tat results in a longitudinal study of bereaved college students
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This article was downloaded by: [Wayne State University]On: 26 November 2014, At: 01:42Publisher: RoutledgeInforma Ltd Registered in England and Wales RegisteredNumber: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-41Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK
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TAT RESULTS INA LONGITUDINALSTUDY OF BEREAVEDCOLLEGE STUDENTSDAVID E. BALK SUSAN LAMPEBRENDA SHARPE SHERRI SCHWINNKRISTY HOLEN LEANN COOKRICHARD DUBOIS IIIPublished online: 11 Nov 2010.
To cite this article: DAVID E. BALK SUSAN LAMPE BRENDASHARPE SHERRI SCHWINN KRISTY HOLEN LEANN COOK RICHARDDUBOIS III (1998) TAT RESULTS IN A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OFBEREAVED COLLEGE STUDENTS, Death Studies, 22:1, 3-21, DOI:10.1080/074811898201704
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/074811898201704
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¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥TAT RESULTS IN A LONGITUDINAL STUDY OF
BEREAVED COLLEGE STUDENTS¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥ ¥
DAVID E. BALK
Oklahom a State Un ive rsity, Stil lwate r, Ok lah oma, USA
SUSAN LAMPE AND BRENDA SHARPE
Lenexa, Kan sas, USA
SHERRI SCHWINN
Leavenwor th , Kan sas , USA
KRISTY HOLEN
Overlan d Park , Kan sas, USA
LEANN COOK
Kan sas City, Missou ri, USA
RICHARD DUBOIS III
Carbondale , Kan sas , USA
T h e a u th o r s a n a l y z e d p r o j e c t i v e d a ta o b ta in e d f r o m 1 4 1 c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s w h o
w r o t e s t o r i e s o n t h r e e s e p a r a t e o c c a s i o n s t o s e l e c t e d c a rd s f r o m t h e T h e m a t i c
A p p e rc e p t io n T e s t (T A T ) . T h e s tu d e n t s in c lu d ed 4 6 m e m b e rs o f s u p p o r t g r o u p s
f o r b e r ea v ed c o l l eg e s tu d e n ts , 3 4 m em b e rs o f a b e re a v e m e n t c o n t ro l g r o u p , a n d 6 1
n o n b e r e a v e d s t u d e n t s . T h e s t u d y u s e d a r e p e a t e d -m e a s u r e s p r e t e s t ± p o s t t e s t
Th is st u d y was m ad e p o s si b le b y g ran ts awar d ed to David E . Ba lk b y th e Nat io n a lIn st i tu te o f Men ta l H ea l th ( MH 45044-01A2 ) an d b y th e Wil l iam T. Gran t Fo u n d atio n .Al icia Sk in n er Co o k , P ro fe sso r at Co lo rad o State Un iver sity, p ro vide d in valuab le fee dbackabo u t an e ar l ie r d ra f t . Th re e re viewe r s an d Rob e rt Ne im e ye r al so p ro vid e d ve r y h e lp f u lid e as o n h ow to imp ro ve th e m an u scr ip t.
Ad d re s s co r re sp o n d en ce to David E . B alk , FRCD, 2 43 CH ES, Ok lah om a Sta t eUn iver sity, St illwater, OK 74078 -6122.
Death Studies, 22: 3± 21, 1998Copyright q 1998 Taylor & Francis
0748-1187/98 $12.00 ` .00
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c o n tr o l g r o u p d e s ig n to g a th e r lo n g it u d in a l d a ta a b o u t t h e t r a j e c t o r y o f b e r e a v e -
m e n t w i t h a n d w i th o u t s u p p o r t g r o u p in t e r v e n ti o n . C o d e r s , w h o r e a c h e d c o n -
s i s t e n tl y h ig h in te r r a te r r e l i a b il i ty , l o o k e d f o r th e m e s o f d e a th , g r i e f , c o p in g , a n d
a f f i l i a t i o n in t h e s t o r i e s . M u l t i v a r ia t e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e ( M A N O V A ) a n d
r e p ea te d -m e a s u re s M A N O V A te s t s w e r e a p p l ied t o a n a ly z e c o d in g r es u lt s . O v er a l l
M A N O V A r es u l t s in d ic a te d s ig n i ® c a n t g r o u p d i f f e r e n c es in t h e r e s p o n s es t o t h e
T A T c a r d s . R e p e a t e d -m e a s u r e s M A N O V A f o u n d g r o u p d i f f e r e n c e s in u s e o f
t h e m e s o f d e a th a n d g r i e f a n d f o u n d G r o u p 2 T im e d i f f e r e n c e s in m a in ta in -
in g a s e n s e o f s e l f -e f f i c a c y w h i l e in a c r i s i s . A m a j o r i ty o f th e s t o r i e s c o n ta in e d
a f ® l ia ti o n im a g e r y b u t w i th o u t a n y g r o u p d i f f e r en c e s in t h e u s e o f s u ch im a g er y.
Co lle g e stu d en ts are faced with cr i tica l l ife t ran sit io n s in vo lvin gid e n t i ty, in d e p e n d e n ce , an d in t im acy ( Er ick so n , 1959 , 1963 ,1968) . Whe reas l ife tran sition s are catalysts fo r th e deve lo pm en t o fad ap t ive sk i l l s an d co p in g re so u rce s wh e n d e ve lo pm en ta l l i f ec rise s are accom pan ied by se ve re life e ven ts ( su ch as th e d eath o fa frien d o r fam ily m em ber ) , o n e wou ld an tic ipate o bstr u ction s ind eve lo pm en t sh ou ld co p in g re so u rce s be in adequ ate to p rom o tead ap tation .
In th e ca se o f co l le g e s tu d e n ts , re so lu t io n o f b e re avem e n twou ld no t be con sid e red to o ccu r in a situ atio n con te x tually f re eo f de ve lo pm en tal c rise s. Fu r th e rm o re , fo r co lle g e stu den ts, re so -lu t io n o f b e re avem e n t can be co m p licate d wh e n u su al su p p o r tn e two rk s to d eal with th e af te rm ath o f a d eath ex ist bu t are no t atth e stu d e n t ’ s sch o o l ( e .g ., wh e n th e so c ia l su p p o r t com e s fro mf r ie n d s an d f am ily in th e stu d e n t’ s h om e to wn wh e re th e d e atho ccu r re d ) . It can a l so be com p licate d wh e n so c ial n e two rk s arei l l -e q u ip p e d to su p p o r t th e b e re ave d s tu d e n t ( e .g ., wh e n iso la-t io n an d f e e l in g s o f in ad e qu acy in th e m id st o f a lar g e s tu d e n tp opu latio n ch aracte rize stu den ts in n eed o f h e lp ) .
