teaching conjunctions in english language with the help of

ISSN 2309-0081 Fajjar, Masum & Iftikhar (2021)

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www.irss.academyirmbr.com May 2021

International Review of Social Sciences Vol. 9 Issue.5

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Teaching Conjunctions in English Language with the Help of

Corpus-based Reading

AMNA FAJJAR M. Phil Linguistics Scholar, Department of English,

Faculty of Language and Literature, University of Lahore, Pakistan.

Email: [email protected]

Tel: +923215755868

Dr. RUBINA MASUM Assistant Professor, Department of English/Business Management IQRA University, Karachi.


Tel: +923453035798

NIMRA IFTIKHAR M.Phil Linguistics Scholar, Department of English,

Faculty of Language and Literature, University of Lahore, Pakistan.


Tel: +923430472814

Abstract

This article provides corpus based analysis of the use of conjunctions which create cohesion in texts.

Cohesion is considerably taken as an evolving feature in linguistics that has drawn the focus of many

researchers. This study is intended to explore the uniformity and regularity of the conjunction used in the

novels of Paulo Coelho. The purpose of this study is to highlight the occurrences and frequencies of the use

of conjunctions in Paulo Coelho’s six most famous novels. For the corpus analysis of this study, AntConc

3.5.8 software version is used. The writer prefers to use coordinating conjunctions more than subordinating

and correlative conjunctions. It also elucidates that in all the six novels, the use of coordinating

conjunction "and" is constant. The majority of conjunctions are used for creating clarification and

logicality within the sentences.

Keywords: Corpus Stylistics, Linguistic Analysis of a Literary Text, AntConc, Conjunction.

Introduction

This study is based on a corpus analysis of Paulo Coelho‟s writings to investigate the use of conjunctions in

his literary work.“Conjunctions are the words that join a phrase, clause and sentence together e.g. but, and,

or, for, nor, until and as. It is also called a Cohesive device”(Cleary, 2012).Conjunctions include three types

that are coordinating, subordinating and correlative. It is considered that the multiple uses of conjunctions

in a literary work make it more rhythmic, interesting as well as complicated. It is studied that the writer of

non-native English speaker mostly prefers to use conjunction in their work to make the text look

complicated and unique, the reader found it interesting and the writer can avoid the choppiness of the

sentences (Stephen, 2017, p. 78).The new learner prefers to use sub-ordinate conjunction where as an

expert use coordinating conjunction (Ilona Leki, 2008). To analyze this factor, the researcher takes the text

of a Brazilian writer named Paulo Coelho. The major focus is to analyze the use of conjunctions in Paulo

Coelho writing with the help of the corpus method. This study basically consists of a mixed-method

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approach that includes both qualitative and quantitative. This work examines new perspectives in corpus

stylistics in order to established literary criticism.

Corpus is basically the study of language representation in the real world. Corpus is computer software that

takes the corpora of the researcher, processes it and finds a result of it. It does not give the answer “why” it

gives the answer to “what”. Corpus is mainly consisted upon multiple software namely “BNC (British

National Corpus), WebCorp, AntConc, MonoConc and WordSmith tool.

In this study, the researcher uses corpus software named AntConc3.5.8 software version. The researchers

prefer to use AntConc 3.5.8 software version because it is budget-friendly, free to access, easy run on the

laptop, represent the result in one hit and the researcher is able to add data of his/her own choice.

Objectives of the Study

The current research aims the following objectives;

1) To explore the use of conjunctions in selected texts with corpus approach

2) To motivate teachers to utilize corpus-based reading in their classrooms

Research Questions

The study intends to find answer of the following questions;

I. What is the function of conjunctions that is achieved by the writer in selected texts?

II. How does corpus-based reading offer fruitful activities for teachers in classroom?

Literature Review

Paulo Coelho is one of the most famous and influential Brazilian writers. Brazil is the country that was

colonized by Portuguese for a long time. Brazil got its independence in 1822 but the root of the Portuguese

language is still in Brazil (Editors, 2020). In the early stage, mostly literary work of Brazil is done in the

Portuguese language, it is the reason that the English language is considered as their third language (Boris

Fausto, 2014). Literature is an aspect that represents a culture, society, ideas, norms and tradition of a

country.

