Forexample,therearethoseissueswhicharousedstrongemotionsandwerethesubjectofconsiderablecontroversyatthetime.ManycommonlytaughtissuesatKeyStage3fallintothiscategory,forexample,theNormanConquest,thePeasants’Revolt,theDissolutionoftheMonasteries,theTerrorintheFrenchRevolution,theNewPoorLaw,andthefightforthevote.Theseissuescanbetaughtinablandway,leavingpupilsunmovedandunaffected.However,theyalsohavethepotentialtoengagepupilswiththedilemmas,complexities,injusticeandmoralcourageofpeopleinthepastandtodeveloppupils’understandingofenduringhumanissues.
Therearealsothoseissueswhichareemotiveandcontroversialbecausetheycontinuetohavegeneralcontemporarysignificanceorpersonalresonanceforstudents.PotentialexamplesofsuchissuesfromKeyStage3includetheCrusades,thePartitionofIndia,theHolocaust,thetransatlanticslavetrade,IrishhistoryandthehistoryofimmigrationtoBritain.IncontemporaryBritain,whereethnicandculturaldivisionsoccasionallyleadtodirectinterracialviolenceandwhererecenteventshaveledtoheightenedracialtensions,learningaboutthelegacyofBritain’scolonialpastandabouttherelationshipbetweentheWestandIslamarepotentiallythemostcontroversialandchallengingaspectsoftheKeyStage3historycurriculum.
OneschoolthathassuccessfullyintegratedblackhistoryintotheKeyStage3curriculumisHenryComptonSchoolinFulham.Incommonwithmanyschools,thisincludesthetransatlanticslavetrade.Thisisasubjectthatcanprovokestrongresponsesinpupilsbecauseoftheatrocities,violence,crueltyanddehumanisingexperiencesofthetrade.Moreover,thereareissuesof‘unresolvedlegacy’formanypeopleinBritain,whichmakethetransatlanticslavetradeaparticularlysensitiveissue.Teachingthesubject,whetherinmixed-raceorall-whiteclasses,raiseschallengingissuesforhistoryteachersabouthowtoconveytheinhumanityoftheslavetradeandhowtodealwithpupils’anger,racism,blame,guiltorindifference.
SomehavearguedthatanisolatedstudyofthetransatlanticslavetradepresentsadistortedviewofblackhistoryinwhichAfro-Caribbeanpeoplearelargelypresentedasvictims.AnarrowfocusontheabolitionoftheslavetradeorthestudyofblackhistoryonlyinthecontextofblackpeoplesoftheAmericasissimplytoolimitinganddoeslittletodeveloppupils’senseofapositiveidentityortofostertheirunderstandingofasharedheritagebasedonourcolonialpast.
TherevisionstotheKeyStage3curriculumarelikelytofocusteachingevenmoreonissueswhichhavethepotentialtobesensitive,suchasthechangingnatureofpoliticalpower,therelationshipbetweenrulersandtheruledandthedevelopmentofdemocracy,thechangingrelationshipsofthepeoplesofEngland,Ireland,ScotlandandWales,howmovementandsettlementhaveshapedtheBritishIsles,thenatureofempires,thechangesinthelivesofmen,womenandchildrenincludingwork,technology,leisure,culture,religionandenvironment,orthechangingnatureofconflictanditslastingimpactonnational,ethnic,racial,culturalorreligiousgroups.
Key Stage 4isdominatedbytheGCSEspecificationsthatprovidetheonlyguidanceorframeworkforteachinghistoryatthiskeystage,althoughallworktoQCAcriteriarequiresspecificationstostudyhistory
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 1�
fromarangeofperspectives—political,economic,social,cultural,technological,scientific,religiousandaesthetic,aswellassocial,cultural,religiousandethnicdiversityofthesocietiesstudiedandtheexperienceofmenandwomeninthesesocieties.ThethreeEnglishawardingbodieseachoffercoursesonmodernworldhistory,BritishsocialandeconomichistoryandaSchoolsHistoryProject.EventhoughthenumberandvarietyofspecificationsavailableatGCSEislimited,eachoffersplentyofscopefordealingwithemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
Themostpopularspecificationswithschoolsarethoseconcernedwithmodernworldhistory.Herestudentsoftenstudyacorewitharangeofoptions.Aheavyemphasisisoftenplacedontheearly20thcentury.Schoolscanchoosefromanumberofthemeswithplentyofopportunitiestodebateemotiveorcontroversialissues,suchastheMiddleorFarEast,AmericanCivilRightsandracerelations,SouthAfrica,IndiaorChina.
Socialandeconomichistoryalsooffersopportunities.Manyofthethemescoveredinvitedebatesrelatingtoinherentlyemotiveandcontroversialissues,suchaschangesinworkandemployment,changesintransport,communicationsandleisure,populationchange,povertyandpoorrelief,campaignsforreforminfactoriesandmines,publichealthandhousing,tradeunionsandworkingclassmovements,thechangingrolesandstatusofwomen,education,theevolutionofamultiethnicsocietyinBritain,racerelationsinamulticulturalsocietyandNorthernIreland.
TheSchoolsHistoryProjectspecificationsalsoallowstudentstoengagewithmoreemotiveissuesparticularlythroughthemodernworldstudythatrequiresalinkingofthepasttothepresent.ThemessuchastheArab-Israeliconflict,Chinainthe20thcentury,multiculturalBritainandIrelandarerelativelypopularasoptionswithinthemodernworldstudy.Adepthstudyhastobeselectedandtherearetwostudiesthatareparticularlypopular—Germany1919–1945,withitsemphasisondomesticaffairs,andtheAmericanWestthatallowsstudentstostudyaclashoftwoculturesandtheproblemsassociatedwiththat.AnotherdepthstudyisElizabethanEngland,wherethereareopportunitiestoexplorethetensionbetweenstateandreligionandtheissueofloyaltytoeither.Adevelopmentstudyofferschoicebetweenmedicineandcrimeandpunishment.Bothofferscopetoaddresscontroversialissuesthroughthemessuchasresourcinghealthorhowsocietydealswithcrime.
ThescopeforaddressingemotiveandcontroversialissueshasbeenwidenedrecentlybytheadditionofanewGCSEofferedbyOCR,whichiscurrentlybeingofferedasapilottosome70centres.Akeyaspectofthisspecificationistheproportion(70%)ofcentre-designedworkthatnot
justgivesscope,butactiveencouragementtoaddressissuesrelevanttothelivesofthestudents.Evenwithinthemandatory,externally-assessedcoreunitonmedievalhistory,emotiveandcontroversialissuescanbeaddressedwhencoveringcontentrelatedtoraidersandinvadersandpowerandcontrol.Thelocalhistoryoptionrequiresthatachosenhistoricalissueneedstobeconsideredintermsofitsrelevancetodayandtheinternationalunitrequiresstudentstoconsiderhowanevent,issueordevelopmentdividedandaffectedpeopleandtoexaminedifferentjudgmentsabouthistoricalsignificanceandinterpretations.Theseopenupthepossibilityofaddressingdifficultissuesdependingonthecontentchosenandteachingapproachthathasbeenadopted.Someoftheotheroptionsaremoreobviouslygearedtowardsdifficultissues,particularly‘Whosehistory?’andthemigrantexperience.Otheroptionscouldbesteeredtowardscontroversialissuessuchas‘Heritagemanagement’,whichexamineshowanaspectofthepastoughttobepresented.
HistoryisnotmandatoryafterKeyStage3andaroundone-thirdof14-year-oldstudentsoptforthesubject.Whilstthenumberschoosingthesubjecthaveheldupwelloverthelastdecadeandthereareanumberofschoolsthatattractstudentsacrossthewholeabilityrange,historyattractsmoreoftheablestudents,givingthemopportunitiestodiscussemotiveandcontroversialissuesthroughhistory.Opportunitiesareavailablethroughentry-levelqualificationsthatallowtailor-madeapproachestothemainhistoryspecifications.Intheory,thisallowslower-achievingstudentstothinkaboutsensitiveissues,butthereislittlegoodpracticeintheseareas.Overall,numbersforentry-levelhistoryaresmallandthosethatdostudyitareusuallygivensimplifiedorshortenedversionsoftheconventionalGCSEs.
Currentlyconsiderationisbeinggivenastowhethercitizenship,whichismandatoryatKeyStage4,shouldincorporateahistorydimension.Thiswouldatleastallowthewholeagerangetodebateemotiveandcontroversialissuesthroughsomekindofhistoricalperspective,butitisunclearwhetheritwouldenabletheopportunitiestolinkthecontent,skillsandconceptualunderstandingrequiredbycurrenthistoryrequirements.
ThepatternatGCSEissimilarpost-16.TherationaleforASandA2allowsandevenencouragesteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesasstudentsneedtodemonstrateanabilitytodealwithcontroversy.Theadvanced-levelcriteriarequirestudentstounderstandthenatureofhistoricalstudy—thathistoryisconcernedwithjudgementsbasedonavailableevidenceandthathistoricaljudgementsmaybeprovisional.Thisisreflectedinthespecificationsthemselveswhereallawardingbodieswantthestudentsto“develop their capacity for critical thinking”andallhaveamoralandculturaldimension.
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Thereareparticularoptionsinmanyofthecurrentspecificationsthatallowstudentstoengagewiththemoreobviouslycontentiousissues.Forexample,AQAoffersoptionsofTheCrusadingMovementandtheLatinEast1095–1192,BritainandIreland1969–1998,DecolonisationofAfrica(BritainandKenyaand/orFranceandAlgeria)andTheHolocaust1938–1945.StudentsalsohavethechancetostudySouthAfricafromApartheidtoDemocracy,Chinafrom1949totheTiananmenSquareMassacre,TheMiddleEastfrom1945–1991,andBritain1951–1997(whichincludestheissueofimmigration).
EdexcelofferopportunitiesthroughoptionsonConservativeSupremacy:PoliciesandPartiesinBritain1886–1906,Pursuing‘LifeandLiberty’CivilRightsintheUSA1945–1968,andHitlerandtheNaziState:PowerandControl1933–1945.OtheroptionsincludeColonialRuleandtheNationalistChallengeinIndiac1900–1947,TheMakingoftheBritishEmpirec1660–1770,andBritainandDecolonisationc1870–1939.
OCR’soptionsinclude:TheFirstCrusadeanditsOrigins,TheIrishquestionintheAgeofParnell1877–1933,RaceRelationsintheSouth(America)1863–1912,aswellasNaziGermany1933–1945.
TherearealsoopportunitiesforthosetakingthespecificationsofferedinWalesandNorthernIreland.Forexample,WJEChasoptionsthatinclude:TheOttomanEmpireandtheThreattoEurope1492–1571,GladstonianLiberalism1868–1893,PeopleandtheChangingWorldofWorkc1880–1980,andNaziGermanyc1933–1945.
StudentscanalsostudyPoliticalChangeinWalesto1543andNationalistTensionsinEasternEuropeandtheBalkans1878–1971.Likewise,CCEA’soptionsincludeNationalismandUnionisminIreland1800–1900,aswellasTheNazisandGermany1919–1933.
TheInternationalBaccalaureatealsoofferstheopportunityforteacherstodesigntheirowncourseswithinGroup3:Individualsandsocieties.AnessentialcharacteristicofthedisciplinesinGroup3isthattheirsubjectmatteriscontestableandtheirstudyrequiresstudentstotoleratesomeuncertainty.Studiesofsomelocalsituationsandglobalperspectivesfosteranappreciationofchangeandcontinuityaswellassimilarityanddifference.
Whilsttheopportunitiesareconsiderable,manyoftheseoptionscoverpastperiodsanddonotrequireanyconnectionmadewiththepresent.However,moreopportunitiesdoexistthroughthepersonalstudy.Withcentre-basedworkbecomingamandatorypartofA2specificationsinthefuture,technicallythisincreasesthescopeenormouslyforstudentstodelvedeeplyintoanissuethatmightberegardedasemotiveorcontroversial.However,theevidencefromthelargenumberscurrentlychoosingthepersonalstudyoptionisthatitisarelativelysmallminoritythataddressissuesbeyondthemainstreamthemessuchasHitler,HenryVIIIandWorldWarI.ExamplesdoexistwherestudentsengagewithrecentissuesrelatedtotheMiddleEast,BritishandAmericanforeignpolicy,Ireland,ethnictensionsand,occasionallyeven,pollution,unequalworldresourcesandconservationversusdevelopment.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 14
Constraints affecting all key stages
Whilstparticularconstraintsapplyacrossparticularcontextsandkeystages,anumberseemtoapplyacrossallagegroupsandsettings.Thissectionoutlinesthegeneralchallengesbeforeaddressingsomethataremorekeystagespecific.
1. Time and status of the subject Thereisnoguaranteedminimumofcurriculum
timesetasideforthesubject.TheimpactofprimarystrategiesdesignedtoraisestandardsinLiteracyandMathematicshasresultedinreductionsintimespentonthesubjectatKeyStages1and2,whereitissometimesseenas“light relief ”.TheincreasedflexibilitynowgivenforarrangementsatKeyStage3hassometimesresultedinpupilsendingtheirstudyofhistoryinYear8and,insomecases,beingtaughtlittle,ifany,historyinYear7whereacompetency-basedcurriculumhasbeenintroduced.This,andthefactthattwo-thirdsstudynohistorybeyondKeyStage3,clearlylimitsthescopeforaddressingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Theintroductionofvocationaldiplomasfrom2008mayexacerbatethistrendandreducethenumbersof14–19pupilsstudyinghistory.
2. “Safe” content selection, pedagogy and official guidance
Despitetheopportunities,teachershavenothadmuchofficialencouragementindevelopingthem.Inparticular,teachersofhistoryatKeyStages1and2havetendedtorelyonQCAschemesofworkthatavoidcontroversy.Manyschoolshavechosentomaketheschemesofworkmandatory,whichisapracticesometimessupportedthroughtheinspectionprocess.ThecombinedeffectoffollowingtheoriginalQCAschemesofworkforhistorytoocloselyandsometimesotherpublishedschemestooeasilysuggestedthatemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisbland,simplisticandunproblematic.ThesamecanbesaidforsomeframeworksandguidanceforteachingspecificationsatGCSEandAdvancedlevelfromawardingbodies.
3. Inadequate teacher access to high-quality training
Opportunitiesforhigh-qualitytrainingandsupporthavebeenlimitedfor“unproblematic”subjectssuchashistoryandthishasactedasabarriertotherationaleforthesubjectbeingtranslatedintoeffectivesubjectpedagogyinmanyclassrooms.Littleattentionisgiventotheteachingofhistoryininitialteachereducationforprimarytrainees.ThereareoutstandingPGCEhistorycoursesforsecondarytraineesavailableatEnglishuniversities,butthequalityoftrainingisusuallynotfollowedupthroughcontinuousprofessionaldevelopmentonceateachertakesupaschoolpost.
OrganisationssuchasTheHistoricalAssociation,theSchoolsHistoryProject,QCAandothersproducehigh-qualitymaterialsandverywell-receivedtraining,whichdevelopsteacherawarenessofemotiveandcontroversialissuesandotheraspectsofhistorypedagogy.However,onlyasmallminorityofhistoryteachershaveaccesstothistraining,particularlyatprimarylevel.Whileseniorleadershipteamsinschoolshaveresponsibilityforcontinuousprofessionaldevelopmentfortheirstaff,prioritytendstobegiventogenerictrainingoroncoreconcerns,suchasliteracy.
Thereisnosubjectspecificsupportforhistoryleftinmostlocalauthoritiesandthetrainingthatteachersareallowedtogoontendstobeeithergenericorfor14–19,whichisrunbyawardingbodiesandgearedtogettingpupilssuccessfullythroughexistingspecifications.Teacherawarenessoftheimportanceofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisthereforedamagedbypooraccesstohigh-qualitytraining.Therearealternativeformsofworkforcedevelopment,suchasdistancelearningmethodsincludingTeachers’TV,butthesecurrentlyhavelimitedusage.
4. Paucity of resources Appropriateresourcesneedtobeavailabletosupport
emotiveandcontroversialhistory.Suchresourcesarescarceatpresent.MostcurrentpublishedresourcesarelinkeddirectlytoQCAschemesofworkorare
Constraints to the teaching of emotive and controversial history
4
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specificallydesignedtosupporta14–19specification.Inmanyschools,planningisdictatedbytheparticularresourcesalreadyavailable.Iftheseareofpoorquality,contentselection,planningandpedagogymaybedull.Contentselectioncanbedominatedbywhatisreadilyavailablesothatintroducing,forexample,morefamousblackpeopleatKeyStage1becomesmoredifficultthanthestudyofFlorenceNightingalesincefewerresourcesareavailable.
5. Lack of teacher subject knowledge Teachersoftenadmitthattheylackadequatesubject
knowledge,especiallywheretheyhavenospecificqualificationorupdatinginthesubject.Secondaryspecialistsgenerallyknowmorethangeneralists,butitisironicthatthelevelofsecuresubjectknowledgeinteachersisatitsgreatestwhenthecontentismostlynarrowlyprescribedatGCSEandAS/A2.Primaryhistoryrangesoveramuchbroaderscopeofcontentthansecondaryhistory,butteachersubjectknowledgeisoftenlesssecure.Insecuritycanalsoleadtocoverageofcontentinequaldepthorinashallowwayleadingtoroutineandsuperficiallearningratherthan“deep”learning.WithhistoryinsomeschoolsnowlargelytaughtbyHigherLevelTeachingAssistants,thereareevengreaterchallengeswithregardtosecurityofknowledge.