Death an d be re avem en t in th e lives o f co lleg e stu den ts rem ainin th e e ar ly stage s o f system at ic in qu ir y. With in th e p as t se ve ra lyears, bo th co un se lo r p ractitio n e rs and re se arch e rs in th e Un itedState s h ave id en ti ® e d an u n expe cted y h igh p ro po r tio n o f co lle g es tu d e n ts wh o are f ace d with d e ath an d u n re so lve d g r ie f ( B alk ,1997 ; B e rso n , 1988 ; Flo e rc h in g e r, 1991 ; Kn o t t & Craf t s , 1980 ;L aGran d , 1986 ; Rick g arn , 1987 ; Wre n n , 1989 ; Zin n e r, 1985 ) .Wren n ( 1989) , fo r in stan ce , h as do cum en ted th e varied e stim ate so f th e in cid e n ce an d p re vale n ce o f d e ath s o n co lle g e cam pu se san d o f th e varied e f fo r ts o f co lle ge s to m eet th e n e ed s o f be re aved
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s tu d e n ts . Balk ( 1997 ) r ep o r te d th e re su l ts o f f ive su r ve ys rep re -sen tative o f stu den ts o n th e Kan sas State Un ive rsity cam pu s; a h ighp rop o r tio n o f th e su r vey re sp on den ts co n sisten tly re po r ted ( a) ad e ath in th e f am ily with in th e p as t 12 m o n th s ( 29 .4% ) an d / o r( b ) a d eath o f a friend in th e past 12 m on th s ( 40.7% ) .
The re se em s e ve r y re aso n to be lie ve th at be reaved co lle g e stu -d e n ts are h id d e n g r ie ve r s wh o se m o u rn in g i s d ise n fr an ch ise dwith in th e so c ia l e n viro nm en t o f a u n ive rsi ty o r co l le g e cam p u s( Dok a, 1989; LaGran d , 1986) . Wh e reas Vick io , Cavan au gh , an dAttig ( 1990) rep o r ted th at u n d e rg rad u ate s in th e ir stu d y u n d e r-sto o d th e i ssu e s o f g r ie f an d we r e se n sitive to th e n e ed s o f g r ie v-in g p e e rs, be re aved stu d en ts h ave in fo rm ed th e f ir st au tho r th atp e e r s se ld o m in d ica te wi l l in g n e ss to h e ar th e ir sto r ie s an d arem o re l ik e ly to f l e e ( f ig u rat ive ly an d at tim e s l ite ra l ly) f ro m an ycon ve rsatio n s abou t pe rso nal gr ie f. Fo r in stan ce , on e stud en t in ad eath stu d ie s c lass in i tial ly was sh un n e d by h e r c lassm ate s wh ensh e re tu rn ed to th e un ive rsity afte r th e d eath o f h e r b ro th e r; wh ileh e r c las sm ate s we re se n s i t ive to h e r g r ie f an d n e e d s, as th e yexp lain ed later to th e in structo r, th ey we re o ve rwh e lm ed with fee l-in g s o f h e lp le ssn e ss in th e face o f h e r pain .
Co l le g e s tu d e n ts f ace a le g io n o f co m p e t in g d em an d s . Fo rin s tan c e , tr ad i t io n al -a g e c o l le g e s tu d e n ts ( 18 ± 22 ye ar s o ld )in c re asin g ly m u st h o ld p ar t-t im e jo b s to af fo rd a co l le g e ed u ca-t io n . De ve lo p m en ta l task s , su ch as m ak in g ca re e r ch o ic e s an dfo r g in g p e rso n al au to n o m y, in cre ase in sal ie n cy d u r in g th e la tead o le scen t ye ars. Fu r th e rm o re , acad em ic s e xe r t a co n stan t p re s-su r e to stay o n task an d p ro d u ce . At th e sam e t im e , th e co l le g ee n viro nm en t p re se n ts it se lf as a p lace to h ave fu n , e xp lo re , an dp lace som e adu lt d em an ds on h o ld . Co llege is n o t an en vironm en tin wh ich g r ie f is sh are d e asi ly. Few p e rso n s o n cam pu s fe e l com -fo rtab le talk in g abou t d eath , e spe cially wh en th e sub je ct is abou t are al p e rson exp e rien c in g re al g r ie f .
H ow co lle g e stu d en ts co p e with d eath an d b e r e avem en t i s are se arch issu e o f im po rtan ce . We in vestigated th is issu e u sin g th eMoos and Sch ae fe r fram ewo rk ( Moos & Sch ae fe r, 1986; Schae fe r& Mo o s , 1994 ) fo r u n d e r stan d in g co p in g with l i f e c r i se s . Th isf ram ewo rk is p ar t o f an o ve ra ll ap p ro ach to h um an cop in g cate -g or ize d by Fo lkm an ( Fo lkm an , 1984, 1991) as a ª go odn e ss-o f -® tºap p ro ach ; th at i s , e f f e c t ive co p in g i s p e rce ive d as th e o u tco m e
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o f ( a) ap p raisal o f th e situ atio n , ( b ) ap p raisal o f co p in g o p tio n s,an d ( c ) th e ® t ach ie ved be tween cop in g o p tion s and actu al co p in gp ro ce sse s.