Brazil's literature is, in general terms, published in the country's official national tongue Portuguese. This is

due to the fact that since the 16th century the Portuguese had conquered and colonized Brazil, implanted

their own European ideals, traditions, values and language in the local native culture. After independence,

Brazilians want their own identity in the world of literature. Variant writers gave their contribution to

Brazilian Literature and Paulo Coelho was one of them all. His first book published in 1982 and got flopped

due to his bad quality of writing. Later in 1986, he published The Alchemist whose sale was low in the

initial but later it become the Brazilian best seller book (Editors, 2020).

“Writing something on an official level without being a native speaker is a difficult task because the

chances of error and mistakes are high. Writing is basically a form of communication of ideas, feelings,

thoughts and expressions” (Chiu, p. 3). The difference in language and sentence makes the sense or idea of

the writer vague that is the reason there is communication and sequence require between thought and

writing. The most important thing in writing in any language is to get familiar with the grammatical

structure because it makes the work more attractive and authentic.


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Conjunctions are considered as one of the supports to poor literacy. From Silva's point of view, “there is a

fine connection between the use of English as a non-native language and conjunction. The writer who has a

high proficiency in language use conjunctions more than the others. Young express that in writing,

conjunction builds a bridge between the ideas and its execution. It provides cues about the writer‟s key

point”(Young, p. 39). Halliday considers that“ the use of conjunctions specified the way of communicating

information and act as a clue of logical relations with the previous sentences. Authors who do not get

succeed in using the conjunction, usually leave their reader with a question in their mind because the sense

or thought of the author is not appropriately delivered to the reader”(Bahaziq, 2016, p. 3).

According to Halliday and Hassan (1976),“conjunction is the fourth form of structural cohesion that differ

from relation, replacement and ellipsis. When addressing other coherent tools in the creation of text

relationships, substitution is a conceptual relationship, while comparison and ellipsis are semantic and

grammatical relationships. Conjunctions are classified into four major categories based on the Halliday and

Hassan theory.

First is additive conjunction that represent that more knowledge is provided it include; And, also, besides,

in. The second form involves adversative conjunctions(But, however, although, yet, though, only)that

display distinction between various circumstances. Causal conjunctions (So, then, hence, if, unless, so, for,

therefore, consequently, because) the third type, include the words which are used to introduce causes and

results. The fourth type, temporal conjunction (Then, next, before, after, first, firstly) that is used to explain

relations in time”(Hasan, 2013, p. 23).

In conjunctions, there is a type of semantic relationship. Conjunctions are the tools that help the readers to

understand the written mechanisms. Connectives in conjunctions are used to attach units of a text. Scholars

have performed relative and comparative studies of “conjunctive devices in various types of text with the

advancement of linguistics, and have investigated the phenomenon of unity in many text

styles”(Choudhary, 2017).

Research Methodology and Data Collection

The research is quantitative as well as qualitative in nature. For corpus analysis, data is available in a

machine-readable form. For utilizing AntConc 3.5.8 software version, data is available in txt format

because without it AntConc is not able to process. In the study, data collected from Paulo Coelho‟s 6

novels: The Alchemist, The Hippie, The Witch of Portobello, The Winner Stands Alone, Veronika Decides

to die and The Zahir.

The reason for selecting these novels is the easy availability of them in machine-readable or in digital form

and the popularity of them among the population. One of the prominent things in Paulo Coelho writings is

the extensive use of conjunctions. He is way more conscious of linking the sentences and their sense with

each other. For the purpose of it, he prefers to use conjunctions in his writings excessively. The continuity

in using conjunction in a way also presents his writing skills of representing the text in a unique way.

Data Analysis

In the corpus analysis, the frequent use of conjunctions in the six novels of Paulo Coelho is presented below

with the text reference. To cover all the conjunctions is not possible that is why5 coordinating, 5

subordinating and 5correlativeconjunctions are selected. First, the research provides a list of words with the

of help of AntConc that are frequently used in the novels. Among all the selected novels the most frequent

use of words can be seen by clicking on the word list option.