6. Teacher avoidance of emotive and controversial history
Teachersandschoolsavoidemotiveandcontroversialhistoryforavarietyofreasons,someofwhicharewell-intentioned.Somefeelthatcertainissuesareinappropriateforparticularagegroupsordecideinadvancethatpupilslackthematuritytograspthem.Whereteacherslackconfidenceintheirsubjectknowledgeorsubject-specificpedagogy,thiscanalsobeareasonforavoidingcertaincontent.Staffmaywishtoavoidcausingoffenceorappearinginsensitivetoindividualsorgroupsintheirclasses.Inparticularsettings,teachersofhistoryareunwillingtochallengehighlycontentiousorchargedversionsofhistoryinwhichpupilsaresteepedathome,intheircommunityorinaplaceofworship.Someteachersalsofeelthattheissuesarebestavoidedinhistory,believingthemtobetaughtelsewhereinthecurriculumsuchasincitizenshiporreligiouseducation.
Forexample,ahistorydepartmentinanortherncityrecentlyavoidedselectingtheHolocaustasatopicforGCSEcourseworkforfearofconfrontinganti-SemiticsentimentandHolocaustdenialamongsomeMuslimpupils.Inanotherdepartment,teacherswerestronglychallengedbysomeChristianparentsfortheirtreatmentoftheArab-IsraeliconflictandthehistoryofthestateofIsraelthatdidnotaccord
withtheteachingsoftheirdenomination.Inanotherhistorydepartment,theHolocaustwastaughtdespiteanti-Semiticsentimentamongsomepupils,butthesamedepartmentdeliberatelyavoidedteachingtheCrusadesatKeyStage3becausetheirbalancedtreatmentofthetopicwouldhavedirectlychallengedwhatwastaughtinsomelocalmosques.
Whereteachersmodeltheprocessesofcriticalenquirythatcharacterisetheadultdisciplineofthesubject,historyteachingmaywellclashwithanarrowandhighlypartisanversionoffamilyorcommunalhistoryinwhichsomepupilshavebeenreared.Insomesettings,emotiveandcontroversialhistoryisavoidedbecauseitisconsideredirrelevanttotheneedsofpupils.Inanall-whiteschool,littleblackhistorymaybetaughtatallonthegroundsthattherearenoblackpupilstowhomitwouldberelevant.
Insomeschools,teachersalsorespondtothestudents’wishestoavoidhistorybeingcomplicatedandproblematical.Thisclearlyaffectstheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
7. Lack of balance in teaching emotive and controversial history
Inselectingcontenttobetaughtwithinexistingframeworksandspecifications,thewaythatteachershandleemotiveandcontroversialhistorycanhaveanegativeimpactonpupils.RecentresearchontheimpactoftheteachingofthetransatlanticslavetradeanditsabolitionatKeyStage3showsthatwhereblackpeopleareportrayedasvictims,thenAfro-Caribbeanpupilsandtheirparentscanfeelalienatedanddisconnectedasaresult.Thesameistrueamongblackpupilswheretherearehardlyanyblackfacesrepresentedatallintheirhistorycurriculum.Equally,incertaineducationalsettings,whiteworking-classpupilsintheminoritycanfeelalienatediftheroleofwhiteabolitionistsintheprocessofabolitionissodownplayedthatallcreditisgiventoeconomicfactorsandblackresistanceinendingtheslavetrade.Thereisalsothetendencytointroducestoriesofdisasters,technologicalandeconomicinferiorityandbrutalitytomotivatestudents.Suchperspectivescaneasilyleadtostudentsdismissingthepastanditspeopleasstupidandinferior.
8. Teacher avoidance of risk-taking Forthevariousreasonslistedabove,historyteachers
canavoidtakingriskswiththeirteachingincludingtheriskofteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Partofthismaybeduetouncertaintyastowhatemotiveandcontroversialhistoryencompasses.Forexample,blackhistoryhasagrowingpresenceinthecurriculum,buthowmanyhistorylessonsdealexplicitlywithgayandlesbianissues?
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 16
Constraints across particular key stages
Foundation Stage/Key Stage 1Fewteachersappeartorealisethefullpotentialforaddressingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.TheQCA/DfESschemesofworkhaveoftenhadareductiveeffectonthecurriculum.Ingeneral,theschemesavoidinvestigationsthatmaycausecontroversy.Forexample,theschemeofworkraisesanimportantquestion—WhydowerememberFlorenceNightingale?Thereislittleopportunitywithintheactivitiesforpupilstocompareherworkwiththoseofotherslivingatthetime,whichwoulddevelopanin-depthunderstandingofsignificanceandalsoraisecontroversialissues.
AtKeyStage1,theeventsandpersonalitieslinkedtotheschemesofworkdominatethecurriculumandprovidefewopportunitiesforextendingpupils’knowledgeofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.EvenGuyFawkesisnotportrayedasacontroversialoremotiveissue.Traditionally,KeyStage1hassteeredclearofcontroversialanddiversityissues,suchastheviewsofolderpeople.
Lackofeffectiveplanninginmanyschoolshasledtopupils’knowledgeandunderstandingofkeyeventsbeingpiecemealandfragmented.PlanningteachingandlearningrelatedtoprogressionofskillsandconceptualawarenessisneededifpupilsaretoengageeffectivelywithcontroversialissuesandtobuildonthemthroughtheFoundationStageandKeyStage1.ThereareparticularchallengesmovingfromthefairlyholisticFoundationStagecurriculumtoKeyStage1wherespecifichistoryappears.
Schoolsoftenfailtoaddresstherelevanceofhistorytochildren’severydaylives.Thesubjectcanberelatedtopupils’ownfamiliesandcommunitieswithskilfulanalogiesdrawnbetweenpasteventsandwaysoflifeandwaysoflifeofpupilswithintheirclass.Theserepresentimportantopportunitiesforintroducingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.However,manyteachersfeelthattherecanbetoomanydifficultiesandsensitivitiesdealingwithpersonalandfamilyhistories.
Someteachersbelievethatitisnotappropriatetoconfrontyoungpupilswithcontroversialandemotiveissues,includingthoseinthestudyofhistory.Itislargelybasedonabeliefthatyoungpupilsjustacceptsituations,includingcontroversialhistoricalones.Forexample,Totten(1999)arguesthatattemptstoteachtheHolocausttoyoungchildrenshouldbediscouragedasitistoocomplexforthemtounderstandandtoohorrific.Piagetianmodelsofcognitivedevelopmentsuggestthat
youngchildrenareunabletothinkintheabstractordealwithfairlysophisticatedconcepts.Theseideasactasabarriertoemotiveandcontroversialhistoryteachingassometeachersdonotbelieveitshouldbeplannedfor.
TheinfluenceofthePlowdenReportof1967anditscentralmessagethat“learningshouldalwaysbeginwiththechild”hasexertedastrongbeliefinpupilslearningaboutandthroughfirst-handexperiences.Consequently,someteachershavebeenunwillingtoteachabouttimesinthedistantpastsincetheyareremovedfromchildren’simmediateexperiences.AfurtherlimitationonselectingemotiveissueswasidentifiedbyHolden(2005)asaconcomitanttogreaterparentalchoiceandinfluence.Shenotesthatsomeprimaryteachers’reluctancetoengagewithpossiblecontroversialissuescanberelatedtoconcernsabout“whatparentsmightthink”ifanythingpoliticalwastobediscussed.
Key Stage 2SomeprimaryteachersbelievethatKeyStage2pupilsstilllackthecognitiveabilityandbackgroundknowledgetodealwithemotiveandcontroversialhistory.ThePrimaryNationalStrategyhasalsoactedasabarrierinsomeschools.Onthesurface,theStrategyhasencouragedcross-curricularlinksbetweenliteracyandhistorywithanapparentincreaseintimededicatedtothesubject.However,Ofstedhasrecentlyreportedthatstandardsintheteachingofhistoryhaveslippedcomparedtoothersubjectsbecause,whilehistorysubjectknowledgeiscoveredincross-curricularplanning,therigorousteachingofhistoricalskillsisneglected.WhilstOfstedreportsgoodlinkswithliteracy,inanumberofinstances,historyactsmerelyasaservicingagentforliteracyor“history-flavouredliteracy”.
Thisimpactsdirectlyontacklingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Acriticalapproachtohistorywherepupilsquestion,weighevidenceandengagewithsourcesandinterpretationstakestimeandteacherconfidence,aswellasabeliefinthecapabilityofthepupilstocopewithsuchmatters.Wherethisbeliefislacking,historyteachingisreducedtoamodelwhereteachersmerelytransferfactualknowledgetopupils.
Thereistheaddedchallengeofteachersnotrecognisingtheemotiveandcontroversialissuesarisingfromwhattheyteach.Missedopportunitiesarisewhennotconfrontingtermssuchas“invaders”,“settlers”orperceptionsabout“Tudorgreatness”orwhetherDrakewasa“heroorpirate”.
Key Stage 3TheKeyStage3QCA/DfESschemesofworkhaveneverbeenadoptedtothesameextentasinprimaryschools,
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 17
buttheytendtohaveencourageda“safe”approachwheretheyareused.Forexample,inQCA(2000)Unit14,studentsarerequiredtoconsidertheimpactoftheBritishEmpireonindigenouspeoples,butthereisrelativelylittlefocusonareasofcontroversy.
Addressingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryeffectivelyrequiresanunderstandingofstudentmisconceptions.WithoutthisawarenessofmisconceptionsabouteventssuchastheHolocaust,appropriatelearningstrategiesarerenderedimpossible.Studentsoftenbringmisconceptionsandstereotypeswiththem.Forexample(inrelationtotheHolocaust),thebeliefsthatallGermanswereNazis,thattheNazisinventedanti-Semitism,thatallJewswerehelplessvictimsandthatallthevictimsdiedingaschambers.
Problemscanalsooccurwhenteachersfailtotakeintoconsiderationstudentperceptions,valuesandattitudestowardshistory.Trail(2006)foundthatalienatedAfro-CaribbeanpupilswantedtheirhistorytobeseenasagreaterpartofthemainstreamnarrativeofBritishhistoryratherthanbeingtreatedseparately.Otherresearchwithstudentsofthisageindicatesthatmanyhaveaninterestinhistory,butteachersoftenfacechallengesindemonstratingtherelevance.Therefore,relevancetotheirworldneedstobeestablishedbeforeengagementcanoccur.
Aswithotherkeystages,teacherslackincentivestotakerisksevenwhentheyrecognisetherelevanceofaddressingemotiveandcontroversialcontentandthemes,suchasIslamichistory.RecenteventshaveheightenedtensionsbothwithintheMuslimcommunityandbetweenMuslimsandbetweenMuslimsandnon-Muslims.YetneverhasanunderstandingofIslamichistoryseemedmorevital.Atpresent“Islamiccivilisations”(from7thto16thcenturies)isanoptionalchoicefora“worldstudybefore1900”.Fewchooseit.ManyschoolshaveconsideredIslamichistorytoodifficult,alienorcomplextoteach.MostpupilsdonotstudyIslamichistoryatall,otherthanaglanceattheCrusadesfromawesternperspective.SchoolswithMuslimpupilsfaceparticularchallengesinnegotiatingtheinterfacebetweencommunityhistoryandschoolhistory.NotallMuslimsarehappywiththeideaofIslamichistorybeingtaughtbynon-Muslims.Therelationshipbetweenacommunal,mythologisedhistoryadheringtoonenarrativesitsuncomfortablywithacriticalhistorythatisopentomultipleinterpretationsandperspectives.
Key Stage 4KeyStage4historyusuallymeansGCSE,exceptforwhenpartsareaddressedthroughcitizenship,otherareasofthecurriculumorwhencoveredaspartofan
entry-levelqualification.AtGCSE,thereisnoexplicitneedtoexploreissuesthatareemotiveandcontroversialwithinthecontentspecificationsofcurrentGCSEs.Theassessmentobjectivesdonotrequirepupilstoexaminemultipleperspectivesorexploreissuesfromalternativestandpoints.
Theobjectivesareessentiallyfocusedonacquiringknowledgeandunderstandingofthehumanpast,usingsourcescritically,understandinginterpretationsandorganisingandcommunicatingtheirunderstandingofthepast.Referenceismadetopotentialcitizenshipopportunitiesandtheopportunitiesforspiritual,moral,ethical,socialandculturalissueswithinthespecifications.Assessmentobjective3doesrefertocompetinginterpretations,butthatcanbeatthelevelofhistoricaldebateandmaywelllackanyemotiveandcontroversial“bite”.Thereislittleincentiveforteacherstoactivelypursueemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
Timeforsuchmattersisusuallylimitedbecauseoftheexaminationpressures.Toteachemotiveandcontroversialhistoryrequiresmanagingandhandlingdebateanddiscussion.However,researchliteraturesuggeststhatteachers’abilitytounderstandtheprocessofdebateandhowtogetpupilstodiscussissueseffectivelyisweak.Forexample,shouldtheteachertakeaneutralstanceinaHolocaustdebatethatmightgiveafalselegitimacytoHolocaustdenial?FewschoolshaveaclearrationalefortheapproachtoteachingGCSEHistory(oranyothersubject),suchaswhetheroneaimsforobjectivity,aconsensualorpartisanviewofthepast.
Manyteachersalsolacktheconfidenceordesiretoraisetoomanycontroversialissues.Theremaybeconstraintscausedbytheethosandbeliefofcertaintypesofschools,suchasfaithschools.Manyalsoaspiretoavoidalienatingorhumiliatingpupilswhoseethnic/culturalgroupswereresponsibleforpastatrocities.Theyworrythatopeningupcertaincontentwillreinforceorgiveaplatformforexistingprejudicesandstereotypes.
Post-16AswithKeyStage4,thisusuallymeansexternalexaminationspecifications.Ifanything,opportunitiestoaddresscontroversialissueshavedeclinedwiththedemiseofprogrammessuchastheCambridgeHistoryProject,ETHOS,AEB673andEdexcelsyllabusE.Whilethereisscopeincourseworkandthepersonalstudy,theactualteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryislimitedinpractice.Evenherethough,studentsarenotrewardedforselectingpersonalstudiesthatcovermorecontroversialareas.Withtheneedtointerpretarangeoftexts,thetendencyistochoosewell-resourced,popularthemes.Whilstmanyofferopportunitiesfordelvingintomoreemotiveandcontroversialaspects,thisdimensionisavoided.
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Beyondthis,opportunitiesareverylimited.Onthewhole,specificationsareEurocentricand,evenwhenavailable,manystudentsandschoolssteerclearofmorecontroversialareas.EveninIreland,lessthanhalfthestudentschoosetostudyIrishhistoryandmoststudyEuropeinthe20thcentury.AtAQA,only2.5%ofcandidateswhosattheexaminationsatASlevelstudiedtheIslamicoption.
Studentemotionsalsoplayapart.Thereisevidencethatmanycanfeelinhibitedtakingpartindebateanddiscussion,especiallywhentheyareestablishingnewfriendshipsandrelationships,forexample,inasixthformcollegesetting.Despitetheiryearsincompulsoryeducation,manylackdebatingskills,evenifthetimeallowedforcoveringthespecificationwasadequate.Withresultsbeingofimportanceforschools,collegesandstudents,fewcasescanbefoundofseniorleadershipteamsencouragingaworthwhileandextensiveapproachtocoveringemotiveandcontroversialissues.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 1�
Thissectionexaminesthecharacteristicsofgoodandeffectivepracticeintheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory—thewaysinwhichonecanhave“acurriculumwithbite”.Someofthesefeaturesaregenericandapplyacrossallsettings.Othersaremoreappropriateorrestrictedtocertainkeystages.
Good practice across all key stages
1. Teachingemotiveandcontroversialhistorydoesnotoccurinavacuum.Itneedstobetaughtatwhateverlevelinthecontextofdevelopingindividualvalues.Effectiveteachingofsuchhistoryrequiresclarity of purpose and a rationalefortheschoolthatemphasisesidentity,valuesanddiversity.
2. Thebestpracticealsoemergeswhenhistoryistaughtbothasa body of knowledge and as a form of knowledge.Itisnotenoughtogivepupilsthefactsaboutemotiveandcontroversialhistory,norisitsufficienttoteachhistoricalskillsinisolationfromthebodyoffactualknowledgerelevanttothecontentofthetopic.Forexample,atAS/A2level,givingdetailstostudentsabouttheatrocitiesofJosephStalinisanessentialcomponentofteachingthisemotiveandcontroversialperiodofRussianhistory.However,thisfactualknowledgewouldneedtobeintegratedintoaprocessofstudy,whichincludedsuchfeaturesasexaminationoforiginalsourcematerial,arangeofcontemporaryopinionsofStalinandanappreciationofhowandwhyhistoricalinterpretationsofStalinhavechangedovertime,uptoandincludingthepresent.
3. Goodpracticealsoresultswhenthereisastrongemphasisonindependent enquirywithitsownproceduresandconventions,ensuringthatemotiveandcontroversialissuesaretaughtwithinasecurepedagogicalandhistoricframework.Theimportanceofgoodquestioningisparamount.
Forexample,atKeyStage2,pupilsaresometimestaughtabouttheKindertransportinthelate1930s,whichpermittedsomeJewishchildrentoescapeNazipersecutionbytravellingtoBritain.Suchteaching
Good practice and case studies5
mightbebasedroundcertainenquiryquestionsthatleadthesequenceoflearning.Thesemightinclude:Why did the Nazis hate Jewish people? What was it like to be a child on the Kindertransport? Why did the British government let in Jewish children, but not their parents?etc.Theenquiryquestionshelpconvertfactualcontentintohistoricalproblemsthatstudentscanseektoresolve,partlybytheexaminationoforiginalsourcematerial.Theprocessofenquiryalsoinvolvesskilfuluseofquestioningwithinlessonssothatlearnersareencouragedtothinkindependentlyandcritically.