The Moo s and Schae fe r f ram ework em bod ie s ® ve se ts o f ad ap -t ive task s an d th re e d om ain s o f co p in g sk il ls . Th e ad ap tive task sare to ( a) e stab lish th e m ean in g and u n de rstan d th e pe rso nal s ig-n i ® can ce o f th e e ven t, ( b ) co n fro n t re ality an d re spond to th e sit-u atio n al requ irem en ts , ( c) su stain in te rpe rson al re lation sh ip s, ( d )m ain tain em o tio n al balan ce , an d ( e ) p re se r ve a satis facto r y se lf -im age and m ain tain a sen se o f se lf -e f ® cacy. The th re e dom ain s o fcop in g sk ill s are ( a) ap praisal-focu sed co p in g ( lo g ical an alysis an dm en ta l p re p aratio n , co gn it ive re d e f in it io n , an d co g n itive avo id -an ce o r d e n ia l ) , ( b ) p ro b lem -fo cu se d co p in g ( se e k in g in fo rm a-tio n an d sup p ort, tak in g actio n , an d id en tifyin g alte rn ative s) , an d( c ) em o tio n -fo cu sed co p in g ( af fe ctive re gu latio n , em o tio n al d is-ch arge , an d re sign ed accep tan ce ) . Th re e fac to rs in ¯ uen ce cogn i-t ive ap p raisal o f a c r i s i s : back g ro un d an d p e rso n al fac to rs ( e .g .,f am ily h isto r y in d ealin g with c r ise s ) , e ven t-r e late d fac to rs ( e .g .,th e e x ten t to wh ich th e c ri si s was an tic ip ated ) , an d en viro nm en -tal facto rs ( e .g ., th e quality o f social su p po r t) . Cogn itive app raisalt r ig ge rs co p in g sk i l l s as we l l as th e ad ap tive task s. Th e d e te rm i-n an ts o f cr is i s o u tcom e are a p ro d u ct o f th e in te rac tio n o f th e seasp ec ts , m ode rated by co gn itive app raisal.
In ad d it io n to u s in g th e Mo o s an d Sch ae f e r f ram ewo rk f o ru n d e rstand in g co p in g with life cr ise s, we in qu ire d in to th e p laceo f af ® l iatio n in th e stu den ts’ l ive s. Stud ie s o f co lle g e stud en ts h aveem phasized th e im portan t p lace fr ien d sh ip and in tim acy p lays inth e ir d e ve lo pm en t ( Balk , 1995a; Pascare lla & Te re n zin i , 1991 ) .On at le ast two co un ts, af ® liation h as be en iden ti ® e d as cen tral tou n de rstand in g th e e xp e rien ce o f g rie f: ( a) th e value o f so cial su p -p o rt to th e be re aved ( Balk , Tyson -Rawson , & Co lle tt i-We tze l, 1993;Dun k e l -Sch e t te r, Fo lkm an , & Lazar u s, 1987 ; Jaco b s , 1993 ;L ehm an , El lard , & Wo rtm an , 1986; Malin ak , Ho yt, & Patte r so n ,1979 ; Park e s & We is s , 1983 ; Vach o n e t a l ., 1982 ; Vach o n &Styl ian o s , 1986 ) an d ( b ) th e p la ce o f at tach m en t th e o r y ine xp la in in g g r ie f ( Bo wlby, 1980 ; Hal se y, 1991; Klas s, 1988 , 1995 ;Klass, Silve rm an , & Nickm an , 1996; Stro e be , Ge rg en , Ge rg en , &Stro eb e , 1993 ) . Th e cen tral i ty o f af f il ia t io n f o r co lle g e stu d e n tsin gen e ral an d fo r be re aved co lle g e stud e n ts in p ar ticu lar is cap -
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tu red in th e de ® n itio n Heyn s, Ve ro f f , and Atk in so n ( 1958) gave toa f f i l ia t io n im ag e s e xp re s se d in TAT r e sp o n se s : Wr ite r s e x p re s sco n ce r n ª o ve r e stab li sh in g , m ain ta in in g , o r r e s to r in g a p o s it iveaf fe ctive re lation sh ip with an o th e r pe rso n º ( pp . 205 ± 206) .
Method
Th is s tu d y fo rm s p ar t o f a p ro je c t th at in ve st ig ate d wh e th e r asocial supp or t in te r ven tio n was e f fe ctive in p re ven tin g th e on se t o fd ebil itatin g con sequ en ce s in th e live s o f bere aved co lle ge stu den ts( Balk e t a l ., 1993 ) . De b i l ita tin g con se qu en ce s f o r b e re aved s tu -d en ts in clu d e su ch o u tcom e s as e n du r in g d ep re ssio n , acad em icf a i lu re , so c ia l i so la t io n , ch ron ic s le e p d is t r u ban ce s , s e ve re an do n g o in g som atic co m p la in ts , in c r e ase d vu ln e rab i l ity to d ise ase ,an d e atin g d iso rd e r s ( Balk , 1993 , 1996 ; O ste r we is , So lo m o n , &Gre e n , 1984 ) . To p re ve n t su ch con se q u e n ce s , th e in te r ve n t io naim ed at in cre asin g stud en ts ’ co p in g sk il ls .
The p ro jec t u sed a rep eate d m easu re s p re te st ± p o stte st co n tro lg ro u p d e sign to gath e r lo n g i tu d in al d ata abou t th e traje c to r y o fbe re avem en t with and with ou t su pp ort g rou p in te r ven tio n . A con -tro l g ro u p o f n on be re aved co l le g e stu d e n ts fo rm e d p ar t o f th esam p le .
S a m p le
Th is p ro je ct in clu ded 180 stud en ts, ( 110 be re aved an d 70 n on be-re aved ) . Th e be re aved stu d en ts we re ran d om ly p lace d in to con -tro l and tre atm en t g ro up s. Th e stu den ts com p le ted m u ltip le d atain str um en ts o n se ve ral o ccasio n s. Over th re e d ata gath e rin g se s-s io n s, th e p ro je ct re ta in e d 78% ( n = 141) o f th e p ar tic ip an ts: 46b e r e ave d su p p o rt g ro u p m em be r s, 34 b e re ave d co n tr o l g ro u pm em be rs, and 61 nonbe reaved con tro l g ro u p m em be rs. The attr i-tion o f m ore be re aved con tro l gro up m em be rs th an any o th er par-t ic ip an ts p ro m p te d som e re f le c t io n s o n issu e s o f e th ic s an dbe reavem en t re se arch ( Balk , 1995b ; Balk & Coo k , 1995) .