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Figure 1: Word List

Coordinating conjunctions mainly use to connect clause, phrase and words within a sentence(Unubi, 2019,

p. 4). Following are 5 selected subordinating conjunctions that are used in the six selected novels of Paulo

Coelho.

Table 1: Coordinating Conjunction

Sr. no Coordinating conjunctions Frequency

A And 12047

B But 3203

C For 3099

D Or 1469

E So 1221

Figure 2: And as a Conjunction

The result got 12047 hits, which means that writer use this word 12047 times in his novels. The

concordance plot represents that how frequent the word and use by the writer in each novel.


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Result of And as conjunction:

In this study and is the most frequent conjunction that is used in the novels, even though in the word list it

is ranked on no 3. The conjunction and is used to link the ideas that have similarities with each other e.g.

1. The shop was busy, and the man asked the shepherd to wait until the afternoon. So the boy sat on

the steps of the shop and took a book from his bag (The Alchemist).

2. Now she was there, glad she had gone all the way, and bored because she didn‟t know what to do

with the little time that was left to her (Veronika Decides to die).

Figure 3: but as a Conjunction

The result got 3203 hits, which means that writer use this word 3203 times in his novels. The concordance

plot represents that how frequent the word but use by the writer in each novel.

Result of But as conjunction:

In this study but is the second most frequently used conjunction. The conjunction but represents that the

first clause or sentence is opposite to the next sentence. The word is basically used to represent an

opposition with the already provided sentence e.g.

1) They have blond hair, or dark skin, but basically they're the same as the people who live right

here. "But I'd like to see the castles in the towns where they live," the boy explained (The

Alchemist).

2) But at this precise moment, you also realize that you can change your future by bringing the past

into the present. Past and future exist only in our memory (Aleph).


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Figure 4: for as a Conjunction.

The result got 3099 hits which means that writer used this word 3099 times in his novels. The concordance

plot represents the use of word for in each novel.

Result of For as conjunction:

In this study for is the third most frequently used conjunction. The conjunction for representing that the

first clause is independent and the second clause is dependent. This conjunction is mostly used to give a

reason for the independent clause mentioning e.g.

1) He understands and apologizes. We are not fighting; we are practicing the Path of Peace.

Again he grabs the collar of my jacket, and I prepare for a blow coming from the right, but, at

the last moment, it changes direction (Aleph).

2) “Look, it‟s very hot. Go and lie down for a bit. Cannes has a lot to offer its visitors”(The

Winner Stands alone).

A) So

Figure 5: so as a Conjunction


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plot represents the use of word so in each novel.

Result of So as conjunction:

In this study the conjunction so representing the relationship between two sentences. It is mainly use to

represent the relation of cause and effect among two sentences. The first sentence highlights the cause and

the second effect of that problem e.g.

1) "In a way, so am I," he said.(The Alchemist)

2) “What do you know about music? Even if you were right, what does it matter now? You‟re a

prisoner of your past, and so am I (Aleph).

Figure 6: or as a Conjunction


plot represents the use of word or in each novel.

Result of Or as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction or demonstrate the relationship of substitute words within sentences. It is

usually combine two ideas in one sentence. One clause has an idea and the other clause has second opinions

with in a sentence e.g.

1) So there were times when he read them parts of his books that had made an impression on him, or

when he would tell them of the loneliness or the happiness of a shepherd in the fields (The

Alchemist).

2) “She‟s a sad woman, and sadness is contagious. She told me she has a twin sister who‟s a drug

addict and incapable of holding down a job or a relationship (Aleph).


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1- Subordinating Conjunction

Subordinating conjunctions mainly use to connect dependent and independent clause within a sentence

(Unubi, 2019, p. 4).Following are 5 selected subordinating conjunctions that are used in the six selected

novels of Paulo Coelho.