4. Theseenquiriestaketime.Probingsuchcomplexissuescannotbedoneeasilywithouttimetoreflectandtocoverthedifferentperspectivesandbeliefsinvolved.Muchofthebestpracticeseeninvolvedteachingindepth.Wheredonefleetingly,learnersfailedtoseewhatthehistoricalproblemwasatallaboutanissue.Effectiveteachersareawareoftheneedtoconsiderhowtomakeemotiveandcontroversialhistoryaccessibletoallagesandabilities,andnottoseeitasanichepartofthesubject.
5. Goodpracticematchesclaritywithrecognisingthecomplexityofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Contentandissuesareselectedsothatstudentsappreciatethecomplexityofwhatisstudiedandarecapableofviewingthesamecontentfromavarietyofperspectives.Thisincludesthedifferingperspectivesoftypesofpeoplecontemporarytotheperiodstudied.Forexample,atKeyStage3inthestudyoftheBritishRaj,studentswouldbetaughtaboutthedifferingrangeofBritishandIndianviewsofthetime.
6. Anemphasisonexploringmultiplenarrativesandthepastfromdifferentperspectivesisanotherfeatureofgoodpractice.Planningtoaddressinterpretations,onhowpeopleinlatertimeshavereconstructedandpresentedthepast,onthepurposeofdifferenthistoricalinterpretationsandontherelationshipbetweenaninterpretationandavailablecontemporaryevidenceisimportant.Theteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisseriouslycompromisedifpupilsdonotseehistoryasasubjectthatisopentodebateandargumentastheystudydifferentandcompetingviewsofthesameevents.
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Progressioninteachingthisdimensionneedstobeunderstoodandsystematicallyplannedfor.
7. Balanceisalsoassociatedwithgoodpractice,bothacrossathemeortopicandacrossakeystage.Forexample,astudyoftheabolitionoftheslavetradeatKeyStage3wouldnotpresentthecausesofabolitionasasinglenarrative,attributedtoexclusivelywhiteabolitionistsorsolelyduetoblackresistanceandeconomicfactors.Particularlyinamulticulturaleducationalsetting,thesinglenarrativewouldriskalienatingpupilsofavarietyofbackgrounds.Inthesameway,includingtheblackabolitionist,OlaudahEquiano,asafocusofstudyalongsidewhiteabolitionists,suchasWilberforceandClarkson,wouldbebothinclusiveandanaccuratereflectionofthoseparticipatingintheabolitionmovement.
8. Anothervitalrequirementisengaging the students at a personal levelsothattheyseethecomplexity
oftheissue,itsrelevanceandthattheycareaboutit.Itispossibleforcontenttoappearvastlyremovedfromstudents’everydayexperiencesorforatrocityfigurestobesogreatthattheyaredifficulttorelatetoonapersonallevel.Theskilledteacherofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryconcentrateson“makingthestrangefamiliarandthefamiliarstrange”asawayofconnectingtheirlearnerstothematerialbeingtaught.Forexample,hominginonthesinglestoryofanindividualfigurefromtheperiodcanbeameansoflearnersidentifyingwiththeplightsharedbymanythousandsormillionsofpeople.
9. Resourcesmatterifthepracticeistobeeffective.Learnersatalllevelsappreciateexposuretoarichvarietyofappropriateandstimulatingresources,suchasmusic,filmandpictures.Qualityresourcescanbeameansofmakingpersonalengagementmorelikely.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 �1
Good practice across particular key stages
Foundation Stage and Key Stage 1
MuchhistoryatFoundationandKeyStage1islikelytoinvolvepersonalandfamilyinvestigationwithanemphasisonchange.Thisisnotwithoutconsiderablechallengeastheytrytocometotermsbothwithdifferencesbetweenfamiliesandsometimeswithdifficultandchallengingcircumstancesintheirownfamilies,whichcanincludeissuessuchasfamilybreakdown,life-threateningillnessanddeath.Anumberofdifferentapproachesarepossible,suchassharingstories,picturesandartefactsabouttheirownlives.Thiscanenhancechildren’sawarenessofsimilaritiesinexperiencesthattheysharewithothers.Theyalsoallowopportunitiesforchildrentoexploredifferences.
Pre-schoolchildrencanusethepicturesintheirprofilebookstoreflectondifficultoccurrencesintheirownlives.Forexample,onemotherplacedapictureofherchildasababyinacomasincesherecognisedthathisfightforsurvivalhadbeenaconsiderableachievement.Teacherscanalsoexplorethehistoricalconceptofsimilarityanddifference.AcasestudyfromQCAavailableontheirRespectforAllwebsitedrawsonchildren’sownexperiencestoexploresimilarityanddifferencebetweendifferentlivesandallowsquestionstoberaisedsuchas:Who am I? Who are you? How are we the same? How are we different? What hurts us when we are excluded? And let’s celebrate our uniqueness.
Play-basedactivitiesareimportantfordevelopingandreinforcingchildren’sknowledgeandunderstandingofthepast,andtheyofferwaysforchildrentoexplorepotentiallyemotiveandcontroversialissues.Aclassroomplayareaprovidesopportunitiesforchildrentoactouttheirdevelopinghistoricalunderstanding.Throughplay,childrenmayexplorestereotypesthatmaybecontroversial.Forexample,differentgenderroleswithinthehomeorattitudestochild-rearing.Theymaydevelopawarenessofdifferentlifestylesandvalues.
Storiesarecentraltothedevelopmentofyoungpupils’understandingofhistoryandrepresentanothereffectivewaytoaddressemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Theycanintroducepupilstodifferentbeliefsandvalues,whatpeopleinthepastthoughtwasimportant,whatmotivatedthemtoactastheydidand,indoingso,enablingpupilstoreflectontheirownundertakingsandthingsthatareimportanttothem,aswellastoappreciateotherpeople’spointsofview.Storiesalsointroducelearnerstoarange
ofemotions,suchasjoy,sorrow,anger,love,hate,fear,security,andtoconcepts,suchasgoodandbad.Childrencanactoutsituationsinastorythattheyhaveheard.Freeze-framingenablesthemtoreflectonparticulareventswithinastory.Childrencanretellthestoryintheirownwordsandcanbehelpedinthisbypropsfromastorysack.‘I’dliketoask’andhot-seatingarevaluablewaystodevelopchildren’squestioningskills.
Folktalesmaybeusedtoexplorehumanemotionsanddifferentbeliefsandvalues.Forexample,inthestoryGoldilocks,wasitrightforhertostealtheporridge,breakallthefurnitureandthenrunoff?SurelythegiantwasrighttobecomeangrywithJackforstealingthegoldengoose?Theseareinitialquestionsthatintroduceyoungchildrentosomeoftheprocessesandthinkingskills,whichareneededinaddressinglearningaboutcontroversialandemotiveissuesinhistory.Storieswhichprovidealternativeexplanationsofwell-knownstoriesarealsoimportanthere,forexample,thestoryoftheThree Little Pigsfromthewolf ’spointofvieworthewolf ’sversionofLittle Red Riding Hood.
Thecelebrationofdiversitycanbedonethroughactivitiessuchasdevelopingastoryaboutaworldthatwasthesame—thepurpleworldwiththechildrenthinkingonwhattheymightfeellikelivinginthisworld.Afterwards,theymightdiscussdifferencestheyseebetweenthemselvesandothersintheclass.Similaritiesanddifferencesbetweenclassmatescanbenotedastheteacherinstructsthemwithstatementssuchas“Standupandcrossthecircleif…“You’rewearingshortsocksoryoulikemangoesoryoulikeparties”.Childrenmightalsobeaskedtothinkaboutoccasionswhentheyhadbeenhurtbecauseadifferencehadbeennotedandtodeviseresponses.
Puppetscanbeusedeffectivelytodiscusssensitiveandemotiveissuesastheyallowsomedistancetobeplacedbetweenthechildandtheissue.Forexample,thepuppet‘didthis’or‘thoughtthis’or‘thishappenedtothepuppet’areallpossiblewaystoenablechildrentodistancethemselvesfromtheeventsandemotionsbeingexpressed.Usingpuppetscanalsoencouragechildrentoofferadvice:What would you have done?andsuggestresolutionstoconflict.
Planningeffectiveenquiryquestionscanhelpshowpupilsthathistoricalissuesarenotalwaysstraightforward.ExistingtopicsoftentaughtatFoundationlevelandKeyStage1canbegivenacontroversialandreflectiveedgewithsharperenquiryquestions.Forexample, did everyone have toys like this? If not, why not? Or how were these toys made?SimilarlytheQCAuniton‘Whatwerehomeslikelongago?’couldbemademorerelevantbydrawingpupils’attentiontothedifferencesbetweenrichandpoorpeople’shousesinthepastandprovidinganopportunityforpupilstoreflectonthedisparityinlifestyles.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association ��
TherecentlypublishedassessmentmaterialsforhistoryatKeyStage1posesomeenquiryquestions,whichprovideopportunitiesforpupilstoconsiderthenatureofhistoricalinterpretationandofhistoricalsignificance.Forexample,theuniton‘HowshouldwerememberMarySeacole?’exploresquestionssuchaswhy did British people remember Florence Nightingale, but forget Mary Seacole? and how should we remember Mary Seacole?
Selectingcontentfordiversity,alternativeviewpointsandwaysoflifeisimportantinhelpingpupilsbegintograspthenatureofcontroversyinstudyinghistory.ThechecklistproducedbyWoodandHoldenisusefulinpromotinganunderstandingofgenderandculturaldiversityintheearlyyears.Thechecklisthasbeenadaptedbelowtohelpteachersplanforcontroversialandemotiveissuesinhistory.
Hastheplanningensuredthefollowing?
1. Theexperiencesofordinarypeople(men,womenandchildren)areincluded(including some of their diverse experiences and experiences that have created controversy or conflict)
2. Examplesofimagesandsituationsthatchallengestereotypesareincluded(Native American female chiefs, female explorers, pioneers, social activists, black soldiers in the World Wars)
3. Avarietyofteachingstrategiesthatactivelyinvolvechildrenareused(opportunities for questioning and reflecting on puzzling situations, exploring alternatives and drawing conclusions)
4. Pastandpresentlinksaremade,showingacontinuumofexperiences(use of timelines, past to present)
5. Issuesofjustice,fairness,respect,identityareintroduced(rights of people to their land, rights to vote and have an education, issues of disparity in wealth and opportunities)
6. Thehistoriesofminoritygroups(includingtheviewsoftheminoritygroup)areportrayed(voices of different communities and their experiences)
7. Local-globallinksaredemonstrated(trading links now and in the past, movement of peoples)
8. Childrenacquirelanguagetoenablethemtoreflectandcommunicatetheirideastoothersinsensitiveways(talking in different contexts, vocabulary and phrases to support children in recognising different opinions and being able to express their own views sensitively, use of tentative words, such as probably, perhaps, might have)
TheIrelandinSchoolsprojectsupportedbyProfessorPatrickBuckland—http://iisresource.org/default.aspx—hasproducedteachingmaterialexploringtherelationshipbetweenBritainandIreland.OneFocusofStudyasanalternativetoFlorenceNightingaleasasignificantwomanisGraceO’Malley,afemaleIrishpiratewhofirstresistedtheTudorconquestofIrelandandthenworkedonbehalfofElizabethI.TeacherswhotrialledthematerialscommentedonGrace’s“enthrallingstory…raisedchallengingquestionsaboutboththechoicesfacingindividualsandthenatureofsixteenthcenturysocietyandpolitics”.
Goodbooksandotherresourcesandguidanceaideffectiveteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory.Thereareanumberofprintedtextsthatdealsensitivelywithissues.Forexample, Granpa (1984)byJohnBurminghamtellsthestoryofagrandfatherwhofinallydies,whichisshownbyhisemptyarmchair.JeannieBaker’sWindow (1992)depictsenvironmentalchangeovertimethroughchangesinthelandscapethroughasinglewindow.Although3and4-year-oldpupilsinNorthernIrelandwereunawareofdifferencesacrossnationalistandunionistcommunities,byage6identificationwithreligionandflagwasmoreprominent.Researchappearstoindicatethattheuseofcartoonscanassistinteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.ThereareseveralexamplesofgoodpracticeontheQCA’sRespectforallwebsiteforeffectiveteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissueswiththeyoungestpupils.
Suchapproachesareeffectiveastheyallowyoungchildrentoreflectontheirownlives,aswellasthinkingaboutotherpeople’slivesintheircommunity.Usingimaginarylivescanalsohelpreducethesensitivitywithoutdilutingtheideasandprovidetheopportunitiestoexplorehistorieswhicharedifferenttotheirown.Theycanalsoproviderecognitionforthosechildrenwhohaveexperiencedhardshipanddanger.Evidencesuggeststhatsuchapproachesdoresultinchildrenlisteningtoeachother,demonstratingmutualrespectandtakingcarenottocauseoffence.Circletimeoftenprovestobeavaluabledeviceforpromotingrespectfordiversityandtoraiseissues,suchasthoserelatingtoanti–racismandthebenefitsoflivinginamulticulturalcommunity.Lookingatotherchildren’slivescanalsodeepenchildren’sawarenessofdifferenceandtouchonpotentiallysensitiveissues.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 �3
Case Study: Significant people. Year � activity
ContextThishistoryactivitywascarriedoutatWilberforcePrimarySchoolinwestLondon.Thisschoolhasapproximately400childrenonrole.Itishousedina1870sboardingschoolbuildinginaninnerLondonboroughwithmanysocialandeconomicchallenges.AccordingtoGovernmentstatistics,thisboroughhasoneofthehighestratesofmentaldistressamongadultsinthewholecountry.80%ofthechildrenarefromminorityethnicgroups,60%areeligibleforfreeschoolmeals,76%haveEnglishasadditionallanguageandroughly25%arerefugeesorasylumseekers.
How it is taughtThiscasestudyisbasedlargelyontheworkofHilaryClaire,whichwaspublishedinClaire,H.(2002)‘Whydidn’tyoufight,Ruby?DevelopingCitizenshipinKS1throughthehistorycurriculum,Education 3–13’.June2002.Pp.24–32.ItisalsoavailableonQCA’sRespectforAllwebsitewww.qca.org.uk/1581_2466.html.
TheschemeofworkwasdesignedforYear2pupilsandbasedonthelivesofRuby Bridges, Bessie Coleman and Frederick Douglass.Activitiesincludetimelinework,identifyingsignificanteventsofthesepeople’slivesanddevelopingknowledgeandunderstandingofdifferentwaysoflifeinthepast.Theschemeofworkconcludeswithchildrenselectingsignificantaspectsofthesepeople’slivesandwhytheyshouldberemembered.
Theschemeofworkaddressedarangeofissues.Theseincludedthefollowing:
1. TheCivilRightsCampaigninthe1960s—‘Whydidn’tyoufight,Ruby?’Thisthemeallowedarangeofemotiveandcontroversialissuestobeexploredincludingdiscrimination,themoralargumentsaboutinjustice,resistancethroughnon-violentmeans,non-violentresponsesandmoralcourageinthefaceofoutrightabuse,theimportanceofsolidarityinconfrontinginjusticeandtheimportanceofwhitesupportinconfrontingracism.Italsoallowedpupilstoempathisewithachilddealingwithdiscrimination,showracistpeoplesofteningtheirattitudesandconsiderthelong-termoutcomesofacampaignforjustice,overalltheoptimisticpossibilitiesforchangeanddiscriminationagainstracism.ActivitiesincludedreviewingkeypointsofRubyBridges’lifeonatimeline,pupilsdevisingquestionstheymightliketoaskherandgatheringthoughtsandideasforinclusioninabook,Why we remember Ruby Bridges.
2. Ayoungblackwomanconfrontsdiscriminationandconventionandachievesherdream—Fly Bessie Fly.PupilsreviewedthelifeofBessieColeman,lookingatotheraspectsofearly20thcenturylife,suchasearlyaviatorsandplanes.TheirteacherassumedtheroleofBessieandwashot-seatedbytheclasswhosubsequentlytalkedaboutwhyBessieisrememberedandforherdetermination.Thisactivityallowedexplorationofthelimitationsonpeople’sexperienceandlifechancesthroughracismandsexism,theimportanceofgoalsanddeterminationtosucceedandtheroleofnon-racistandnon-sexistpeoplewhosupportsuchgoals.
3. Aslaveescapestofreedom,teacheshimselftoreadandwriteandbecomesanabolitionistleader–Frederick Douglass – The slave who taught himself to read.ActivitiesplacedDouglass’lifeincontext,makingconnectionstothestoriesofBridgesandColemanandrole-playingyoungFrederick’seffortstolearntoreadandwrite.Thelastsessioninvolvedawhole-classdiscussion.Childrentalkedaboutwhattheyhadlearnedaboutthethreepeopleandhowtheyhadtriedtochangetheirlives.Theyeachchoseonepersonandidentifiedthreethingsthattheythoughtweresignificantabouttheirperson.Theysharedtheirideaswitheachotherandtheteacherrecordedtheirdifferentideas.Lastly,thechildrenproducedadrawingwithacaptionoftheirfamousperson.Anumberofemotiveandcontroversialissuescanbeconsideredhereincludingunderstandinganddebatingthenatureofslavery,theinjusticeandpersonalhurtofsomeonegrowingupunderslavery,theimportanceofliteracyandpersuasionasatoolforcounteringinjustice,thepossibilitiesforeventhemostdisadvantagedtomakeadifferencetotheirownandotherpeople’slives,andsolidarityindifferentcampaignsforequality.
Bycoveringsuchissues,thechildrenalsohadtheopportunitytodeveloparangeofhistoryskills,includingtheplacingofeventsandobjectsinchronologicalorder,understandingtermsrelatingtothepassingoftime,motivation,theconsequencesofactionsandevents,changeandcontinuityandskillsinusinghistoricalevidenceandincommunicatingknowledgeofhistory.