The sup port gro up in te r ven tion , wh ich was repo rted in an e ar-l ie r issu e o f D e a th S tu d i e s ( Balk e t al., 1993) , in vo lved e igh t se ssio n ssp read o u t o ve r a 4-we ek pe rio d . Five to 8 be re aved stud en ts p lu s ag ro u p facil itato r com pr ised th e se ss ion p ar tic ip an ts; m em be rsh ip
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r em a in e d th e sam e fro m se ss io n to se s s io n . Th e fa c i l i ta to r sa ss is te d p ar t ic ip an ts to ta lk abo u t th e ir l i fe sto r ie s, p ar t ic u lar lyth e ir be re avem en t, and to liste n atten tive ly to th e sto rie s o f o th e rs.On e ro le o f th e fac il ita to r s was to in tro du ce at e ach se ssio n a d if-fe ren t asp e c t o f th e Moo s and Sch ae fe r ( 1986) m od e l fo r u n de r-s tan d in g co p in g with l i fe c r i s e s; an o th e r f ac i l i ta to r ro le was toassist par tic ip an ts to iden tify wh en an yone in th e grou p was u sin gad ap tive task s and/or cop in g sk il ls.
Stat istica l an alyse s in d icate th at th e g ro u p s d id n o t d if fe r o nim po r tan t d em o graph ic ch aracte r istic s : g en d e r, re lig io n , year insch oo l, o r co lle g e cu r ricu lum . The re we re sign i® can tly m ore pe r-so n s ab o ve th e ag e o f 24 am o n g th e be r e ave d s tu d e n ts as co m -p are d with th e n on b e re ave d stu d e n ts, F ( 1 , 139 ) = 4 .12 , p > .05 .Th e be re ave d co n tro l an d be re ave d su p p o rt g ro u p s d id n o t d if -f e r in te rm s o f wh o d ie d ( im m ed iate f am ily, o th e r re la tive , o r af r ien d ) , age , wh at cau se d th e d e ath , o r len g th o f tim e sin ce th ed eath o ccu r red . Ave rage tim e sin ce th e d eath was ap p rox im ate ly 2 years , bu t th e se f ig u r e s we re sk ewe d by som e ou tl ie r s o f 10 o rm o re ye ars s in c e th e d e ath . Ne ar ly th re e f o u r th s ( n = 58 ) we r e in th e f i r s t 2 ye ar s o f b e re avem e n t : 58 .8% ( n = 47 ) in th e f i r st 12 m on th s an d 13.8% ( n = 11) in th e secon d 12 m on th s.
The sam p le was com po sed o f 114 fem ale stu den ts ( 81% ) an d27 m ale stu d en ts ( 19% ) . Ge nd e r b re akd own by g ro u p was as fo l-lows: th e re we re 37 fem ale stu d e n ts in th e be re avem e n t su p p o r tg rou p s, 28 in th e be re avem en t co n tro l g rou p , an d 49 in th e n on -b e re ave d g ro u p ; th e re we re 9 m ale stu d en ts in th e be re avem e n tsup port gro up s, 6 in th e be re avem en t con tro l g rou p , and 12 in th en on be reaved g ro u p . Th e sam p le ’ s g e n d e r d isp ar i tie s p re c lu d edan alyzin g m ale an d fem ale re spon se d if fe ren ce s.
Pro testan ts and Catho lics m ad e u p n early 86% o f th e sam p le .Ano th e r 12.1% ind icate d th e y h ad n o re lig io u s p re fe ren ce , an d ave r y sm all p e rcen tage id en ti fie d th em se lve s as Jewish o r Mu slim .
The ave rage age o f stud en ts in th e sam p le was 23.2 years, witha m e d ian ag e o f 21 an d a m od al ag e o f 19 . Fo u r te e n n o n tr ad i-t io n al s tu d e n ts ( ag e s r an g in g f ro m 30 to 61 ) we re m em be r s o fth e stud y.
Class m em be rsh ip was sp re ad fa ir ly e ve n ly: 19.8% fre shm en ,34.7% soph om o re , 19.9% jun io rs, 21.3% sen io rs, an d 4.1% g rad -u ate stud en ts. Th re e stu den ts we re ª u n classi ® ed stu den ts .º
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A p lu rali ty o f th e stu d en ts we re from th e Co lle ge o f Ar ts an dScien ce s ( 47.5% ) . In d e scen d in g o rde r, th e stud en ts in o th e r co l-l e g e s we re f ro m th e Co l le g e s o f Edu cat io n ( 14 .2% ) , Hu m anEco lo gy ( 11.3% ) , En g in e e r in g ( 9.9% ) , Bu sin e ss Adm in ist ratio n( 9.2% ) , Ag r icu l tu re ( 5 .7% ) , an d Arch ite c tu re ( 0.7% ) . Two s tu -d en ts d id n o t id en tify th e ir co lle g e .
D e a t h s i n t h e L i v e s o f t h e B e r e a v e d S t u d e n t s . Near ly h al f o f th e 80b e re aved stu d e n ts ( 47.5% ) re p o r te d d eath s o f im m ed iate fam ilym em be rs: fath e rs ( 20% ) , m o th e rs ( 8 .7% ) , s ib lin g s ( 12.4% ) , h u s -band s ( 5.0% ) , and ch ild ren ( 1.2% ) . Twen ty-® ve p e rcen t rep or te dd e ath s o f o th e r re la tive s ( e .g ., g r an dp are n ts, u n c le s, co u sin s ) .Frien d s’ d eath s we re repo rted by 20% o f th e 80 be reaved stu den ts.Mo st o f th e d eath s we re attr ibu te d to il ln e ss ( 58.7% ) . Th e o th e rcau ses l isted we re acciden ts ( 26.3%) , su icide ( 7.5% ) , and u nknowno r o th e r ( 7.5% ) . None o f th e d eath s was due to m urde r.
T h e m a t i c A p p e rc e p t i o n Te s t (T A T ) . Five card s from th e 31-card TATwe re adm in is tred o n th re e o ccasio n s abou t 6 we e k s ap ar t to th ep ar tic ip an ts . Th e card s we re ad m in is te re d to as se ss in trap sych icre sp on ses and to asse ss in d ividual co p in g style s. Expe r ts con ® rm edth at th e TAT m ay be adm in iste red with a se le ct p or tio n o f th e fu lls e t o f card s ( Dan a, 1986; p e rso n al co m m un icat io n , R. H . Dan a,May 9, 1988; pe rsonal com m un ication , M. Le ich tm an , May 9, 1988;p e rso n al com m u n icatio n , R. H . Moo s, May 3 , 1988 ) . Th e TATre sp o n se s p ro vid e valu ab le q u al i tat ive in f o rm at io n th at b o the n r ich e s an d su p p lem e n ts th e qu an t ita tive in fo rm atio n g ain e dfrom stand ard ized in str um en ts. Cohen and Wills ( 1985) and Moos( 1974 ; p e rso n al com m u n icat io n , May 3 , 1988) h ig h l igh te d th atqualitat ive d ata are n e eded in stud ies o f co p in g ; Moos accen ted th eTAT’ s u se fu ln e ss n o t on ly in stud ies o f co p in g an d ad ap tation bu tp ar ticu larly with th e targe t popu lation o f th is re search p ro ject ( pe r-son al com m un icatio n , R. H. Moo s, May 3, 1988) .