Table 2: Subordinating conjunctions with frequency

Sr no. Subordinating conjunctions Frequency

A Then 933

B Where 692

C How 668

D After 455

E While 325

Figure 7: then as a Conjunction

The result got 933 hits, which means that writer use this word 933 times in his novels. The concordance

plot represents the use of word then in each novel.

Result of Then as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction Then also demonstrates the relationship of time within sentences because

subordinating conjunctions are temporal that mostly represent time within a sentence e.g.

1) “So what‟s this, then?” (The Zahir)

2) Then a waiter passes, and she again places her half-full glass of champagne on the tray and takes

another one (The Winner Stands alone).


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Figure 8: where as a Conjunction


plot represents the use of word where in each novel.

Result of Where as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction where prefers to use within a sentence to divert the attention of the reader

towards a particular place or situation e.g.

1) He goes up to a private room on the first floor where a police officer is waiting, along with the

duty manager and a waiter (The Winner Stands Alone).

2) The perfect crime – for we don‟t know who murdered our joy, what their motives were or where

the guilty parties are to be found (The Witch of Portobello).

Figure 9: how as a Conjunction


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plot represents the use of word then in each novel

Result of How as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction how raises a question within sentences and allow the writer to share his own

thoughts so it gives an impact on the reader‟s perception about the question e.g.

1) There was no pain or suffering, but he had seen other people being treated with electric shock, and

he knew how awful it looked (Veronika Decides to Die)

2) They, how-ever, are heavily made up, wear short skirts and low-cut tops, and are busy with their

mobile phones and their texts (The Winner Stands alone).

Figure 10: after as a Conjunction


plot represents the use of word after in each novel.

Result of After as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction after demonstrate the relationship of time within sentences. It usually allows

expressing a relation or situation happens within a time in a sentence e.g.

1) Take the crowds who go to foot-ball stadiums to watch a bunch of men chasing after a ball (The

Winner Stands alone).

2) I look at the huge tree in the middle of my garden, with a ribbon tied around its trunk, placed there

after a dream I had(Aleph).

3) After five minutes the packs were empty(Veronika Decides to die).

4) „I have to go,‟ Athena said after a while (The Witch of Portobello).


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Figure 11: while as a Conjunction


plot represents the use of word while in each novel.

Result of While as conjunction:

In this study, the conjunction while also demonstrate the relationship of time within sentences. e.g.

1) We wait for a while. A third person arrives, lights a cigarette, and joins the other two (The Aleph).

2) I could only navigate that world while hand in hand with Athena (The Witch of Portobello).

Correlative Conjunction

“These conjunctions mostly appear in pair with in a sentence” (Unubi, 2019, p. 4). Following are 5 selected

subordinating conjunctions that are used in the six selected novels of Paulo Coelho.

Table 3: Correlative Conjunctions with their frequency

Sr no. Correlative conjunctions Frequency

A So …. That 199

B Both… and 3

C Neither … nor 0

D If …. then 0

E Such …. That 0


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Figure 12: so that as a Conjunction

The result got 199 hits, which means that writer use these words 199 times in his novels. The concordance

plot represents the use of words so…that in each novel.

Result of So … that as conjunction:

In this study, the correlative conjunction so…. that are used to combine the sentence that have a similar

theme among each other e.g.

1) I position my head so that all I can hear is the sound of the water in my ears, which cuts me off

from everything else, transporting me into a different world (Aleph).

2) They ask them to stand together so that they can get a photo of the two of them (The Winner

Stands Alone).

Figure 13: both and as a Conjunction


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The result got 3 hits which means that writer used this word 3 times in his novels. The Concordance plot

represents the use of conjunctions both..and in each novel.

Result of Both…and as conjunction:

In this study, the correlative conjunction both..and represent the connection between two subjects or two

objects e.g.

1) Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, and sorry I could not travel both, And be one traveler, long

I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth; (The Winner

Stands Alone).

2) They have experienced both, and that is what I see in their eyes: love. We had played together at

being princes and princesses, made plans for the future, as all children do. Life decided to separate

us (Aleph).

A) Neither …. nor

Figure 14: neither…nor as a Conjunction

The result got 0 hits, which means that writer do not use these words in his novels.