Reasons for effectivenessTheteachingprogrammewaseffective.AsClairenoted,‘Peoplechosenallowedtheteachertodorelatedworkconcerningchildren’sowngoalsandhopesforlife,aboutthepowerofprayer,forgiveness,courageandconcerntohelpotherpeople’.Asyoungchildrenlearnedaboutthesepeople,theyappeartohavedevelopedtheirunderstandingofhow‘non-violentchangecanbemanagedthroughsolidaritybetweenwhiteandblack”.Interestingly,Clairenotedthatgirlsandboysresponded
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association �4
differentlytotheinjusticesufferedbyBridges,ColemanandDouglass.ItwasonlytheboyswhoquestionedwhyRubyhadnotfoughtbackandthisraisesthepossibilitythatyoungchildrenmightrecognisenon-violenceasa‘strictlyfemale’responsetoinjustice.Toaddressthis,itmightbeappropriatetoengagewithotherindividualswhosehistorieswouldcountersuchstereotypes,forexample,GhandiandthesaltmarchorcivilrightsdemonstrationsledbyMartinLutherKing.
StudyingthelivesofBridges,ColemanandDouglassalsohadresonancewithchildren’sownlives.ManychildrenfocusedonRubyBridgestalkingtoGodtogaincourageasshewalkedthroughthemobintoschool.Theimportanceofbeliefandofahigherpowerwassharedbychildrenofdifferentfaiths.AstheywrotetheirstoriesanddrewtheirpicturesaboutRuby,childrentalkedabouttheirbeliefsandClairenotesthatthisprovidedopportunitiesforchildrentoappreciatedifferenceandbecomemoretolerant.
Coveringthechildhoodsofthesignificantpeoplealsohelpedgivetothemgreaterrelevance.Theyoungchildrenwereinterestedinthechildhoodofthepeopletheywerestudyingandwereabletoidentifywiththemandalsotorecogniseunfairnessinpeople’slives.Children’squestionstothesepeoplerevealhowchildrenbuiltontheirexistingnotionsoffairnessasisevidencedinquestionsposedbyyoungchildrentotheirteacherinthehotseatasBessieColeman.Questionswereasked,suchas:When you were little, why did you have to pick cotton and white children went to school? It wasn’t fair.OrWhy was that (white) man rude to you when you wanted to learn to fly?
Theeffectivenesswashelpedbytheteachingapproach.Itwasgreatlyhelpedwhentheteacherslistenedtowhatchildrensaidandwerepreparedtointervenetochallengetheirmisconceptions.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 �5
Key Stage �
ManyofthefeaturesofgoodpracticeidentifiedfortheFoundationStageandKeyStage1arealsoapplicableforeffectiveemotiveandcontroversialhistoryteachingatKeyStage2.Inaddition,thefollowingissuesdeserveamention.
Childrenatthisagearemorelikelytobeabletochallengestereotypesandstereotypicalinterpretationsofpastevents.KeyStage2historytopicscansometimesbetaughtsothattheypresentasingleinterpretationofaperiod.TeachingoftheVictorians,forexample,canperpetratethestereotypethatallchildreninVictorianschoolsencounteredthesameexperience.Inaddition,thosefromethnicminoritiesarerarelyrepresentedincontemporaryaccountsorsources,althoughweknowtheywerepresent.SometimespupilsgettheimpressionthatallchildrenwhoworkedinindustryinVictoriantimeshadthesameexperienceandthatnegativeexperiencesofworkwereconfinedtourbanareas.
WhenplanningaKeyStage2historytopic,thebalanceofcontentwithinthetopicisimportantincommunicatingtherelativeimportanceofdifferentaspectsofthetimetopupils.If,forexample,theTudorsaretaughtsothatthereislittlereferencetotheroleofwomenandchildreninsociety,religiousissuesoftheperiodortheroleofthewiderworldinthedevelopmentoftheprosperityoftheperiod,thenchildrenarelikelytohaveanincompleteandpossiblystereotypicalunderstandingofhistory.Makingadecisiontoincludeanaspectofaparticularperiodisanimportantpartofteachingemotiveandchallenginghistory.
Eventheterminologyusedcanresultinsensitivityandcontroversy,forexample,termssuchasinvader,settlerforthe43AD–1066period.Thewordsandideastheyengenderareemotiveandcontroversialinsocietytoday.Therefore,topicsneedteachinginapositiveandinclusiveway,challengingstereotypicalideasandinterpretationsof‘goodies’and‘baddies’andof‘usandtheother’.
HilaryClaire(Claire,2002)examinesthistopicindetail.Shesuggeststhatteacherschooseaspectsandapproachesofthesubstantialsubjectmatterinthistopicthatchallengecommonlyheldstereotypicalinterpretations.Forexample,shesuggeststhatweintroduceandchallengethetraditionalnegativeinterpretationofinvadersasviolent,particularlyinthecaseoftheVikings.Thiscouldbedonebyposingsharpenquiryquestions,suchas:How far can we trust what Saxon monks said about the Vikings?orWhat did Victorians invent about Vikings?orHow did Viking people make money?orDid the Saxons and Vikings ever live in peace?Thethemescouldalsobeexploredby
usingstoriesinvolvingwomenandchildrenincludingBoudicca.ThemulticulturalnatureofgroupsandsocietycanbeemphasisedbydrawingattentiontothepresenceofAfricansintheRomanarmy.Goodusecanbemadeoffictionalaccounts,suchasKevinCrossley-Holland’s,Sea Stranger, Fire Brother, Earth Father.AtDuxfordCommunityPrimarySchoolinCambridgeshire,StevenMastin,HeadofHistoryatneighbouringSawstonVillageCollegetaughtaschemeofworktoaYear5/6classwiththetitle,‘HowdowerememberJohnLennon?’PupilsanalysedaveryfavourablewebsiteaboutJohnLennonundertheenquiryquestion‘WhatdoesthiswebsitewantustothinkaboutJohnLennon?’EvidenceisthenpresentedtopupilsthatcontradictsthewebsiteorintroducescontroversialevidenceaboutLennonthatthewebsiteinterpretationhasleftout.(Seewww.historytransition.org.ukformaterials.)
Linkinghistorytothedevelopmentofcitizenshipalsooffersopportunitiestoconsideremotiveandcontroversialhistory.Issuesaboutcitizenshipareoftencoveredinprimaryschoolsinlinkswiththelocalcommunity,incircletimeandotherPSHEactivitiesandaspartofcross-curricularwork.Forexample,historicalknowledgeisimportantinunderstandingconcepts,suchaspolitics.Democracyisnotaneasyconcepttounderstand.Comparisonsofnewandancientversionsofconcepts,suchasfromtheautocraticversionsofdemocracyinancientGreecethroughtothefightforuniversalsuffrageinBritainintheVictorianandEdwardianperiods,canhelppupilstoexplorewhatitmeanstoliveinademocracy.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association �6
Case Study: The place of Britain in the wider world in Tudor times
Difficulties involved in the teachingTheKeyStage2historyunitontheTudorperiodcanbetaughtwithinaverytraditionalframework,stressingthesuccessesandachievementsofthemonarchs,HenryVIIIandElizabeth,thegoldenageofElizabethanexplorationandthebeginningsofEnglishgreatness.Ifhistoryistaughtfromexclusivelyoneinterpretationlikethis,itisnotmeetingtherequirementsoftheNationalCurriculum.WhilepupilsshouldbeintroducedtotheideaoftheTudorperiodasagoldenage,theyshouldalsobegiventheopportunitytochallengethisinterpretation.Otherwise,theywillbeleftwithavery
partialAnglocentricorEurocentricviewoftheperiod,whichseeseventsandpersonalitiesthroughasinglelensandleavesoutevidencethatdoesnotaccordwithit.
ContextThisunitdescribedbyCooper(2000)isdesignedforYears5and6andexploresthetopicsofhousesandships.ThestudyoftheArmadawithinaEurope-widecontextisparticularlyusefulinchallengingtheideaofElizabethanEnglandasagreatcivilisingpowerinearlymodernEurope.
How it is taughtCoopersuggestsarangeofteachingapproachesandthesecanlendthemselvestoanumberofsharpenquiryquestions.
Constructing a timeline
Using portraits as sources
Group writing tasks
Analysing pictures
Drawing and designing tasks
Visits to historical sites
How important was the Armada in the history of the Tudors?
What did this painter want people to think of Phillip II?
How successful was Emperor Akbar?
How do we know what Tudor ships looked like?
How did Tudor ships improve?
How did Elizabeth I live at Hampton Court?
Pupils examine the relative significance of the Armada compared with other landmark events
Pupils observe details from a Spanish portrait of Phillip II and deduce from it what the painter wanted people to think of the King
Pupils complete a mind-map in groups, collating the successes of the Mughal Emperor Akbar
Pupils compare a modern picture of a Tudor ship with archaeological evidence from the Mary Rose
Pupils sketch and label an early Tudor ship suggesting ways in which its design could be improved
On a visit pupils find out how Elizabeth I lived at Hampton Court
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 �7
Theplanfortheunitinvolvesthechildreninindividual,groupandwhole-classactivities.This,combinedwiththewidevarietyofactivities,shouldmeanthatpupilswitharangeoflearningstylesshouldbeabletoengagewiththetopic.
Anumberofconstraintsneedtobeovercomeincludingthestageofchilddevelopment,thecurriculum,resourcesandteacherexpertise.Anumberofresourcescanilluminatethenon-BritishaspectsofthestoryofTudorprosperity,suchasthosethatlinktotheIndiansub-continentandtheMughalempire.Forexample,acomparisonoflifeandtechnologybetweenTudorEnglandandMughalIndiaisaneffectivemeansofputtingrelativeTudorachievementsintoanon-Europeanperspective.Cross-curricularlinkscanusefullybemadewithgeographyandmathematicsandtherearesomegoodopportunitiestopracticearangeofEnglishandartskills.TherealstrengthofthisexampleinteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistorytopicsisthatitchallengesapurelyAnglocentricinterpretationoftheTudors,andallowsthepupilstoputtheTudorsinamuchwiderhistoricalcontext.
Resourcesthatareparticularlynotedfortheirusefulnessare:
Schoolcouncilbooklet,Akbar and Elizabeth
TheGlobeTheatrewebsite
Extractsfromthefilm,Shakespeare in Love
Thisrangeofresourcesemphasisestheimportanceofamultimediaapproachtoteachingresources.
Reasons for effectivenessInthecasestudy,severalexamplesofchildren’sworkarereproduced.Theunitaskedchildrentoworkcollaborativelyonanewspaperfront-pageabouttheArmada.Theseexamplesdemonstratethatthechildrennotonlylearnedarangeofsubjectknowledgethatisrelevanttothetopic,butcruciallythattheyengagedemotionallywiththestories.OnechilddemonstratesanabilitytoempathisewiththeKingofSpain:‘(T)he Duke of Palma mucked up our invasion plan because he was not ready in Dunkruk to sail. Phillip II was very angry when he found out. On the other hand Phillip was pleased with the Duke of Medina Sidenia because he had reached Calais but losing too many ships and not having a sea battle with Englande’(Cooper,2000)Inthechildren’swork,itispossibletoseeevidencethattheyhaveengagedwithavarietyofperspectives,bothBritishandnon-British,duringthetopic.
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Key Stage 3
Teachingcontroversialhistorywithstudentsofthisagebenefitsfromsomerisk-taking teaching.McCullyandKitson(2005)identifiedteachersinNorthernIrelandas“containers”,“avoiders”or“risk-takers”.Thesecategoriescanprobablybeappliedtoteacherselsewhere.AheadofhistoryinanortherncomprehensiveschooldiscussedtherecentcontroversyoverthewearingofveilsbyMuslimwomeninhermulticulturalclasses.Shedeliberatelyplannedtosetupanenquiryforherpupils,lookingatarangeofMuslimhistoricalsources,whichreflectdiversityofMuslimpracticeonthewearingoftheveilovertime.Thisheadofdepartmentisarisk-taker.
PeterDuffy,HeadofHistoryatacomprehensiveschoolinAnfield,Liverpool,teachesmostlywhite,workingclasspupils.Inhissetting,hestrugglestoengagehispupilsbydirectlyteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryasameansofmakingthesubjectinterestingandrelevanttothem.Hecanalsoberegardedasarisk-taker.LloydBrown,HeadofHumanitiesatChestertonCommunityCollegeinCambridge,teachesaboutthetransatlanticslavetradeanditsabolitionindepth,debatingtherangeofinterpretationsofthecausesofabolitionwithhispupils.Whenasked,asampleofmulticulturalpupilsfromhisschoolfeltLloyd’steachingdidjusticetobothwhiteandblackcontributionstoabolition.Heisalsoarisk-taker.Ineachcase,thereareclearbenefitsfromtakingsomerisks.
Creating quality historical enquiriesrequiresrigorousandcriticalthinkingaboutlearningoutcomesandthekindoflearningthatteacherswanttotakeplace.Thisgoeshand-in-handwitheffectivepracticeatKeyStage3.Effectiveteachersprovideaclearrationalefortheirplanningandaremindfulofthequestionsthatpupilsthemselveswantanswered.AlisonKitson(2001)foundevidenceofaquestionthatdidconcernpupilsofthisageinrelationtotheHolocaust:How could it have happened?ShefollowedthisupwithanapproachusingthisastheoverarchingenquiryquestionandsequencinganumberofsmallerenquiryquestionsthatenablepupilstodevelopabroadanddeepunderstandingoftheHolocaust:1.WhatwasitliketobeJewishinEuropebefore1933?2.HowdidHitlerchangeanti-Semitism?3.WhatistherealopinionoftheGermanpeople?WhatwastheFinalSolution?WhocouldhavestoppedtheHolocaust?
Better understanding of historical interpretationsisneededifpupilsaretoengagemorefullywithsensitiveissuesandissuesoflegacy.PriortotheopeningoftheBritishEmpireandCommonwealthMuseuminBristol,thecityheldatemporaryexhibitiononitslinkswiththeslavetrade.Wrenn(1999)collectedvariouslocalresponsesfromthe
generalpublictothisfirstexhibitionandmadeanalysisofthemafocusofthepupils’work.
Engagingandchallenginglearnersisanotheressentialcomponentofeffectivepractice—notalwaysaneasythinginKeyStage3.Lessonsthathaveanemotionalaswellasanintellectualimpactonpupilsandthatencouragepupilstousetheirimaginationtoconsiderotherpeople’sexperiencesoftenunderpinsuccessfulteaching.Maintaininganindividualandpersonaldimensionisawaytoelicitaneffectiveresponsethatbalancesandsupportscognitivework.Someofthemosteffectiveresourcesforuseinschoolsoftenfocusonindividualnarrativesandexperiences.Powerfulimages—music,drama,pictorialandfictioncanhelpengagethepupilswithextremeviewsascaninformeddebateandroleplay.
Somehistorydepartmentsensureaspecialplaceinthecurriculumbyprovidingbroaderandricherlearningexperiencesfortheirpupils.AtHolbrookHighSchoolinSuffolk,theHeadofHistory,DaleBanham,setupacross-curricularhistoryandcitizenshipprojectlookingatthehistoricreputationofabolitionist,ThomasClarkson,aimedspecificallyatgiftedandtalentedpupils.AtCottenhamVillageCollege,nearCambridge,theHeadofHistory,GeraintBrown,organisedgroupsofYear9pupilsonacollapsedhistoryandcitizenshipdayintoworkshopswheretheydecidedhowcountriessuchasGermanyandJapanmightcommemoratetheSecondWorldWar.SchoolsinviteHolocaustsurvivorsintoschoolandlinkpupils’worktoreligiouseducation,English,art,musicandschoolassemblies.Someteachersareabletomakecarefulyetilluminatingparallelsbetweenpastandpresent.
Locating quality resourcesispartoftheprocessforeffectiveKeyStage3practice.Thereareanumberofhigh-qualityresourcesforteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistoryatKeyStage3.Forslavery,anewUnderstandingSlaverywebsite(launchedJuly2006)providesarangeofresourcestosupportteaching(www.understandingslavery.com).TheBritishEmpireandCommonwealthMuseuminBristolsellVoicesoftheTransatlanticSlaveTrade(www.empiremuseum.co.uk)andwww.blackhistory4schools.com/slavetradehasmanylinksandresources.
Well-usedHolocaustresourcesincludelessonsfromtheHolocaust,HolocaustEducationalTrust,www.het.org.uk,Reflections,ateacher’sresourcepackfortheHolocaustExhibition,ImperialWarMuseum(www.iwm.org.uk)ApproachestoTeachingtheHolocaust,TheHolocaustCentre,BethShalom(www.bethshalom.com).ExtensiveresourcesfromtheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumareavailableonwww.ushmm.org.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 ��
WhileresourcesforteachingIslamichistoryarecurrentlysparse,MichaelRiley,JamieByronandChristineCounsellareintheprocessofwritingatextbookforPearsoncalledMeetings of Minds.Includedinthecontentisanenquiryentitled‘Threatsfrombeyond.HowcanweknowwhatMuslimsthoughtofCrusadersandinvaders?’Itseekstounderstandtheperiodbetween1095and1295fromthecontemporaryMuslimpointofview.Whileteachingmuchaboutthecriticalskillsofanhistorianthroughthepropertreatmentofsources,theenquiryplacestheChristianthreattoIslamintheperiodinthesettingofthemuchgreaterthreatoftheMongols.TheenquirymodelsthekindofrigorousapproachtoIslamichistorythatteachersshouldbringtobearonallemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
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Integrating emotive and controversial history into mainstream teaching
Asithasbeensaidearlier,researchshowsthatAfro-CaribbeanstudentscanfeelalienatedanddisconnectediftheonlyblackpeopletheyencounterinthehistorycurriculumarepassivevictimsoftheslavetradeorprotestingforcivilrightsintheUSA.SuchstudentsandtheirfamilieswouldprefertoseeregularreferencestoblackfacesinthemainstreamnarrativesofBritishhistorythan,forexample,inaBlackHistorymonth,however,well-intentionedonecanbe.