Th e TAT card s u se d we re 3BM, 10 , 14 , 15, an d 16 . Pe rso n alc o m m u n icat i o n s with c l i n i c ian s e x p e r ie n ce d in th e u se o f th eTAT with co lle g e stu d en ts ( M. S. Cern ey, May 9, 1988; R. H . Dan a,May 9 , 1988 ; M. Le ich tm an , May 9 , 1988 ) co n f irm ed th at th e sef ive card s we re we ll ch o se n g ive n th e f o cu s o f th e re se arch p lan .
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Co pyrig h t re str ic tio n s an d p ro fe ss io n al e th ic s fo rb id d isp layin gth e card s in th is m an u sc rip t.
Th e se d e sc r ip t io n s o f th e f ive card s co m e f ro m Mu r ray’ s( 1943, pp . 19, 20) TAT m an ual: Card 3BMÐ ªOn th e ̄ oo r again sta co u ch is th e hudd led fo rm o f a bo y with h is h ead bowed on h isr igh t arm . Be sid e h im o n th e f lo o r i s a a re vo lve r º ; Card 10 Ð ª Ayo un g wom an ’ s h e ad again st a m an ’ s sh ou ld e rº ; Card 14 Ð ª Th esilh o ue tte o f a m an ( o r wom an ) again st a b righ t wind ow. Th e re sto f th e p ic tu re i s to ta l ly b lac k º ; Card 15 Ð ª A g au n t m an withc le n ch e d h an d s is s tan d in g am on g g rave s to n e sº ; an d card 16 Ъ B lan k card º .
Th e se card s ’ im age s su gg e ste d cle ar re le van ce fo r gath e r in gp ro je c tive d ata p e r tin e n t to be re avem e n t, sp e c i f ica l ly, fo r e lic it-in g p e rso n al u n d e rstan d in g s o f d eath an d g r ie vin g . Fu rth e r, th ecard s are co n sid e red gen de r n eu tral ( Mur ray, 1943) .
Re se arch p ar tic ip an ts we re g iven th e TAT card s an d ask ed towrite a sto r y abou t e ach on e . Baty an d Drege ( 1975) in d icate d th ato ral an d written re sp on se s to th e TAT d o n o t sign if ican tly d if fe r.Wh en wr itin g a sto r y in re sp on se to e ach TAT card , th e stu d en tswe re to ld to lo o k at th e card an d to wr i te a s to r y th at co n ta in sth e se com pon en ts: a d e scr ip tion o f th e p ic tu r e , wh at th e ch arac-te r s are d o in g , wh at h app e n e d p r io r to th e p ictu re , th e fe e lin g san d th ou gh ts o f th e ch aracte rs in th e p ictu re , an d h ow th in g s wil ltu rn ou t.
C o n t e n t A n a l y s i s o f T A T R e s p o n s e s . Th e se n io r au th o r ( B alk )d e ve lo p ed a co d in g sch em e to an alyze TAT sto r ie s fo r th e p re s-e n ce o f death , g rie f, an d/ or co p in g im age r y.1 A cop y o f th is co d -in g sch em e c an b e o b ta in e d b y c o n tac t in g h im . Th e co d in gsch em e deve lo ped by Heyn s e t al. ( 1958) was u sed to analyze af ® l-iation im age r y.
Th e co d in g sch e m e s lo o k f o r th e m e n t io n o f f o u r th em e s :a f f il ia tio n , d e ath , g r ie f , an d co p in g . Sh o u ld co p in g im age r y b e
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1C o d i n g S c h e m e fo r T h em e s o f D ea th , G r ie f , C o p n g , a n d A d a p ti v e Ta sk s : The issu e fo r cod er s
is wh e th e r th ere is an y m en tio n at all o f th e to p ics o f d e ath , g rie f , an d/o r co p in g . Co de rsm u st m ake th re e de cision s in ge n e ra l ab o u t TAT sto rie s, n am e ly, wh eth e r im ag e r y in th esto r y re late s to th e to p ic o f ( a) d eath , ( b ) g r ie f , o r ( c) cop in g .
If th e co d e r ju d g e s th a t th e st o r y co n ta in s im ag e r y abo u t co p in g , th e n th e co d e rn e ed s to d e te rm in e wh ich ad ap tive tas k s are m en tio n ed in th e sto r y: ( a) e stab l ish in g th em ean in g o f th e even t, ( b ) con fro n tin g re ality an d si tu ation al d em an d s, ( c) su stain in g pe r-so n al re la tio n sh ip s , ( d ) p r e se r vin g e m o ti o n a l b a lan ce , an d ( e ) p re se r vin g se l f -im ag e .
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m en tion ed , th e co de rs are in str u cted to lo o k fo r th e p re sen ce o fan y o f th e f ive ad ap tive task s id e n t i f ie d b y Mo o s an d Sch ae fe r( 1986 ; Sch ae f e r & Mo o s , 1994 ) . Sh o u ld af f i l ia tio n im ag e r y b em e n t io n e d , th e co d e r s are in st r u c te d to d e te rm in e i f th e s to r yd e al s so le ly with th is th em e o r i f o th e r th em e s ar e a l so p r e se n t( Heyn s e t al., 1958) .
Each sto r y was t ran sc r ibe d f o r an alys is , an d s ix o f th e se ve nau th o rs in d e p en d e n t ly co d ed th e co n ten t o f 2 ,115 TAT s to r ie s.In te r r ate r r e l iab i l i ty was ch e ck e d th ro u g h o u t th e s tu d y. A r an -d om n um be r gen e rato r was u sed to se lec t s l igh tly m o re th an 30%o f th e sto rie s fo r th e cod e rs to analyze in com m on .