Result of Neither…nor as conjunction:

In this study, the correlative conjunction neither ... nor are not utilized by the writer in his novels.

Figure 15: if…then as a Conjunction


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Result of if … then as conjunction:

In this study, the correlative conjunction if ... then are not utilized by the writer in his novels.

Figure 16: such…that as a Conjunction


Result of Such … that as conjunction:

In this study the correlative conjunction such ... that are not utilized by the writer in his novels.

Results and Discussions

The result of the study highlights that the author of the six novels, mostly prefers to use coordinate

conjunctions in his literary writing. The corpus highlights the frequent conjunctions used in all the six

novels, among them and is used as most frequent whereas but is used as the second frequent word.for, or

and so coordinate conjunctions use to appear less as compare to and, but. In the novel, the writer prefers to

use less subordinating conjunction and correlative conjunctions. Conjunction devices are essential for novel

writing because conjunctions combine elements of a text. Readers are more likely to rely on what the writer

describes when the writing is unified and interconnected. A writer uses conjunctions to make his writing

more obvious, understandable and to create a clear image of the connection between thought and sentence

representation writer prefers to use conjunction that gives rise and change to the thought of the readers.

The findings in the study show that conjunctions enhance the writing as a whole by providing coherence or

flow. Conjunctions assist with various purposes: presenting agreement, disagreement, cause, retention or

prominence, effect and conclusion. They act as a bridge from one point to another by the writer. The results

of the novels through corpus analysis show that conjunctions improve the writing as a whole by giving the

writer a flow pattern and consistency in writing. In IIona Leki views coordinating conjunctions are mostly

preferred to use in the sentence by the non-native speaker to add spice in their writing, whereas a native

speaker mostly prefers to use subordinatingconjunction(Ilona Leki, 2008, p. 76).In the study, it is signified

that conjunctions are necessary for literary writings for creating flow and coordination in thought.

Similarly, Paulo Coelho as prefer to use conjunctions to make his writing cohesive and effective.


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Conclusion

The purpose of this study was to classify the occurrences and frequencies of the use of conjunction devices

within Paulo Coelho‟s six best seller novels. It discloses the importance and impact of conjunctions on the

literary writings of the writer to create a comprehensive and authentic text. The result points out that the

writer Paulo Coelho prefers to use coordinating conjunctions more frequently to create and deliver a sense

of his writing to the readers as well as to develop coherence within the text. The study highlights that the

conjunctions are the weapon to create a sequence, sense, logic and interest in a literary text. It elucidates

that the utilization of conjunctions is justified able in literary writings because it enables a writer to generate

an authentic, complex and worthy text to display multiple ideas in a single story. The interactions among

clause and phrase within a sentence or paragraph can easily be prominent and hide through the use of

conjunctions and the text become more interesting as well as knowledgeable for the reader.

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Teaching, 8. Boris Fausto, S. F. (2014). A Concise History of Brazil Second Edition. United States of America:

Cambridge University Press.

Chiu, Y.-h. (n.d.). The L2 Acquisition of the Coordinating Conjunction "and" in Taiwanese Learners'

Interlanguage at College Level . Asian EFL Journal, 20.

Choudhary, A. k. (2017). A Corpus-based Study of Conjunctions in Mohsin Hamid novels. International

Journal of Scientific and Research Publications, 4.

Cleary, B. P. (2012). But and For, Yet and Nor: What Is a Conjunction? Millibook Press.

Editors, B. (2020). Paulo Coelho Biography. The Biography.com website.

Hasan, M. H. (2013). Cohesion in English. Newyork: Longman Group Limited.

Ilona Leki, A. C. (2008). A Synthesis of Research on Second Language Writing in English. UK: Routledge.

Stephen, D. R. (2017). Writing Analytically. United States of America: ebooks.

Unubi, A. S. (2019). Conjunctions in English: Meaning, Types and Uses. International Journal of Social

Science and Humanities Research, 13.

Young, D. J. (n.d.). The Mechanics of Writing. United States.

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