HenryComptonSchoolhasbeenawareofthisneedtoavoidtokenismwithregardtoblackhistory.Instead,theschoolplannedaseriesof‘shortburstsofrelevantblackhistorydrippedintothecurriculumattheappropriatemoment’.Blackhistoryisintegratedintothemainstreamhistorycurriculum,avoidingbothtokenismandartificially-createdopportunitiesforblackhistory.Forexample:
AsinglelessoninYear8wherepupilsstudyElizabethI’sconcernsabouttheincreasingnumbersofBlackmooreslivinginEnglandandherattemptstorepatriatethemin1596.PupilsusearangeofwrittensourcesfromtheNationalArchiveswebsiteandtakepartinarole-playtoexploretheperspectivesoftheQueen,LordBurghley,ablackservantandablackvagrant.ThelessonconcludeswithacomparisonofattitudestowardsraceandimmigrationinElizabethansourcesandinrecentBritishnewspapers.Thestudynotonlydebunks
themyththatblackpeopleonlyarrivedinBritaininrecenttimes,butalsoprovidesaspringboardfordiscussionaboutracialprejudiceinthelocalcommunity.InoneclassitledtoachallengingdiscussionabouttheissuesfacingtheSomalicommunityinLondon.
AseriesoflessonstohelppupilsunderstandthecontributionofsoldiersfromAfrica,AsiaandtheCaribbeantotheFirstWorldWar.ThelessonsarebasedonawebquestinwhichtheteacherprovidesaframeworktosupportpupilsinusingtheInternetasaresourcebank.ThewebquestasksYear9pupilstoimaginethattheyhavebeencommissionedtowriteabookletforprimaryschoolchildrenaboutthecontributionofblackandAsiansoldierstotheFirstWorldWar.Pupilsselectandsynthesisethematerialfromdifferentwebsitesinordertowriteforthisparticularaudience.
AnenquiryonOlaudahEquianoasawayofstudyingthetransatlanticslavetrade.Workinginteams,pupilstakepartinawebquestinwhichtheyarechallengedtocreatewebpagesthatupdateEquiano’sautobiographyfora21stcenturyaudience.PupilsresearchEquiano’slifeusingarangeofwebsites,writethenarrativeunderdifferentheadingsanddesignthewebpagesfortheschool’shistorywebsite.ByfocusingonthelifeofEquianointhisway,pupilsareprovidedwithapositiveandmotivatingcontextfortheirstudyoftransatlanticslavery.
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Case Study: Islamic history
Difficulties involved in the teachingTeachingIslamichistoryinmodernBritainposessomemajorchallengesasalreadyoutlined.ThecasestudyfromManchesterbelowillustratessomeofthese.Somestudentsfinditdifficulttomakeconnectionsbetweenthehistorytheystudyatschoolandcurrentpoliticalissues.Oftentheyhavefixedideasandhardenedattitudes,inparticular,theideaamongsomeMuslimstudentsthatthereisonetruthdoesnotalwayssitcomfortablywiththecriticalandpluralistperspectivesthatunderpinmuchschoolhistory.Moreover,thehistorydepartmentisacutelyawareoftheriskofalienatingtheminorityofwhitestudents,manyofwhomunder-achieve.
ContextAtAbraham Moss High SchoolinManchester,AlisonStephen,theHeadofHistory,hasembracedthechallengeofteachingIslamichistoryatKeyStage3.ThisworklaysthefoundationsforachallengingpieceofGCSEcourseworkontheArab-IsraeliconflictthatstudentsundertakeinYear11.Upto70%ofstudentsatAbrahamMossSchoolcomefromethnicminoritiesandover50differentlanguagesarespokenintheschool.Approximately60%ofthechildrenareMuslim.ThelargestgroupisofPakistanioriginandtherearealsomanyArabicspeakers.
How it is taughtFourkeyprinciplesunderpintheplanningofaunitofworkonIslamichistory.
A focus on the positive aspects of Islamic historyForexample,thedepartmenthasrecentlychangedthecoreassessmentfromanexplanationofthespreadofearlyIslamtoastudyoftheachievementsofearlyIslamandtheirsignificance.Thisemphasisonthepositiveachievementsofallcultures,includingBritain,underpinsmuchofthehistorycurriculumatAbrahamMoss.
A determination to help students to understand complexityTheyareencouragedtoexplorethediversityaswellastheunitywithinIslam.StudentsalsomovebeyondanunduefocusonconflictbetweenIslamandtheWest,studying,forexample,thewaysinwhichMuslimsandChristianslearnedfromeachotherduringthetimeoftheCrusades.
Critical thinking Studentsaretaughttoengagecriticallywithsourcesandinterpretations.Learningisfocusedonexploringstereotypicalviewsthroughtheanalysisofvisualsources.Theyarealsoencouragedtoconsider
differentinterpretationsofeventsandpeopleinthepast.Anenquiry,forexample,requiresstudentstoexaminedifferentinterpretationsofRichardlandSaladin.
Debate and discussion in a safe environment Thisisastrongfeatureofmosthistorylessonsandenablesstudentstodebatecontemporaryemotiveandcontroversialissuesinawiderarena.Forexample,ontheoutbreakofthewarinIraq,studentsresearchedtheissuesandledadebateinaschoolassembly.Morerecently,studentshavecontributedtoanonlinediscussionforumaboutInternetimagesoftheProphet.Inthisway,Muslimstudentswereabletoexplaintheoffencecausedbysuchimages.
AunitofworkthatexemplifiestheseprinciplesisthepicturechallengethatstudentsundertakeattheoutsetoftheirstudyofIslamichistory.TheyaregivenaseriesofstereotypicalWesternviewsofIslamichistory:
1. Muslims were not allowed to draw people, so their artwork is unimpressive.
2. The Muslims were too busy being religious to achieve anything else.
3. Muslim women always stayed inside and were busy with domestic duties.
4. Muslims and Christians were always fighting.
Insmallgroups,studentsthenuseaseriesofdigitalimagestochallengethestatements.Fromarangeofpicturestheyselecttheonesthataremostusefulinunderminingthestereotypicalview,usingtheseimagestocreateaPowerPointpresentationinwhichtheyexplaintheirchoices.TheactivityencouragesthemtoexplorethecomplexityofIslamiccultureinthepastandtodeveloptheirhistorical,ICTanddiscussionskills.
Reasons for effectivenessTheoveralleffectivenessisnotalwayseasytodetect,althoughtheschoolbelievesthattensionsarereducedandthestudentsarepreparedtodiscussandconfrontarangeofsensitiveandcontroversialissues.Thereisagreaterreadinesstotakerisksthantheymightnormallyexpectandtoconsiderotherviewpoints.Yet,whatthehistorydepartmentreallyfeelshasmadethedifferenceisthattherisk-takinginexploringdiversity,differenceandcontroversyisdoneinasafeandsensitiveenvironment.ThealienationofmanyfromtheKeyStage3historycurriculumhasnotbeenfeltattheschool.Theconsciousattempttobalancepositiveandnegativeimageshashelped.Thestudentsareencouragedtoseebeyondthesurfaceissuestoconfrontthecomplexityofeventsandsituations.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 3�
Key Stage 4/GCSE
GoodpracticeatKeyStage4resultswhentheplanningofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryisexplicitwithinthecontextofthethemeorunit. Thismeansexploringmultipleperspectivesandchallengingcommonlyheldmisconceptions.Forexample,inrelationtotheteachingoftheHolocaust,studentsaretaughtthatNazipersecutionoftheJewswaspartofawiderpolicy,whichincludedothergroups.Theyarethereforeprovidedwithacontext,whichsetstheHolocaustalongsideothergenocidesandthehistoryofanti-Semitism.InattributingresponsibilityfortheJewishHolocaust,careistakenthatallGermansarenotlabelledasanti-Semitic.Rescue,resistanceandtheculturaldiversityofEuropeintheperiodarestudied,particularlytocounterthestereotypingofJewsashelplessvictims,awaitingextermination.
OneschoolinvolvedinteachingtheHolocaustisOunsdaleHighSchoolinWombourne.Ithasabout1,250pupilsonroll,coveringthefullsocialclassandethnicgroups.Themajorityofpupilscomefromsociallyadvantagedareas,althoughtherearepocketsofsignificantsocialdeprivation.ThepupilsarefromoverwhelminglywhiteBritishbackgroundswithasmallproportioncomingfromethnicminorityfamilies.ThedepartmentisinvolvedinthenewOCRPilotHistoryGCSEandteachestheHolocaustasthefocusoftheInternationalStudyOption.ThelocalareahasalsoseengrowingactivityfromtheBritishNationalPartyandtheFreedomParty.Giventhispoliticalcontext,thedepartmentfeelsthereisaneedtoteachtheHolocaustindepthtotackleissuesrelatingtoprejudiceandracism.
AspartoftheirearlyworktoprovideabroadercontextfortheHolocaust,pupilsstudytheArmeniangenocide.ThestartingpointforthiswastheBBCprogrammeWho Do You Think You Are?withDavidDickinsonandhisdifficultyinexploringhisArmenianrootsinTurkey.Toprovidealocalelementinthestudy,studentslookatOswaldMosleywhowasbornlocally.Tointroducethiselement,thesongThe Ghosts of Cable StreetbyTheMenTheyCouldn’tHangisusedtointroduceMosleyandthe1936BattleofCableStreet.Thisisusedtoshowthatanti-SemitismwasnotsimplyaGermanorcontinentalEuropeanphenomenon.
Thereisalsoastrongfocusonvictims,bystandersandperpetrators.Thisgetsstudentstolookateventsfromalternativeperspectives.Forexample,onesequenceoflessonsrequirespupilstoexamineadeportationofJewsfromthesedifferentperspectivesandexplorewhathappenedandhowpeoplecouldhavereacted.ThisisdesignedtogetpupilstoappreciatethecomplexityoftheissuesinvolvedandissupportedbyavisittotheHolocaustGalleryattheImperialWarMuseum.Thefinal
taskisforstudentstocreatetheirownexhibitionabouttheHolocaustusingonlytenpanels,asinamuseumdisplay.TheyhavetojustifytheirchoiceofmaterialsandhavetoexplainwhatitrevealsaboutthesignificanceoftheHolocaust.Ithasbeenpossibletodrawonanumberofusefulresources.TheIWM’steachingpack‘Reflections’isutilisedagreatdeal,asareanumberofwebsites,particularlythoseoftheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumandYadVashem.
Informalfeedbackfromcolleaguesinotherdepartmentssuggeststheunitisworkingwell.TwoPEandoneScienceteachershavereportedhavingdetaileddiscussionswithpupilsabouttheHolocaustandbeingamazedbythedepthandqualityofinsightprovidedbythesepupils.
Atanotherschool,AbrahamMossinManchester,thehistorydepartmentfollowstheAQAModernWorldspecification,studyingtheArab-Israeliconflictforbothitscourseworkunits.TheschemeofworkstartswithanoverviewoftheconflictfromtheearlydaysofZionismrightuptothepresent,includingtheroleofYasserArafatandtheestablishmentofthePalestinianAuthority.Thisprovidesastrongcontextinwhichtoexploretheissuesrelatingtotheconflict.StudentsarethereforelikelytogainanunderstandingabouthowandwhythestateofIsraelcameintoexistence.Theyconsidermultipleperspectivesontheissuescoveredandcometoacknowledgetheconcernsthatexistonbothsidesoftheconflict.
Culpin(2005)offersguidanceonplanningtotacklemodernconflictsintheirhistoricalcontext.Essentiallyhesaysthatteachersneedtoprovidefactualcontextatthestart(judgementcomesattheendoftheenquiry),lookfortherootsofthecurrentsituation,expectsourcestobeunreliable,expectseveraldifferentpointsofviewandtoaskbig“why”questions.TheSchoolsHistoryProject(SHP)websitealsooffersfurtheradviceonplanningtoteachcontroversialcontent,specificallylookingatmodern-daydictatorships.Thequestionaskedis:How does the world deal with Rogue Rulers? (www.leedstrinity.ac.uk/shp/teach_guides/docs/MWS%20eight%20steps.doc)
Aswithotherkeystages,emotionalengagementisnecessarytochallengemindsets.Therigourofhistoricalmethodsofenquiryisessential,butnotpowerfulenoughinthemselvestonecessarilyovercomeprejudiceandstereotyping.Emotionalengagementformsasignificantpartnerinthestructuringofactivities.Theuseoflocalhistory,reconstructions,afocusonchildlabourandmakingdeliberatelinkstothepresentishowonehistorydepartmentseekstohookpupils’personalengagement.
AspartoftheteachingofArab-IsraelicourseworkatAbrahamMossSchoolinManchester,studentstakeon
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theroleofUNcommissionersgiventhetaskofdividingPalestineinthelate1940s.TheyareremindedofthehorrorsoftheHolocaustandthelikelyimpactonworldopinion.ThestudentsalsoconsiderhowthesurvivorsoftheHolocaustwouldrespondtothequestion Why did I survive?andhowthatmighthaveimpactedonthedesireforaJewishstate.Atimelineofeventsandinformationaboutwholivedintheareaandattitudesofdifferentorganisations,statesandpeoplesareprovidedtohelppupilsconsiderthedivisionofland.GiventhepredominanceofMuslimpupilsintheSchoolandtheexistenceofpotentialanti-JewishsentimentorignoranceofJewishculture,thistaskpresentsacomplexchallenge.Theresultsareveryinteresting.ThevastmajorityofstudentspartitionthelandevenlybetweenArabsandJews,eventhoughtheJewishpopulationwasfarsmaller,andtheyestablishJerusalemasaneutralzone.Thereasonspupilsgivefortheirdecisionsvary,buttheyarepredominantlyassociatedwiththefollowing:issuesoffairness,acknowledgementofthesufferingoftheJewsintheHolocaust,arecognitionthatJewshadlivedintheregionforcenturiesbeforetheArabs,andadesiretofindasolutionwherebothsidescouldliveinpeace.
Anotherlessonatthisschoolisdesignedtoencouragestudentstoappreciatethevalueofparticularplacestodifferentgroups.Thisisanimportantissueforstudentstounderstandasthisisasourceofmuchtensionintheregion.Startingwithalocallandmark,theyareaskedtowriteaboutwhatitmeanttothem,thereforeestablishingtheideathatasenseofplaceisimportantandhasdifferentsignificancetovariousgroupsandthatthissignificancecanchangeoralterinintensityovertime.Withthisideaestablished,studentsarethenaskedtoexplainwhatdifferentplacesmeantotheArabsandJews.Thisdeepenspupils’understandingaboutthedifficultiesoffindingapeacefulsolutiontotheconflict.
TheresearchofMcCullyandPilgrim(2004)inNorthernIrelandisalsopertinenttotheissueofemotionalengagementelsewhere.Previousresearchtherehasshownthatteachinghistorythroughpurelyempiricalmethodshadnotshiftedthedeep-seatedprejudicesandhighlypartisancommunalversionsofhistorybroughtbyteenagersfromtheoppositesidesofthereligiousandculturaldividetothehistoryclassroom.Withinanempiricalframeworkofagreedvaluesandprocedures,theresearcherscreatedtwofictionalteenagersholdingopposingnationalistandunionistviewsoftheircommonpart.Classesbegantoexplorethereasonswhythesesurrogateteenagersmightholdtheviewstheydo.Thisapproachdidnotchallengethepersonalviewsofstudentshead-on,butallowedtwoalternativenarrativestobeanalysedinawaythatwasnotpersonallythreatening.Theyengagedwiththisapproachandtheresearchersfoundithelpfulinmakingmoreofarealimpactonstudentthinking.Itispossiblethesameapproachmightworkinchallengingotherpartisanhistories.
However,debateanddiscussionneedtobehandledwithcareandskill.OtherresearchintomethodsinvestigatedbyShortandReed(2004)suggestthat,inthecaseoftheHolocaust,itisunacceptableforateachertoadopttheroleoftheneutralchair.Itmayindicatethattheteacherisindifferenttotheeventbeingdiscussedorcouldresultinrevisionist,anti-SemiticHolocaustdenialbeinggivenanequalplatformalongsidemainstreamhistoricaldebate.
Whilstemotionalengagementiscrucial,effectivepracticesuggeststhatitneedsmanagingcarefully,althoughwhatthisentailsisitselfcontroversialandhasdividedhistoryeducators.Brett(2005)seesthecultivationofmoraloutrageexplicitinsometopicsasawayofpromotingsocialandmoraldebate,whereasHaydn(2000)andKinloch(2001)prefermorehistorygroundedapproaches.
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Case Study: The War on Terror
ContextKingsfieldSchoolisan11–18schoolinBristolwithover1200studentsonroll.Manyofthepupilscomefromhomesthatarebotheducationallyandeconomicallydisadvantaged.ItslatestOfstedinspectionin2003ratestheschoolassatisfactory,althoughthehistorydepartmentisdescribedasverygood.Theschoolintakeispredominantlywhiteworkingclass.
ThehistorydepartmentfollowstheOCRSchoolsHistoryProject.ThedepartmentfocusesontheWaronTerrorforoneunitoutofthetwopiecesofcourseworkthathavetobecompleted.Thedecisiontodothisworkwasmadein2005,sothedepartmentisonlyinitssecondyearusingthesematerials.