Fou r au th o rs ( Coo k , Dubo is, Lam p e , an d Sh arp e ) in d ep en -d e n t ly an alyzed th e TAT s to r ie s f o r th em e s o f d e ath , g r ie f , an dc o p in g . Rate r t ra in in g to o k abo u t 3 we e k s to g ain co n s iste n t lya cce p tab le r e l iab i l i ty, an d we e k ly m e e t in g s p ro vid e d o n -g o in gm on ito r in g an d fu r th e r t ra in in g by h avin g co d e rs d iscu ss th e irr e sp o n se s an d d iscu s s th e ir ra tio n ale s f o r th e ir re sp o n se s .In te r rate r re liab ility ave raged 85.7% , n eve r wen t be low 82% , andreach ed in to th e low 90s som etim e s. Two un de rg rad uate s ( Ho lenand Schwin n ) in d ep en d en tly an alyze d th e TAT sto rie s fo r af ® l ia-tio n th em e s; th e ir in te r rater re liab il ity ave raged 87.5% , n eve r fe l lb e low 79% , an d o f te n re ach ed in to th e low 90s. The sam e train in gp ro toco l was fo llowed with th e se rate r s. Th e co de rs p rovid ed o ve r-a l l o b se r vat io n s o f th e sto r ie s, an d th e se o b se r vat io n s a re p re -sen ted in th is m an u scrip t.
S ta t i s t ic a l A n a ly s i s o f T A T R e s p o n s e s . Bo th d e sc rip tive and in fe r-en tial statistics we re u sed to analyze re su lts. Frequ en cy coun ts we rem ade o f th e th em e s th at th e cod e rs fo u nd in th e sto r ie s. Rep eate dm u ltivariate an alyse s o f var ian ce ( MANOVA) we re calcu late d o nth e p re se n ce o f th e se th em e s in th e TAT re sp on se s o f th e th re eg ro u p s ove r th re e te stin g pe rio d s.
Results
Re su l t s o f 2 ,115 s to r ie s wr i t te n b y th e 141 stu d e n ts o ve r th re ero un d s o f d ata g ath e r in g sh ow th at a f f i l ia t io n wa s m e n t io n e d1,096 tim e s ( 51.8% ) , d eath was m en tio n ed 910 tim e s ( 43% ) , g rie f790 tim e s ( 37.3% ) , an d co p in g 1,416 tim e s ( 67% ) . As fo r th e ® vead ap tive task s, co n fro n tin g th e re ality o f th e e ven t was m en tio n ed
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1 ,286 t im e s ( 60 .8% ) , su s ta in in g se l f -im ag e 814 t im e s ( 38 .5% ) ,e stab l i sh in g th e p e r so n al s ig n i f ic an c e o f th e e ve n t 1 ,068 t im e s( 50 .5% ) , m a in ta in in g em o t io n al b alan c e 1 ,271 t im e s ( 60 .1% ) ,and e ngag in g in o r m ain tain in g p e rson al re latio n sh ip s 937 tim e s( 44.3% ) .
To il lu strate th e type s o f d ata studen ts p rod uced in re spon se toth e TAT card s, two sto rie s are rep ro duced d ire ctly be low. Cod e rs ’an alyses o f e ach sto r y’ s co n ten t are p ro vided as we ll .
S to r y 1
ª A m an stand in g in an em p ty, qu ie t h ou se alo n e th in k in g . It h asb e e n a beau t ifu l m o rn in g an d h e was o u t walk in g in th e sp r in g -lik e weath e r be fo re th e su n rise . Righ t now th e sun is ris in g an d iti s a re d f ire b al l as i t c l im bs o ve r th e h o r izo n , f lam in g red . He isth in k in g abou t a p o em th at a wom an on ce sh ared with h im abou ta sim i lar typ e su n r ise th at d e sc r ib e d h e r an g e r. My an g e r f ir e ,b lo od red o rb su r facin g , p in k ho rizon . L ike . . . An ge r, h eat d e epwith in , sp ewin g from m y so u l.º
ª H e is f e e l in g wo n d e r an d am azem en t at th e su n r ise an d isre alizin g h e too is e xpe r ien cin g som e h idd en an ge r th at se em s tocom e f ro m n owh e re an d h as n o d ire ct io n . He acce p ts h is an ge ran d trie s to d eal with it in a con str uctive m an ne r, i.e ., n o t hu r tin gh im se lf o r o th e rs.º
Th e au th o r o f th is sto r y was a 36-ye ar-o ld wo m an wh o was am em be r o f th e be re aved su pp o rt g ro u p . He r fath e r h ad com m it-ted su ic ide 1 m on th p rio r to h e r en tr y in to th e p ro je ct. He r sto r ycon ta in s th em e s o f co p in g , an d al l th e ad ap tive task s e xce p t fo rm ain tain in g in te rp e rson al re latio n sh ip s.
S to r y 2
ª Th e b lan k p ie ce o f p ap e r with n o p ic tu re o n i t re p re se n ts th eb lan k , o r em p ty sp o t in som eon e ’ s l ife and h ear t. Th is spo t is le f taf te r som eon e is tak en away from you in d eath . The spo t, whe th e rb ig o r sm al l, can n e ve r b e f i l le d back u p an d wi ll always r em ainem p ty. Th is is wh y you a lways wil l fe e l sad al l you r li fe abou t th isp e r so n . Th e b lan k p ie c e o f p ap e r re p re se n ts o n e o f th e m o stu n f a ir p ar t s o f d e a th o f an o th e r p e rso n wh o was c lo se to yo u .º
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The au tho r o f th is sto r y was a 20-ye ar-o ld m an who was a m em-be r o f th e be re aved su p po rt g ro u p . H is fr iend h ad com m itte d su i-c id e a few week s p rio r to th e au tho r’ s en te rin g th e re se arch stu dy.H is sto r y co n tain s th em e s o f death , gr ie f , cop in g , e stablish in g th ep e rso n al s ign i f ican ce o f a c ri s is , an d m ain ta in in g em o t io n al bal-an ce ; its dom in an t m o tif is af ® l iatio n .
O v er a l l M A N O V A R es u l t s
As d e te rm in e d by th e Wilk s p ro ced u re ( Wilk s = .369) MANOVAiden ti ® e d sign i® can t group d if fe re n ces in re spon se s to th e TAT sto -r ie s ( om n ibu s F = 2.35, p > .001) . Un ivariate F te st re su lts fo r th eth ree grou p s over th e th ree te stin g period s are p ro vided in Table 1.