Wheninterviewed,theheadofdepartmentsaidthat‘7/7 happened and I can’t not do this. I feel I have a responsibility’.Thereisaclearsensethatthetopicisrelevant,andparticularlyastheschoolservesapredominantlywhiteintakethatthestudentsneedtounderstandthemulticulturalworldinwhichtheylive.Theunitcanbringhometostudentstheimportanceofhistoryinmakingsenseoftheworldandhelpthemtorealisethat,accordingtotheheadofdepartment,‘history is about now and the future and the scariness that we are part of a chain of events’.
How it is taughtThedepartmentspendsnineortenweeksteachingandcompletingthecoursework.Thestudentsexplorethepossiblereasonsforthe9/11terroristattackontheUSA,coveringareassuchasal-Qaeda,long-standingproblemsintheMiddleEast,USforeignpolicy,emergenceofmilitantIslamicextremistsandthesituationinAfghanistanandIraq.Inaddition,theyexaminetheaimsandobjectivesoftheWaronTerrorandareaskedtoconsiderwhetheritislikelytobesuccessful.
Toprovideaninitialstartingpointtothetopic,studentsareencouragedtosharetheirpriorunderstandingasaclass.Theinitialaimistoprovideachronologicaloutlineofsignificantevents.Onthesurfacethisseemstobeaverysimpletask,butstudentsarethenchallengedtoexplainwhyeacheventmayhavecontributedtothestartoftheWaronTerrorand/ortoidentifyanyquestionsthatmayarise.
Anewapproachtoteachinginthedepartmentistheuseofcircletimeoracommunityofenquiryapproach.Thepurposeofthisistoallowstudentstosharetheirideasinasupportiveenvironment.Theyareencouragedto
expresstheirviews,andideasarethenopentodebate,challengeorelaborationfromotherstudentsinthecircle.Thisisseenbythedepartmentasaneffectivewayforalltocontributeandhavetheirideasvalued,aswellasopeninguparangeofideasandopinionswheretheprosandconsofdifferentviewscanbeconsidered.
TheproblemofresourceswaslargelysolvedbydevisingmaterialsdrawnfromtheInternetandmediacurrentaffairscoverage.Thereweresensitivitiestonavigateconcerningcopyright,provenanceandstudentexposuretoextremistviews.Theteacherswritingthecourseworkmaterialshadtocommitthemselvestoextensiveresearchinanareawheretheylackedsubjectknowledgewithnosubjectspecificin-servicetrainingortimegiven.Thisresearchwasalsonecessaryingivingteacherstheconfidencewhencounteringstronglyheldstudentviews.Onoccasions,itbecameessentialtochallengestudentattitudesandknowledge.Manybringverylittlecontextualknowledgetodrawuponwhenstudyingthetopic.Theirviewsareshapedbycurrentmediacoverageorfamilyviews.Inafewcases,anti-Muslimprejudiceneededchallenging.
Reasons for effectivenessStudentquestionnaireresponseshaveprovedoverwhelminglypositive.Theycommentedontheirnewinsightintothetopicandtheircourseworkgrades,whichappeartohaveboostedtheirconfidenceandself-esteem.TheAleveltake-upofthesubjectwasmuchbetterasaresultofstudentshavingstudiedthecourseworkunit.Thefeelingfromthedepartmentisthatstudentsaremoreengagedandinterestedintheirworkonthisunit,andareabletomakemuchgreatersenseoftheissuessurroundingtheWaronTerror.Alongsidethis,thedepartmentseesotherbenefits.Theunithasbeenparticularlypopularwithboys.Studentsshowagreatersenseofself-confidenceindiscussingissues.Theyshowsignsofbecomingmoreindependentlearnersandthinkersandthereseemstobearealsensethatthestudentsareenquirers.Thecourseworkgradesachievedonthissectionaremuchhigherthanwouldbeexpected.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 35
Post-16
EmotiveandcontroversialhistoryismosteffectiveatASandA2levelwhenitisintegratedintothebroader,mainstreamnarrativesofparticularperiods.Amodelfordoingthismaybewomen’shistory,whichwasitselfemotiveandcontroversialinthe1980s.Now,forexample,itispossibletofindthelettersofMargaretPastonasanintegralpartofthedocumentaryevidenceforteachingthemedievalperiod.
Atthesametime,studentsatthislevelengagemoreeffectivelywithemotiveandcontroversialissuesifengagingwithissuesofmoredirectpersonalrelevanceratherthanvicariouscontent.Foster,forexample,(2004)contendsthattostudyCivilRightsinAmericaasawayofstudyingBlackHistoryforAfro-Caribbeanstudentsisasopandlesslikelytoengagethem.TeachersmightpreferthisaspectofAmericanhistoryasbeingmorecomfortable,butthestudentsarelikelytobemoreengagediffocusingonissuessuchastheslavetradeorthehistoryofmigrationtoBritainandthetreatmentofminoritiesinthe1950sashighlightedbyAndreaLevy’sSmall Island.Lyndon’smodelofintegratingblackBritishhistoryintotheNationalCurriculummaybeausefuloneforpost-16.Forexample,hisworkonElizabeth’sattemptstorepatriatetheBlackmooresinthe1590scouldbeusedintheAQAcasestudyon‘TheproblemofPovertyinTudorEngland’(Unit6W).
Someschoolsdo,however,addressAmericanCivilRightswithsuccess.AtNetherhallSchoolinCambridge,thestudentsaresettheEdexcelspecificationandCivilRightsinAmericaisoneoftheoptionschosen.Whilstthereisanemphasisonpreparingthestudentstosucceedintheexamination,theteachingandlearninggoesfurtherthanthat.Amethodtheyusetoconcludetheunitistoaskthestudentstodesignacivilrightsmuseum,whichmakesthemfocusonsuchthingsas:
Whatarethereallykeyissuesandthemes?
Whoarethekeyleadersandhowdotheycompare?
Howbestisthecivilrightsmovementremembered?
Thisencouragesthestudentstoprobedeeplyandseetheimportanceofinterpretationandrepresentationinhistory.Itassiststheirunderstandingthathistoryiscomplexandthatitislargelyaconstructwithreasonsforthewaythatitisdepictedandportrayed.Theissuestheyaddressincludetheextenttowhichsuchexhibitionsormuseumsareforcommemoration,education,preservationorattraction.Itmightbeassumedthatthisisadistractionorapleasantwaytoroundoffthetheme.Onthecontrary,theactivityproducessomehigh-quality
workdemonstratingevidenceofdeeperthinkingandrecognitionofthecomplexityandsignificanceoftheissues.Studentsgiveveryseriousconsiderationtotheselectionandtheyareforcedtoidentifycriteriaformeasuringsignificanceandwhatmatters—somethingthattheyclaimhelpsthemwiththeirdeeperunderstandingofotherhistoricalcontent.
ASandA2historystudentsneedaccesstoavarietyofviewpointsandinterpretationsofthesameeventsbuiltintotheircourses.Forexample,ShrewsburySixthFormCollegeteachslaveryaspartofthebackgroundtotheBritishEmpireinYear13.Studentsaccess‘TheWrongEmpire’,anepisodefromSimonSchama’sHistory of Britain,anewsnightdebateontheriseofcompensation/reparationforslaveryandresearchwebsitesonthesameissues.InNorwich,someA2studentsusearangeofsourcestoshowChristianandMuslimperspectivesontheCrusades.BookssuchasThomasMadden’sThe Crusades alsoincludearticlesbyArabhistorians.
Engagementalsoseemstobeimprovedwhentheteachermanagesdebateanddiscussioneffectively.Researchersandeducationalists,suchasBerg,GraafandHolden(2003),identifyarangeofoptionstoconsidersuchascommitted,objectiveoracademic,devil’sadvocate,impartialchairpersonandadeclaredinterestrole.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 36
Case Study: Russia in the 1��0s
Difficulties involved in the teachingThefocusinthiscasestudyisanexampleofasensitiveissuerelatingtoRussianfamineintheearly1920s.SomuchoftheemphasisonRussianhistoryfocusesontheBolshevikRevolutionandtheregimesofLeninandStalin.Oneexamplethatisparticularlysensitivethoughistheissueoffaminethatledtosomecannibalism.Theemotiveissuesareobvious—itcandepicthumanbeingsattheirworst.Thematerialcanbeverygraphicandharrowing.EvenstudentsinYears12and13canbedisturbedbythesephotographs,accounts,picturesetc.
ContextOneinstitutionthatconfrontsthisissueisHorshamSixthFormCollegeinSussex.ThecourseistaughtaspartoftheEdexcelA-levelspecification.Althoughthecollegehasavariedintake,ithasahistoryofsuccessfulresultsatASandA2.
How it is taughtStudentsarewarnedaheadofthelesson(s)thattheywillfindthematerialharrowingandthewarningisrepeatedduringthelessons,inadvanceofbeingpresentedwithphotographs,accountsandotherpictorialevidence.Theyarewarnedthattheymaybeupsetandthattheyareatlibertytoleavethelessonortalktostaffafterwards.
Thecontextofhungeranddeprivationisusuallyconveyedthroughfirst-handaccounts,discussedinclassandanalysedforhomework.Thediscussioncentresonwhatthestudentswoulddointhesamesituation.Theextractsarefullofnastydetailthatcanbetranslatedintoexactquantitiesofbread,handfulsofbark/mossandtornclothesinclass.Itdoesgivethestudentsagoodideaaboutwhatpeopleate.
Thesecondlessonfocusesonphotographsandgraphicsoftheperiodandtheseincludestarvingpeasants,cannibalsandhumanremainsaswellasstatistics.Thevisualresourcestendtobediscussedinrelationtostudentinformationonotherfaminesandinstancesofcannibalism.Thephotographsincludeacartwithcorpses,afamilywiththechildrenintatteredclothes,thecannibalswiththebodypartsaroundthem.Thelessontendstotakeascientific,practicalandlegaldirectionaboutfaminesandcannibalism.StudentsgoawaywithanextractfromA People’s Tragedy toreadinadvanceofthenextlesson.
ThethirdlessoncontraststhehistoricalaccountwithashortextractfromadubbedRussianfilm,whichdealswiththefamineinanobjectivefashion.Thereasons,
worthandmoralityofthecommentaryarediscussed.Thetopicendsupinaformaldebate,forexample,‘Sometimestheendsjustifythemeans:thefamineof1921wasanunfortunate,butnecessaryfactorinthesurvivalofRussianCommunism’.
Until2006–2007,thisunitwasspreadacrosstwoterms.Itwasallocatedlesstimeperweekthantheothertwounits.KeySkillsassignmentswerealsoofferedwithinitandusedittosupportthesourceandessay-writingskillsfortheotherunits.Theapproachhasnowchanged.ThisunitistaughtbytwomembersofstaffandconfinedtotheSpringTerm.UptothreelessonsarejustifiedinthatthefaminelinksupwiththedestitutionofWarCommunismandturmoilofthecivilwar.Thesourcesandphotographsapplytoall.Famineisanalysedwithreferencetogovernmentpolicies,waranddisruption.Thedebatealsohasawiderimplication,combiningwiththeCommunists’teleologicalarguments.
Reasons for effectivenessThecollegeconsidersthattheemotiveandcontroversialissuesareaddressedsuccessfully.Thestudentsengagewiththetopicandarejudgedtoemergewithagreaterunderstandingoftheissues.Thegraphicanddisturbingnatureexciteopinionandjudgement,andthestudentsadmittheimagesandaccountsarememorableandthought-provoking.Thequestionsaboutthephotographs,whicharebeameduponabigscreen,alwayselicitabalancebetweenmorbidinterestandthought-provokingconcern.
Ithelpsstudentsunderstandtheprocessesandtentativenatureofhistory,especiallywhenconfrontingquestionssuchas:
Whyarethemanandhisfamilydressedinrags?
Whyisthefamilyassumingthisposition?
Whathashappenedtotheirhome?
Whyisthemother'shandextended?
Dothecannibals/fleshtraders'expressionsattesttotheirstateofmind?
Whyarechildrenparticularlyvulnerable?
Itmightbenaturaltoassumetherewouldbesomecomplaintsfromparents,otherstafforstudents,butthishasnotbeenthecase.TherearealsoopportunitiestolinkthepastwiththecontemporaryworldwithstudentsdiscussingsimilaranddifferentsituationsinplacessuchastheSudan.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 37
Latest historical thinking on some emotive and controversial issues
6
Britain and the Slave Trade
Between1640and1807,theBritishcarriedover3millionAfricansintoslaveryintheWestIndies.Thisforcedmigrationcreatedasharedhistory,butoneinwhichdispositionsofpowerandwealthwerehighlyunequal.Italsonurturedslaveresistanceand,ultimately,publicoutrageandabolition.Tensionsovertheownershipofthishistorystillremainstarkandprovokemajorcontroversiesaboutitsinterpretation.TheincreasedpresenceinBritaintodayofpeopleofAfricandescent—oneofthelegaciesoftransatlanticslavery—givesaddedsignificancetosuchcontroversies.
Controversyisintrinsictomanyaspectsofslavetradehistory.Onesurroundstheracialstructureoftransatlanticslavery.Thisdifferentiatesitfrommostotherhistoriesofslavery.Itprovokesargumentsoverthemeaningofraceandtheimpactofracisminshapingpatternsofexploitationinthemodernworld,includingBritain.ArelatedissueistheimpactoftheslavetradeonAfricaandAfricanidentity.AlthoughthenumbersofAfricanstakentotheWestIndiesmaybeestimated,thetotalnumberaffectedbytheslavetradeinAfricaisincalculable.Someguess50millionormorewereaffected;othersassumemuchlowerfigures.Forsomehistorians,notablyJohnFageandDavidEltis,theslavetrade’simpactonAfricawaslocalised,butforsomescholarsofAfricandescent,notablyWalterRodneyandJosephInikori,itprovokedwidespreadandlong-lastingdevastation,amountingtosomethingakintotheHolocaustand,togetherwithlaterEuropeancolonisation,laidthefoundationsofAfrica’scurrentpoverty.
WhereAfricaandAfricanslost,Britaingainedfromtheslavetrade.Howmuchiscontested.DebatecentresontherelationshipofslaverytooneofthemostdefiningchangesinBritishhistory,theIndustrialRevolution.Oftenconsideredmarginalbyeconomichistorians,slaverywasgivencentreplaceinBritishindustrialisationbytheWestIndianscholar,EricWilliams.HepointedtothelargeprofitsmadefromslaveryandthelinksbetweenLiverpool,Britain’sslavingcapital,andManchester,the
cradleofthefactorysystem.ArgumentsthatslaveryunderwrotemodernBritishwealthfueldemandsfromgroupsofAfrican-CaribbeandescentforanapologyandreparationbyBritaintoalltheslavetrade’svictims,pastandpresent.PrimeMinisterBlair’s2006statementofregretabouttheslavetradewasdeemedinadequatebysuchgroups.Itwasseenasunwarrantedbyotherswhonotedthatslave-tradingwaslegaluntil1807andinvolvedpartnershipwithAfricantraders.
SimilarcontroversysurroundsBritishabolitionoftheslavetradein1807.Foracenturyafter1807,themainstreamviewwasthatabolitionwastheoutcomeofreligiously-inspiredpoliticalactionbyenlightenedheroessuchasWilliamWilberforce.ThisargumentwaschallengedagainbyEricWilliams.Hearguedthatslaverywasineconomicdeclineby1807andthatabolitioninvolvedessentiallyare-calculationofBritain’sglobalcommercialinterestslinkedtofreelabourandfreetrade.ThischallengetothemoralrootsofabolitionismwasreinforcedbyWilliams’fellowWestIndian,CLRJames,whoemphasisedtheimpactofslaveresistanceonemancipation.ThiscontestforthesoulofabolitionismisreflectedinrecentbiographiesofOlaudahEquianoandWilliamWilberforce,aswellastheforthcomingfilmaboutWilberforceentitledAmazing Grace.
ProfessorDavidRichardson,DirectoroftheWilberforceInstitute
forthestudyofSlaveryandEmancipation,UniversityofHull
ReferencesCLRJames,The Black Jacobins: Toussaint L’Ouvertureand the San Domingo revolution(1938:1980edition)EricWilliams,Capitalism and Slavery(1944)HSKlein,The Atlantic Slave Trade(1999)JWalvin,A Short History of Slavery(2007)
6
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 38
The Russian Civil War and the Period of the New Economic Policy (1�17–1��8)
Current research issues andhistoriographical backgroundTheRussianCivilWarnevergeneratedalevelofdebateamongWesternscholarstomatchthatsurroundingtheOctoberRevolutionof1917.AdegreeofconsensuswasreachedthattheBolsheviksweretriumphantinthewarlargelyasaconsequenceofthepoliticalineptitudeoftheirmajoropponents,theWhites(ledby‘SupremeRuler’AdmiralA.V.Kolchak).Thatnotwithstanding,however,thatanotablefeatureofWesternscholarshipwasitstendencytoemphasisethemilitaryleadershipofLeonTrotskyasheadoftheRedArmy,perhapsasadeliberatecountertoSovietscholarshiponthesubjectthatignoredormalignedTrotsky’scontributionintheaftermathofhisexpulsionfromtheSovietUnionin1929;or,perhaps,outofaninnatesympathyforhisfamouslygrizzlyfate.However,certainissueshavebeencontentious.RecentstudiesbySwainandMawdsleyciteOctober,orevenAugust,1917asthebeginningoftheCivilWar,therebyimplyingthatthestrugglewasnotforcedupontheBolsheviksby‘counter-revolutionaries’andthe‘imperialist’interventioninRussiaoftheAllies,butwasdeliberatelyfosteredbyLenininordertoconsolidateSovietruleandtodestroyallmoderate-leftalternativestoBolshevism.Followingonfromthat,increasingattentionhasbeenpaidrecentlytothefateofthe‘democratic’alternativestoBolshevism.Accordingly,theRed–Whitestrugglehasbeende-emphasisedinWesternwritings.
Inpost-SovietRussia,bycontrast,theWhiteshavegeneratedanotalwaysverywholesome,evenneofascist,following.HagiographicallivesoftheWhiteleadershavebeenpublishedindrovesandtheiruseofterroragainsttheiropponents(Bolshevik,socialistandliberal)hasbeendownplayed.Symptomaticofthisweremovesbyright-wingorganisationstohaveKolchakofficiallyrehabilitated:aregionalmilitarycourtdeniedsucharequestin1999andtheSupremeCourtrefusedanotherin2004.Nevertheless,monumentsdedicatedtoKolchakhavebeenerectedinStPetersburg(2002)andIrkutsk(2004),whileanIrkutskbreweryproduceda‘Kolchak’beerinthe1990s.MuchpatrioticemotionandconcomitantBolshevik-bashingwasalsogeneratedinRussiabythereburial(1998)andcanonisation(2000)ofthemurderedtsar,NicholasII,andhisfamily.
Thelate-Soviet(Gorbachev)periodunsurprisinglyproducedawealthofscholarshipinbothRussiaandabroadonsupposed‘alternatives’toStalinand
Stalinism,withparticularattentionpaidtotheideasofN.I.Bukharin(executed1938,rehabilitated1988),thechampionofthemixed-economyNEP.Interestingly,though,aninfluentialstrandofWesternscholarshiphasdevelopedthattakesastarklydifferentapproach,seekingtodemonstratethedegreeofpopular,working-classsupportthatStalinenjoyedinendingtheNEPandinstitutingthecollectivisationofagricultureinthelate1920s.
JonathanD.SmeleSeniorLecturerinModernEuropeanHistory
QueenMary,UniversityofLondon
ReferencesA.Kemp-Welch(ed.andintrod.),The Ideas of Nikolai Bukharin.Oxford:TheClarendonPress,1992EvanMawdsley,The Russian Civil War.Boston:Allen&Unwin,1987(repr.Edinburgh:Berlinn,2000)GeoffreySwain,The Origins of the Russian Civil War.London:Longman,1996LynneViola,The Best Sons of the Fatherland: Workersin the Vanguard of Soviet Collectivization.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress,1987
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 3�
The Holocaust
The Holocaust isthemostcommonlyusedterm(althoughothersprefertheHebrewword‘Shoah’ which,unlikeHolocaust,doesnothaveconnotationsofsacrifice)todescribethesystematic,state-sponsoredpersecutionandmurderofJewsduringWorldWarII.AftercomingtopowerinGermanyin1933,theNazipartyplacedpersonspersecutedonethnic,racialorpoliticalgroundsintoconcentration camps inGermany.AsGermanyoccupiedothercountriesinEuropeduringWorldWarII,persecutionbroadenedandintensified.Itwastheperiod1942–1944thatsawthelargestnumberofkillingsasmillionsofJewsweretransportedfromacrossoccupiedEuropetospeciallyconstructeddeath camps,thelargestandmostfamousofwhichwasAuschwitz-Birkenau,whereover1millionJewswerekilledbypoisonedgasin32months.Bytheendofthewar,NaziGermanyandtheircollaboratorshadkilledaroundtwo-thirdsofthepre-warJewishpopulationofEurope.Theexactnumberwillneverbeknown,buthistoriansestimatethatbetweenfiveandsixmillionJewswerekilledduringWorldWarIIaspartofanintentionalexterminationpolicy.
Despiteoverwhelmingevidencetothecontrary,somehavequeriedthesefigures,withso-calledHolocaustdeniers seekingtodownplaythenumbersofJewskilledortheextentofHitler’sknowledgeoftheHolocaust,motivatedbyaracistextremeright-wingagendaandadesiretorehabilitateHitlerandtheNazis.PerhapsthemostrecentinfamouscaseisthatofDavidIrving,wholostthelibelcasehebroughtagainstthehistorianDeborahLipstadtin2000,whohadaccusedIrvingofbeingaHolocaustdenier.Irvinghitthenewsagainin2006whenhewasimprisonedinAustria,whichisoneEuropeancountrythathasmadedenialoftheHolocaustasbeingacriminaloffence.TherecentconferencehostedinTehranin2007,whichgaveaplatformtoHolocaustdenial,pointstoitsimportanceintheArabandMuslimworld,giventheperceptionofthelinksbetweentheHolocaustandthejustificationsfortheestablishmentofthestateofIsrael.
Althoughinbroadagreementaboutthenumberskilled,historiansstilldebatetheprecisetimingofthedecisiontoinitiateaEuropean-widepolicyofmassmurder,althoughmostseethedecisiontokillEurope’sJewsbeingmadeinthesummerorautumnof1941,andwouldsuggestthatHitlerandtheNazieliteplayedacriticalroleintheradicalisationofanti-Jewishpolicy.Itisclearthatanti-SemitismwasacentralplankofNaziideology,butmanyhistorianssuggestthatitisoverlysimplistictoexplaintheHolocaustintermsofanti-Semiticideologyalone.Inparticular,inexplainingwhyindividualschosetokillJews,oneprominenthistorian,ChristopherBrowning,hasarguedthattheydidsoforthemostordinary
ofreasons—peerpressureandadesireforcareeradvancement.
Historianshavepointedtothecomplexityofmotivationsbehindthekillings,aswellastothecomplexityoftheeventsthemselves.Inmanycountries,theNaziswerehelpedbynativecollaborators.Somemembersofthelocalpopulation(oftendescribedasbystanders)sawthepersecutionoftheJewsasachancetosettlescoresorenrichthemselves.OthersshelteredJews;mostdidnothing.TheJewishvictimsthemselvesrespondedinavarietyofwaystotheincreasingpaceofpersecution.InthecityofWarsaw,thousandsfledtheghetto(closedresidentialdistrict)andhidoutsideitswalls.In1943,thesmallnumberofJews,remainingintheWarsawghettoafterthemajorityoftheghettopopulationhadbeentransportedtothedeathcamps,stagedanarmedrevoltagainsttheNazis.
AlthoughtheHolocaustisatermusedspecificallytorefertotheNazipersecutionandmurderofJews,manyothervictimgroupsbothwithinandoutsideofGermanyweretargetedbytheNazisonethnic,racialorpoliticalgrounds.TheseincludedPolesandRussians,Gypsies,homosexuals,Jehovah’sWitnesses,thosedeemed‘asocial’or‘inferior’,andperceivedpoliticalopponentsofNazism.MosthistorianswouldseethemurderofJewsasdistinctivegivenitssystematic,Europe-widenature,butitisimportanttoacknowledgethatnotallvictimsofNazismintheperiod1933-45wereJews.
DrTimCole,SeniorLecturerinSocialHistory,
DepartmentofHistoricalStudies,UniversityofBristol
ReferencesWeb siteswww.ushmm.orghasarangeofexcellentresources,includingmanyspecificallyaimedatteacherswww.yadvashem.orghasawiderangeofresources,withaparticularfocusuponvictimperspectives
BooksDebórahDwork&RobertJanvanPelt,Holocaust. AHistory (London:JohnMurray,2002)ElieWiesel,Night (London:Penguin2006)
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 40
Teaching emotive issuesconcerning Muslim history
ThisshortnotehighlightssomeemotiveandcontroversialissuesrelatedtoMuslimhistoryinordertofacilitatetheteachingofthissubject.
Tobeginwith,ateachermayfindthattheveryideaofhistorycanbeapointofmisunderstandingintheclass.FormanyMuslims,asfortheircounterpartsinotherreligioustraditions,humanhistoryisenvelopedbyasenseofthesacred,anattitudesummarisedinaQur’anicformula,“Truly!ToAllahwebelongandtruly,toHimweshallreturn”(2:156).SetwithinthiscontextistheimageofapioushistoryofIslamthatmillionsofMuslimslivewithandwhichmanystudentsbringtotheclass.ThecriticalhistoriographicaltraditionwhenappliedtothehistoryofMuslims,andwhichtheschoolcurriculummaydrawupon,oftenyieldsresultsthatmayclashwiththisimage.
OnetopicwherethisclashisclearlyvisibleistheQur’an.TheQur’anisthemostsacredbookforMuslims.ItisacceptedastheWordofGod,giventotheProphetMuhammadandthroughhimtothecommunityofMuslims.Ontheonehand,therearescholarlyattemptstoplacetheQur’aninhistorythroughtheapplicationofhistoricalandtextualstudies.ThisexerciseraisesquestionsaboutthecompilationandthemakingoftheQur’anictext.TheproclaimedresultsofsuchresearchhavesometimesbeenoffensivetosomeMuslims.Inresponse,therehasbeenaneffortbyMuslimstoestablishtheauthenticityofconventionalMuslimclaimsaboutthesesameissues.TheimageoftheProphetandthedetailsofhislifeareequallysensitive.Therecentcartooncontroversycanalsobeseenasareflectionofdifferentunderstandingsoftheideaofhistory.
TheunderstandingoftheevolutionofMuslimhistoryisanotherareawherecontroversymayoccur.ThedefensivestanceofmanyscholarsleadsthemtooverplaytheunityofMuslimhistoricalexperiencewithregardtovalues,beliefs,institutionsandnorms.StudentswouldalsooftenhavethisunderstandingofMuslimhistory.TheactualhistoricalexperienceofMuslimswas,however,afascinatingmixtureofrichdiversityofopinionsonalmostallsignificantissues—doctrinal,rituals,philosophicaletc.—thatwereheldtogetherbyanunderlyingreferencetofoundationalsourcesofIslam,theQur’anandthePropheticmodel.PerceptionoftheSharia isanexample.WhilemanyconsidertheSharia tobeadivinelyordainedcodeoflife,itisinfactahistoricalinstitutionthatdevelopedandcontinuestoevolvethroughdebatesandwritingsamongMuslims.
ThepastisnotanothercountryinMuslimcontexts.Rather,manycontemporarytensionsareviewedin
Muslimsocietiesthroughareferencetohistoricalexperience.Thus,thefeelingofsiegethatmanyMuslimsfeelvis-à-vistheconditionsinPalestine,IraqandAfghanistan,supplementedbytheirperceptionofculturalinvasionthroughglobalmedia,isoftenseenasthecontinuationoftheCrusadesandthecolonisationexperience.IncountrieswithMuslimminority,episodeslikethedestructionoftheBabriMosquehaveoftenreinforcedthefeelingofalienationfromsocietyatlargeinthemindsofMuslims.TheeffortsofgoodwillthroughaidandNGOworkareoftenwashedawaybythere-enactmentofhistoricalmemorythroughacontinuedsenseofinjusticeincontemporarytimes.Inthisregard,itisinterestingtonotethataboutacenturyagomanyinthemainstreamMuslimleadershipdidnotcarryahostileattitudetowardsEurope;rathertherewasasenseofadmirationanddesiretoengagewithitsscientificandsocialachievements.Therefore,itisimportantthatwhilediscussingextremisttendenciesinsomeMuslimcontexts,attentionmustbegiventothewidersocialandeconomicrealitiesthatformtheirbackdrop.
Finally,itcanbenotedthatscholarshipofMuslimcultures,pastandpresent,isintransition.Shiftscanbenotedintermsofresearchmethods(frompredominantlyphilologicaltoincreasingapplicationofsocialscienceandhumanities),themes(frompoliticalanddoctrinalfocustosocialandculturalhistory),geographicalreach(fromArab-PersiancentrictoencompassingallregionswithMuslimpresence)andparticipants(fromEuropeansinOrientalStudiestoamultinationalenterprise).Theresultisavibrantfieldofstudythatisbothdeepeningitsconventionalsubjectmatterandexperimentingwithfreshperspectives.
FaridPanjwani,SeniorInstructor,InstitutefortheStudyofMuslimCivilisations,
TheAgaKhanUniversity,London
ReferencesAhmed,L.(Ed.)Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. NewHavenandLondon,1992Ansari,H.‘The Infidel Within’: Muslims in Britain since 1800. London,2004Al-Azami,M.M.The Quranic Text: From Revelation to Compilation. Leicester:UKIslamicAcademy,2003Devji,F.Landscapes of the Jihad: Militancy, Morality, Modernity.Ithaca:CornellUniversityPress,2005Ernst,CarlW.Following Muhammad: Rethinking Islam in the Contemporary World. ChapelHill,2003Hillenbrand,C.The Crusades: Islamic Perspectives. Edinburgh:EdinburghUniversityPress,1999Mamdani,M.Good Muslim, Bad Muslim: America, the Cold War, and the Roots of Terror.Pantheon,2004
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 41
Iftheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesinhistoryistobemoreextensiveandeffective,itisaxiomaticthatthestatusquowillnotleadtothateventualoutcome.Manyoftheopportunitiesandexamplesofgoodpracticeneedtobecommunicatedmoreeffectivelyandtheimpedimentsaddressedthroughrelevantactions.Ithastoberecognisedthatnoteverythingcanbedonequicklyandwithoutresources,althoughsomecan.Itisalsothecasethatnoonegrouphassoleresponsibilitytobringaboutimprovement.Individualteachersandsupportstaff,subjectdepartments,schools,localauthorities,highereducationalinstitutions,theDfES,QCA,awardingbodies,publishers,themediaandthewidercommunityallhavearoletoplay.
Anumberoftheserecommendationsapplyacrossthewhole3–19agerange.Themainonescomprisethefollowing.
1. Give more attention to the teaching of emotive and controversial aspects in initial teacher education and through continuing professional developmentOfstedandothershavepointedoutthattheprofessionaldevelopmentavailableinhistoryisgenerallylimitedasschoolsdevotescarcetrainingresourcestootherareas.Thenewstandardsprovidegreaterencouragementforongoingtraininganddevelopment,buttheimportanceofthisdimensionneedstobemadeexplicitandgivenhigh-levelsupport,eventotheextentofanentitlementthatallteachershaveforsustainedandcontinuousprofessionaldevelopment.Italsohasimplicationsforthoseresponsiblefortrainingpotentialandexistingteachersinthisarea,forexample,thoseinITE,advisorsandconsultants,advancedskillsteachersandexcellentteacherswhowillneedsupportandguidancetoassistthemintheirwork.Thissupportneedstoembracesubjectknowledgeandpedagogyandbeavailableindifferentformatssuchasdistancesupportthroughjournals,websitessuchasQCA’sInnovatingwithHistoryandTeachers’TV,school,network,localauthorityandregionalsupportaswellasthroughhigher-educationaccreditedprogrammessuchasthePostgraduateProfessionalDevelopment(PPD)initiative.Researchshowsthatthereareeffectivewaystomanageandpromotehigh-qualityclassroomdiscussion,butitneedsfurtherdevelopmentevenwithexperiencedteachers.
2. Ensure that the teaching of emotive and controversial issues is a whole school issue and not an aspect addressed sporadically through individual subjects Ifsuchissuesaretaughtpiecemeal,atbest,theimpactislostand,atworst,studentsconfused.SchoolsasawholeneedtoconsiderastrategyforteachingemotiveandcontroversialissueswithinthecontextoftheEveryChildMattersagendaanditsownaimsandvalues.Itneedstobeconsideredaspartofanoverallrationaleforthewholecurriculumandcurricularorganisationwithhistory’scontributionbeingconsideredwithinthatbroadercontext.Withinthiscontext,however,itisimportanttoensurethatsufficienttimeandstatusareaccordedtohistorytoprovidethetimeandresourcesforemotiveandcontroversialissuestobeaddressedeffectively.
3. Plan themes and approaches to ensure that emotive and controversial history is taught in a coherent way
4. Provide teachers with both encouragement and guidance to improve teaching and learning of emotive and controversial history Thiswouldincludeguidanceonhowteacherscanimproveemotionalengagementtoaddressthethoughts,valuesandfeelingsofothers,howtheycanaddresshistoricalinterpretationsandmultipleperspectives,howtheycanaddressexplicitlystudentmisconceptionsandperceptionsandhowtheycandevisebetterenquiries,activitiesandquestioningapproachesincludingtheinvestigationoflinksbetweenhistoricalissuesandmodern-dayparallels.Moreguidanceandencouragementisalsoneededwithregardtotheteachingoflocalandcommunityhistory.Teachers also need to be encouraged, rather than penalised, for encouraging debate and risk-taking in the classroom and schools given support when facing challenges from parents and communities. SuchapproachesneedtobegivenspecificendorsementbythosemonitoringschoolsincludingOfsted.
5. Improve the range and quality of resources available to allow schools to introduce a more varied and relevant curriculum for their students Inpart,thismeansprovidingincentivesfor
Main recommendations7
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 4�
resourceproviderstomovebeyondthecurrent,safemainstreamthemestoconsiderproducingresourcesthatmakeanimpact.Officialendorsementofsuchapproaches,newQCAschemesofworkandcoverageinnewspecificationsarelikelytohelpthisprocess.Norisitenoughsimplytoproducenewresources.Better ways need to be found to communicate the range and effective use of such materials.Tosupplementthecommercialmarket,itislikelytobenecessaryforresourcesorsponsorshiptobeprovidedforonlineorothertypesofresourcesthatcanassistschoolsinteachingemotiveandcontroversialhistory.
6. Improve the research and evidence base related to the teaching of emotive and controversial history
Thisprojecthashopefullyprovidedastartingpoint,butithasunearthedtheneedformorehigh-qualityresearch,forexample,onwhattheissuesandconcernsareofdifferentindividuals,familiesandgroupsandwhichneedtobeunderstoodbythoseteachinghistory.Thisshouldincludeaninvestigationoftheideasandperspectivesofstudents,teachersandparents’attitudestowardstheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuesinhistoryincludingtherelationshipbetweenpersonal,communityandschoolhistory.Theresearchshouldalsoextendtopedagogicalaspectssuchaswhatthecharacteristicsofprogressionarewithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissuessothatteachersandschoolscanbenchmarkprogressagainstnationalcriteria.