R e p ea t ed M ea s u r e s R e s u l t s
Repeated -m easu re s MANOVA te sts o f TAT re sp on se s fou nd som egroup d if fe ren ces and on e Group 2 Tim e d if fe ren ce .
T h e m e o f D e a th . Rep e ate d -m e asu re s MANOVA d isc lo se d a g ro u pd if fe ren ce in stu den ts’ u se o f d eath im age r y in th e ir TAT sto rie s,F ( 2, 138) = 10.47, p = .001. Over tim e , be re aved stu d en ts u sed th eth em e o f d e ath m o re fre qu e n tly th an d id th e n o n b e r e ave d stu -d en ts. Over th e th re e d ata g ath e r in g se ss io n s, th e be re ave d su p -p o r t g ro up m em be rs u sed th is th em e in 48% o f th e ir sto rie s, th ebe re aved con tro l g ro u p stud e n ts in 51% o f th e ir sto r ie s, an d th en o n be re ave d stu d e n ts in 35% o f th e ir s to r ie s . Fro m Tim e 1 toTim e 2 th e re was a m ark ed d e cre ase in th e p e rce n tage o f sto r ie swith th e th em e o f death writte n by be re aved su pp ort g ro u p m em -b e rs. By Tim e 3 , m em be rs o f th e be re aved con tro l an d be re avedsu p p o r t g r o u p s we re in c lu d in g th e th em e o f d e ath in th e sam ep e rcen tage o f sto rie s ( 43% ) .
T h em e o f G r ie f . Rep eate d -m easu re s MANOVA d if fe ren tiate d g rou pu se o f th e th em e o f g rie f , F ( 2 , 138) = 6.84, p = .001. Over th e th re ed ata gath e rin g se ss io n s, th e be re aved con tro l g ro up stud en ts u sedth e th em e o f g r ie f in 43% o f th e ir sto r ie s, th e be re ave d su p p o r tg ro u p s tu d e n ts u se d th e th em e in 42% o f th e ir sto r ie s, an d th en onbe reaved stu den ts u sed th e th em e in 30% o f th e ir sto r ie s. Th e
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b e re aved su p p o r t g ro u p m em be rs ’ u se o f th is th em e le ve led o f ff rom Tim e 1 to Tim e 3 wh e reas u se by th e be re ave d con tro l an dn onbe reaved con tro l g ro up m em be rs de clin ed ste ad ily.
T h e m e o f C o p in g . Cop in g im ager y was p re sen t in all th e gro up s ’ sto -r ie s , an d re p e ate d -m e asu re s MANOVA fo u n d n o g ro u p d if f e r -en ce s in u se o f cop in g im age r y, F ( 2 , 138) = 0.27, p = .762.
C o p in g Ta s k s . Rep eate d -m easu re s MANOVA id en ti ® e d a Group 2Tim e d if fe ren ce in u se o f th e th em e o f m ain tain in g se l f -e f f icacyd u r in g a c r is i s , F ( 2 , 138 ) = 2.92 , p = .022. Non be re ave d stu d e n tsm en tion ed th is co p in g task m ore o ften acro ss th e th re e data gath -e r in g se ss io n s th an d id e ith e r g ro up o f bereaved stud en ts; o n ave r-
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age , 42% o f th e ir sto r ie s o ve r th e th re e se ss io n s m en tio n e d se lf -e f f icacy. Th e be re aved con tro l g ro u p stu d e n ts h ad a p re c ip i to u sd ro p in in c lu sio n o f th is th em e f ro m Tim e 1 to Tim e 3 ( f ro m56 .5% to 29 .4% ) . Th e b e re ave d su p p o r t g ro u p m em be rs m e n -t io n e d se l f -e f f ica cy o n ave rag e in 33% o f th e ir s to r ie s o ve r th eth re e data se ssio n s.
The gro up s d id n o t d if fe r in th e ir u se o f th e o th e r fou r cop in gtask s. Sp eci ® cally, repeate d -m easu re s MANOVA found th e g ro up s’sto rie s d id no t d if fe r in th em e s o f : ( a) e stablish in g th e sign i ® can ceo f th e e ven t, F ( 2 , 138) = 0.37, p = .692; ( b ) con fro n tin g th e realityo f th e situation , F ( 2, 138) = 0.21, p = .812; ( c ) m ain tain in g o r e stab-lish in g in terpe rso nal re latio n sh ip s, F ( 2, 137) = 0.16, p = .855; an d( d ) m ain tain in g em otio nal balan ce , F ( 2 , 138) = 0.63, p = .532.
A f f i l i a t i o n I m a g e r y. Af f i l iat io n im age r y was p re se n t in a m ajo r i tyo f sto r ie s wr i t te n b y th e stu d e n ts . H o we ve r, re p e ate d -m e a su re sMANOVA fo un d n o g ro u p d i f fe re n ce s in u se o f a f f i l ia tio nim ager y, F ( 2 , 138) = 1.54, p = .219.
Discussion
Th e cod e rs c le ar ly a f f irm ed th e ir g rowin g m aste r y o ve r th e co d -in g sch em e ap p l ie d to th e TAT sto r ie s ; th e e x ce l le n t in te r rate rre liab il ity d ata co n f irm th e accu racy o f th e se p e rcep tio n s. Wh ilet h e y re c o g n ize d a p o r t io n o f th e s to r ie s co n ta in e d p le a san tt h e m e s , t h e c o d e r s we r e im p re s se d b y th e g r e ate r p ro p o r t io nwith th em e s o f d istre ss an d traged y; su ic id e was a com m on sto r yl in e th at m ad e an im p re ssio n o n th em . Pe rso n al in vo lvem en t var -ie d , an d th e co d e rs fo u n d ways o f co p in g with th e m an y sto r ie swith th em e s o f trage d y an d d istre ss ; f o r in stan ce , o n e co d e r d is-tan c e d h e r se l f f ro m th e em o t io n s e x p r e sse d in th e sto r ie s an dapp ro ach ed th em as o b je cts to be an alyzed , wh e re as th e im age r yin d u ce d o th e rs to th in k abo u t e xp e r ien ce s th at co u ld le ad th e irp e e rs to p ro d u ce su ch th ou gh ts.