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 43
Recommendations for specific key stages
Foundation and Key Stage 1Teachers and others can improve the teaching and learning related to emotive and controversial history by:
placingmorestressonthedifferencesbetweenpeopleandtheirlifestyles,suchashomesandcustoms;
planningforstructuredplay-basedactivities,whereappropriate;
helpingchildrentomakelinksandconnectionsbetweenwhattheyalreadyknow;
usingstorytoexploreissues;
focusingmoreonspeakingandlisteningincludingplanningactivitiesfortalkinginavarietyofcontexts,insupportingchildren’stalkandprovidingalternativemodelsofdiscourse;
makingdistinctionsbetweendifferentanswerstoenablechildrentolearnaboutdifferentwaysinwhichquestionsmaybeanswered;
encouragingchildrentoexploredifferentpointsofviewandtoexplainthepointsofviewthattheyhave;
discussinganydisagreementsorinconsistencieswithchildrenthattheyfindintheanswerstheyhavegiven;
modellingtalkincludingspecificphrasesandvocabularyandresponsestodifferentsortsofquestions;
consideringthedifferentrolesoftheteacherindevelopingchildren’sappreciationoftheissues(theneutralchairapproach,thebalancedapproachandthestatedcommitmentapproach);
makingmoreuseofthepersonalhistoriesofothersindifferentpartsoftheworld,bothpastandpresent;
givingmorethoughttotheusefullinksbetweensubjectsincludingcitizenshipandhumanrightseducationandplanningforprogressionacrossdifferentcurriculumareas;
talkingmoretofamiliestoascertaintheirviews,aspirationsandattitudes.
Key Stage 2Teachers and others can improve the teaching and learning related to emotive and controversial history by:
drawingouttheopportunitiesforemotiveandcontroversialtopicsintheareasofstudythatmostlendthemselvestothisapproach,includingusingideasrelatedtotheRomans,Anglo-SaxonsandVikingstoundermineassumptionsandprejudiceaboutmodern-daynativesandimmigrantsorhowideasfromelsewherehaveinfluencedBritishdevelopmentsuchasinTudortimesorthroughdiscussingissuesofrightandwrongduringWorldWarII,thecontributionofdifferentgroupssuchaswomenandalliedsoldiersfromoutsidethewarringcountriesorthetensionsrelatingtoevacuationofchildren;
ensuringthatresourcesgiveabalancedandrealisticimagewhenteachingKeyStage2themessuchasstressingthemulticulturaldimensionwithinvadersandsettlers.Forexample,therewereblacktroopsstationedonHadrian’sWallandthatEgyptianswereblack;
usingtheopportunitytointroducehistoricalfictiontosupporttheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissues;
makingbestuseoftheopportunitiespresentedbynewcurricularfreedomssuchasthenewrevisedFrameworkincludingavoidinghistory-flavouredliteracy.
Key Stage 3Teachers and others can improve the teaching and learning related to emotive and controversial history by:
supportingallattemptstoavoidthemarginalisationofhistoryatKeyStage3bydefendingitsneedforasecureplacewithsufficienttimeandakeyroleattheheartofahumanecurriculumthatempowersstudentstodeveloptheirownattitudes,valuesandidentities;
givingexplicitattentiontofiringstudents’curiosityandimagination,movingandinspiringthemthroughthedilemmas,choicesandbeliefsofpeopleinthepastandmakingthesubjectrelevantthroughconsiderationofhowthepresenthasbeeninfluencedbythepast;
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 44
providingmoreopportunitiestostudythestudentssharedcolonialheritageandtheirinvestigationofthehistoriesofdifferentculturesandcivilisations;
improvingawarenessofthesensitivitiesinvolvedinteachingthemessuchasthetransatlanticslavetradeandtheCrusades;
demandingbetterresourcestoaddressemotiveandcontroversialissues.WhilsttheHolocaustisgenerallywell-resourced,itiscurrentlyadifferentpicturefortheBritishEmpire,Islamichistoryandthehistoryofothercultures;
investigatingtheperceptionsandissues,particularlyinrelationtoEngland’sMuslimcommunities;
integratingblackhistoryintomainstreamteaching.
Key Stage 4Teachers and others can improve the teaching and learning related to emotive and controversial history by:
ensuringGCSEspecificationshavemoresupportandguidance,includingbetterhighlightingofsignificantcontentandconsideringwhetherweightshouldbeattachedtoassessmentobjectiveswithregardtodebatingemotiveandcontroversialissues,suchasanalysingmultipleperspectivesandwhycompetingviewsandinterpretationsexistandstillmatter.Considerationmightalsobegivenastowhetherstudentsshouldusesourcestoexplorecontroversialissues;
supportingtherationaleandelementsoftheOCRGCSEPilotasamodelforconstructingfuturespecifications;
consideringwhetherinternallysetworkcanprovideeffectivewaystoexplorecontroversialissuesindepth;
takingadvantageandextendingthescopeofspecifictraininganddevelopmentopportunitiessuchastheImperialWarMuseumHolocaustEducationFellowshipProgramme;
demonstratingthatthereisaneedtodevelopandpublishmaterialsthatarenotsolelytargetedontheneedsoftheexamination;
improvingopportunitiesforlower-attainingstudentsthroughencouragingthemtoengagewithemotiveandcontroversialissuessuchasthroughentry-levelcourses.
Post-16Teachers and others can improve the teaching and learning related to emotive and controversial history by:
supportingbettersignpostingoftheopportunitiesinAS/A2specificationstoengagethestudentswithemotiveandcontroversialissuesinexistingspecifications;
ensuringbettercomparabilitybetweenspecificationsandoptionswithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissues;
supportingahigherweightinggiventotheissueofsignificanceandinterpretationsatAS/A2,whichallowstimetodevelopanappreciationofthecontroversialelementsinspecifications;
encouragingagreaterroleforthepersonalstudyorotherformsofinternallydesignedworkwithregardtoemotiveandsensitiveissues;
takingadvantageandextendingthescopeofspecifictraininganddevelopmentopportunities,suchastheactivitiesoftheHolocaustEducationTrustwithitsseminarsandvisitprogrammetoAuschwitz.
Someoftheserecommendationscanbeaddressedfairlyquickly,whereasothersarelong-termanddependlargelyonplannedreviews.Thefollowingsummarisestherecommendationsabovebyseparatingsomeofthemorestraight-forwardandimmediatefromsomeofthestillnecessary,butlong-termsuggestions.
Short term
1. TheGovernmentandkeyagencies,includingQCAandOfsted,reinforcetheimportanceoftheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistory;
2. Givemoreattentiontotheissuesandstrategiesininitialteachereducation;
3. ProvidemoreopportunitiesforteacherstoaccesstrainingandideasaspartoftheircontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentincludingatexternalcoursesandthroughdistancelearningsuchastheQCA’s,InnovatingwithHistorywebsite;
4. Provideguidanceonthestrategiesforaddressinggoodpracticeoutlinedinthekeystagespecificrecommendationsabove;
5. CommissiontheproductionofresourcesforschoolsandtrainingincludingwebresourcesandthroughTeachers’TV;
The Historical Association Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 45
6. Provideguidanceandsupportonplanningtheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryasawholeschool/curricularissue;
7. QCAproducemoreschemesofworkwhereemotiveandcontroversialissuesareaddressedexplicitlyandwherehistoricalissuesarelinkedtomodern-dayparallels;
8. Communicatetherangeofresourcesmoreeffectively,whichcansupporttheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialhistoryincludingtheexistingfellowshipsandvisits;
9. Commissionmoreresearchintotheissues,perspectivesandconcernsheldbydifferentindividuals,groupsandsocieties,includingtherelationshipbetweenpersonal,communityandschoolhistory;
10. Devisecriteriaforprogressionwithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissues,sothatteachersandschoolscanbenchmarkprogressagainstnationalcriteria.
Long term
1. Considerthebenefitsofanentitlementforhistoryteacherstosustainedcontinuousprofessionaldevelopment;
2. DevisecoursesthatallowteacherstobeaccreditedthroughdevelopingtheirunderstandingandskillswithregardtotheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissuessuchasthroughthePostgraduateProfessionalDevelopmentinitiative;
3. Requireschoolstohavearationalefortheteachingofemotiveandcontroversialissues,whichismonitoredsuchasbyOfstedandbyotherssuchastheSchoolImprovementPartners;
4. Ensurethathistoryhasthestatusandtimeinschoolstoenablejusticetobedonetotheteachingofsuchissues;
5. MaketheimportanceofteachingemotiveandsensitiveissuesmoreexplicitandprominentwhenreviewingtheNationalCurriculum,GCSE,AS/A2orotherspecifications;
6. EvaluatethelessonsoftheGCSEPilotintermsof
teachingandassessingemotiveandcontroversialhistory;
7. Developstrategiesthatallowallstudents,includingthelowerattainersandthegiftedandtalented,toaddressemotiveandcontroversialissuesinchallengingways;
8. Alterthecultureinschoolssothatrisk-takinganddebateareencouragedandteachersfeelsupportedandconfidentaboutengagingallstudentsemotionallyandchallengingperceptionsandmisconceptions;
9. Workwithpublishersandotherstoimprovetherangeandqualityofresources;
10. Consideropportunitiesforeffectiveworklinkingdifferentcurriculumareastoimprovetheknowledge,skillsandunderstandingwithregardtoemotiveandcontroversialissues.
Teaching emotive and controversial history 3-19 The Historical Association 46
Main references
Bage,G.(1999)Narrative Matters. London,FalmerPressBaker,J.(1992)Window. London,RandomHouseBerg,W;Graffe,L;Holden,C(2003)‘Teaching Controversial Issues: a European perspective’. London,CICEBrett,P.(2005)Citizenship through History – What is good practice?InternationalJournalofHistoricalUnderstanding,Teaching&Research,5(2)Burningham,J.(1984)Granpa. London,JonathanCapeByrom,J;Counsell,C;Riley,M.(tobepublished)Meeting of Minds.Harlow,LongmanClaire,H.(2002)Citizenship and History.Primaryhistory(April2002).London,HistoricalAssociationClaire,H.(2005)Persona dolls in citizenship educationwww.citized.info/pdf/other/PERSONA_DOLLS_CONFERENCE.pdfClaire,H.(2005)Learning and teaching about citizenship through history in the early years. Leadingprimaryhistory,pp.24–43.London,HistoricalAssociationConnolly,P.Fitzpatrick,S.Gallagher,T.andHarris,P.(2006)Addressing diversity and inclusion in the early years in conflict affected societies:a case study of theMedia Initiative for children — Northern Ireland.InternationalJournalofEarlyYearsEducation,vol.14,no3October,pp.263–278Cooper,H.(2000)The Teaching of History in Primary Schools.London,DavidFultonCooper,H.(2005)Learning and teaching about the past in the Foundation stage and Key Stage 1. Leadingprimaryhistory, pp.14–23.London,HistoricalAssociationCulpin,C(2005)‘Breakingthe20YearRule:verymodernhistoryatGCSE’inTeaching History 120.London,HistoricalAssociationDFEEandQCA(1998)A scheme of work for Key Stages 1 & 2. History.London,QCADfES(2003)Excellence and Enjoyment. A Strategy for Primary Schools. London,HMSODfES(2004)Every Child Matters: Next Steps for children.NottinghamEgan,K.(1991)Primary Understanding: Education in early childhood. London,RoutledgeFoster,N.(2004)Out of slavery: learning about the history of British Black Caribbean people.Bristol,RedcliffeHaydn,T.(2000)‘TeachingtheHolocaustthroughHistory’inI.Davies (ed.) Teaching the Holocaust.London,ContinuumKinloch,N.(2001)‘Parallelcatastrophes?Uniqueness,redemptionandtheshoah’in Teaching History 104.London,HistoricalAssociation
Acknowledgements8
Kitson,A.(2001)‘Challengingstereotypesandavoidingthesuperficial:asuggestedapproachtoteachingtheHolocaust’inTeaching History 104.London,HistoricalAssociationKitson,A.andMcCulley,A.(2005)‘Youhearaboutitforrealinschool:avoiding,containingandrisk-takinginthehistoryclassroom’inTeaching History 120.London,HistoricalAssociationLevy,A.(2004)Small Island.London,ReviewLyndon,D.(2004)‘IntegratingBlackHistoryintotheNationalCurriculum’inTeaching History 122.London,HistoricalAssociationMilner(1984)Children and Race: Ten years on.London,WardLockMcCully,A.andPilgrim,N.(2004)‘TheytookIrelandawayfromusandwe’vegottofighttogetitback:Usingfictionalcharacterstoexploretherelationshipbetweenhistoricalinterpretationandcontemporaryattitudes’inTeaching History 114.London,HistoricalAssociationOfsted(2001)Inspecting post-16 history with guidance on self-evaluation.HMSOPlinney,J.SandRotherham,M.J.(eds.)(1987)Ethnic Socialisation: Pluralism andDevelopment.California,SagePressQCA(2000)A scheme of work for Key Stage 3. History.London,QCAQCA(2006)Teacher assessment activities, History Key Stage 1.London,QCAQCA(2006)Draft programme of study for History.London,QCAScieszka,J.(1989)The True Story of the 3 Little Pigs.London,VikingSherwood,M.andSpafford,M.(1998)Whose freedom were Africans, Caribbeans and Indians defending in WW2?Teacher’sPackforsecondaryschools.SavannahPressinassociationwiththeBlack&AfricanStudiesAssociationTraille,E.K.A.(2006)School history and perspectives on the past: a study of students of African-Caribbean descent and their mothers.LondonUniversityPhDthesisTotten,S.(1999)Should there be Holocaust Education for K-4 students?The answeris No.Socialstudiesandtheyounglearner.September/October1999.12(1)36–39Short,G.andReed,C.A.(2004) Issues in Holocaust Education.Aldershot,AshgateWrenn,A.(1999) ‘Substantialsculpturesorsadlittleplaques?Making“interpretations”mattertoYear9’inTeaching History 97.London,HistoricalAssociationWood,L.andHolden,C.(1995)Teaching Early Years History. Teaching and Learning through the National Curriculum.Cambridge,ChrisKingtonPublishing.Woodhouse,J.(2005) Learning and teaching about the past in the foundation stage.LeadingPrimaryHistory,pp.6–13.London,HistoricalAssociation
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Contributors
Andrew Wrenn isGeneralAdvisor,HistoryforCambridgeshireCountyCouncil,aposttowhichhewasappointedin1997.Priortothis,hewasaHeadofHistoryatcomprehensivesinGloucestershireandWiltshire.
Alf Wilkinson wasHeadofHistory,SeniorTeacherandICTCo-ordinatoratalargecomprehensiveschoolinBedfordfrom1975to1999,thenrantheHistoricalAssociationNOFtraining.Hehasco-authoredanewseriesofKeyStage3historytextbooks,History First,forPearson.Alfrecentlyspenttwoyearsteachingpart-timeinalocalsecondaryschoolandenjoyingbeing‘only’aclassroomteacheragain!Hiswebsitewww.burntcakes.comprovidesmaterialsforteacherstouseintheclassroom.HeisanexperiencedCPDleaderandiscurrentlypart-timeProfessionalDevelopmentManagerfortheHistoricalAssociation.
Alison Webb worksasahistoryconsultant,organisingandteachinghistorycoursesforGCSEandAlevelstudentsatuniversities,schoolsandcolleges,havingtaughthistoryinsecondaryschoolsasHeadofHistoryandHeadofSixthForm.SheexaminesatAlevelandhasbeenpartoftheHA’sNOFtrainingteam.ShehasalsoworkedforQCAandwrittenfieldworkmodulesfortheOpenUniversitywebsite.
Helena Gillespie hastaughtinschoolsinNorfolkandSuffolkacrosstheprimaryageranges.Shenowteacheshistory,scienceandICTonthePrimaryPGCEatUEA.HerresearchinterestsareintheareasofICTandinchildren’shistoricalfiction.ShehasworkedwiththeHistoricalAssociationindeliveringprofessionaldevelopment.
Michael Riley wasahistoryteacherandHeadofHumanitiesbeforebecomingHumanitiesAdvisorforSomersetin1997.HeisnowthePGCEcourseleaderforsecondaryhistoryatBathSpaUniversityandAssociateConsultantforHistoryinSomerset.
Dr. Penelope Harnett isPrincipalLecturerinPrimaryEducationattheUniversityoftheWestofEngland,Bristol.Shehaswidelyresearchedchildren’slearninginhistoryandhaspublishedextensivelyinthisfield.Dr.HarnettwasEditorofPrimaryHistoryforeightyears.Shehasundertakenconsultancyrelatingtochildren’slearninginhistoryfortheQCA,BBCandVictoriaCountyHistory.
Richard Harris isalecturerineducationattheUniversityofSouthampton.HeiscurrentlyProgrammeDirectorfortheSecondaryPGCEcourseandisatutoronthesecondaryhistorycourse.HeisacurrentmemberoftheHA’ssecondarycommittee.
Dr. Tim Lomas isPrincipalSchoolImprovementAdvisorwiththeCfBT/LincolnshirePartnership.HewasamemberoftheNationalCurriculumHistoryWorkingGroup,consultant,trainerandauthorintheprimaryandsecondarysectors,aswellasprojectleaderandmemberforanumberofnationalhistoryinitiatives.Heisalsoaseniorexaminer,specificationdeveloperandrevisoratGCSEandAS/A2.Dr.LomasisformervicepresidentoftheHistoricalAssociationandcurrentlyamemberofprimary,secondaryandlocalhistorycommittees,aswellasVicePresidentoftheBritishAssociationforLocalHistory.