Th e c o d e r s sp o t te d p at te rn s in im ag e r y. Fo r in s tan c e , th eth em e o f su ic id e was h ard to m iss in sto r ie s abo u t th e p e rso n atth e win d ow; Mu rray ( 1943) h ad n o ted th at th is card was th e o n em o st l ik e ly to allow su ic id al ide ation to be e xpre ssed . Add itio n ally,th e y n o te d th at th e f o rm at a l lo we d co l le g e s tu d e n ts to e xp re s s
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th em se lve s in ways th at th e co d e rs fo u n d cap tu re d th e p re ssu rein stud en ts ’ l ive s to day.
Th e tr a je c to r y o f b e re avem e n t f o r th e 80 stu d e n ts in vo lve dg radu ally de clin in g atte n tio n to th e th em es o f death an d o f g rie f ;as wou ld b e e xp e cte d , th e y u sed th e se th em e s p ar ticu lar ly m o reth an n onbe re aved stud en ts to exp lain re ality. For th e be reaved stu -d en ts, d eath and g rie f fo rm ed sign i ® c an t m o tifs as th e y re ¯ e ctedo n th em se lve s an d o n e x te rn al s i tu at io n s . Payin g at te n t io n too n e ’ s be re avem e n t Ð a s o u r r e se arch in st r um e n ts d em an d e d Ðm ust h ave accen tuated th e p roce ss o f se e in g re ality th rou gh len se sco lo red by d eath and gr ie f.
Th e m ajo ri ty o f th e be re aved stu d en ts sa id ta lk in g abou t th ed eath h ad p ro ved h e lp fu l , bu t , as tim e p ro g re ssed , th e stu d e n tssaid talk in g be cam e m o re d istre ssin g . We can tu rn to th e wo rk o fth at r em ark ab le be r e avem e n t re se arc h e r, Er ic h L in d em an n( 1944 ) , as a m e an s to u n d e rs tan d th is in c re ase in d ist re s s .L in d em an n sa id b e re ave d p eo p le be g in to h e al o n ce th e y al lo wth em se lve s to fe e l th e ir d istre ss . We p laced be re aved stu den ts in asituatio n in wh ich we exp e cte d th em to d iscu ss th e ir fe e lin gs an dm em o rie s an d im ag e s . Man y o f th e se f e e l in g s , m em o r ie s , an dim age s are tin ged with wo e be cau se th e p e rson to whom th ey areattach ed is lo st pe rm anen tly.
B e cau se d is tre ss in te n s if ie d at f i r s t fo r b o th th e con tro l an dsu p p o r t g ro u p m em be r s wh o we re g r ie vin g , o n e o f th e i s su e sraised is to wh at e xten t com p le tin g th e in str um en ts wo rk ed as anin te r ve n tio n by e lic itin g th ou g h ts, im age s, an d fe e lin g s th at h adp e rh ap s gon e u nd e rco ve r fo r th e stud en ts.
Un co ve rin g bu ried th ou gh ts, im age s, and fe e lin g s m ay p ro veben e ® c ial fo r th e be re aved . Su ch wou ld be th e classical n o tion o fg r ie f wo rk ( Str o e b e & Sch u t , 1995 , 1996 ) . In d e e d , L in d em an n( 1944 ) , as we n o ted , asse r te d con fro n tin g th e d ist re ss cau sed byg r ie f le ad s to re co ve r y. Howeve r, th ere m ay be m o re to g rie f workth an re lian ce o n con f ro n tin g d istr e s s in g th ou gh ts , im age s, an dfe e lin g s. Margare t Stro ebe an d h e r co l le agu e s ( Stroe be & Sch u t,1995, 1996; Stro ebe & Stro ebe , 1991; Stro eb e , Stro ebe , & Sch u t,1996) h ave n o ted th at ( a) g en d e r d i f fe ren ce s m ark ho w p e rso n sen gage in g rie f work , ( b ) fem ale s se em m o re in clin ed to fo cu s o np rim ar y issu es o f th e lo ss ( su ch as co n cen tratin g o n th e em otion ald is t re s s f e l t b e c au se o f th e d e ath ) , an d ( c ) m ale s se em m o re
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in c lin ed to fo cu s o n se co n d ar y e f f e c ts ( su ch as atte n d in g to th econ se qu en ce s th e d eath wil l p ro d u ce in o n e ’ s l i fe ) . Stro eb e an dh e r co lle agu e s h ave p ro p o sed th at g r ie f wo rk in vo lve s bo th con -fro n tin g issu es o f lo ss and d ealin g with secon dar y e f fe cts.
Main ta in in g se lf -im ag e th ro u g h a sen se o f se lf -e f f icacy was as to r y l in e th at saw Gro up 2 Tim e e f f e c t s . Re sp o n se s in d icate dth at ove r tim e non be re aved stud en ts in se rte d th is th em e in to th e irTAT sto rie s m ore fre quen tly and con sisten tly th an d id th e bereavedstu d en ts. It i s n o t c le ar wh e th e r be re ave d co lle g e stu d e n ts face dwith th e d istre ss , in ten sity, and d uratio n o f gr ie f ® n d p ro je ctin g ase n se o f se l f -e f f icacy a m o re d if f icu lt s to r y lin e th an d o n o n b e -reaved pe e rs. Pe rh ap s g rie f p o se s a par ticu larly d if ® cu lt ch allen geto co lleg e stud en ts ’ fe e lin g s o f se lf-co n ® d en ce and con tro l.
Th e u n i fo rm ity in u se o f a f f il ia tio n im age r y ac ro ss th e th re eg roup s o f studen ts su rp rised th e in ve stigato rs. We had th ough t th atir rep arable lo ss wou ld in clin e be re aved stud en ts to in vok e af ® l ia-tion im ager y m uch m ore th an nonbe reaved stu den ts , an d e ven top ro du ce s to r ie s d om in ate d by th at th em e . Attachm en t th e o r ywou ld suggest th at such an expe ctatio n is p lau sib le ; h owever, a con -stan t fo r co lleg e stu den ts m ay ve r y we ll be th e im portan ce o f m ain -tain in g , e stab l ish in g , o r re sto r in g fr ie n d sh ip . Re se arch with latead o lescen ts h as m ade cle ar th e in creased salie n ce with wh ich th eyview clo se fr iend sh ip ( Balk , 1995a; Pascare lla & Te ren zin i, 1991) .
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