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WATER TREATMENT INDEVELOPING COUNTRIES

CASE STUDYMALAYSIA

BYSA.F. SYED YUSOFF

2 3 N 3 V 1993

PERCUSTAKAA^ lU -''

THFS1S K A K 1 T A N G A N

WATER TREATMENT IN DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

CASE STUDY : MALAYSIA

BY

SYED ABDUL FATTAH SYED YUSOFF

Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of

MSc (Eng) TROPICAL PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING

™, ,, • ci JThe University of Leeds

Perkhidmatan Pem>»r*p^i i Tun \b(!ul Ra»*

Institut Teknoloni4U450 Shah

Dmrul

Department of Civil Engineering

September 1993

The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credithas been given where reference has been made to the work of others.

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Abstract

This dissertation is a study on water treatment in developing countriesand Malaysia is taken as a case study. The scope of this dissertationcover water from the intake at the source to the final process beforedistribution. This is not an attempt to change the existing system butrather to see what can be offered, or the advantages of better systems forthe future in developing countries and in this case , Malaysia.

In Malaysia the method use for urban water treatment is the rapid gravityfiltration system and the intake is from surface water normally rivers. Theproblems faced by this water treatment plant can be summarised asbelow:

1. Intake Source

2. Water Treatment Plant

3. Storage and Distribution

1. Intake Source

The problem here is the source, as most rivers in Malaysia are fastflowing and silt-laden. The water is heavily contaminated from:agricultural discharge (oil-palm and rubber), organic waste (sewage);heavy metals and toxic chemicals (factories). These three principalsources of pollution in rivers can be overcome by introducing treatment

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prior to discharge to public water courses. Treatment will only be

installed if it is compulsary or a legislative requirement for any dischargeinto a public water course . The monitoring of the river quality has to bedone systematically to ensure that contaminated water does not reach thewater treatment plant. Goverment agencies such as the Ministry of Healthand the Department of Environment should work together to prosecutethose who contaminate the river. The intake is normally a pump wherewater from the river is pumped to a presettling reservoir (plainsedimentation tank) that has a capacity of 2 to 3 days storage. Thisreservoir is sometimes being pretreated with chlorine or is aerated. Fromthis reservoir the water is pumped to the treatment plant.

2. Water Treatment Plant

The water treatment plant receives water from the plain sedimentationtank and there are many types of process in the plant depending on thequality of water it receives. Some of the processes include: pretreatment,chemical coagulation, rapid mixing, flocculation, sedimentation, filtration(rapid gravity filter) and disinfection (normally chlorine gas). Themonitoring of raw water and treated water is done daily from samplestaken during the treatment process. For chemical coagulation, laboratoryjar tests are used to assess the optimum pH, type and range of dose ofprimary coagulant and the suitability of coagulant aids. Most of the watertreatment plant in developing countries and in Malaysia, except for thenew treatment plants, are designed to treat raw water quality as it was afew decades ago. The raw water quality at present is too contaminated sothat the treatment plant could not hope to produce a satisfactory qualityof treated water.Fluoride is added to all treated water in Malaysia but

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improper dosage (greater than 2mg/l) of fluoride does occur which resultin mottling of tooth enamel and staining of teeth (fluorosis). Thedisinfection used is chlorine and the source is chlorine gas obtained asliquefied gas in cylinders. The chlorine dose must be sufficient toproduce the required quality of water and a residual of chlorine remainswhich provides protection against contamination occurring duringdistribution. Chlorine needs at least half-an-hour in contact with water todisinfect it. It is therefore applied before the water enters a storage tank,so that it can take effect during storage.

3. Storage and Distribution

In Malaysia, the storage of water before distribution is in large concretetanks and distribution is generally by gravity except in high buildingswhere pumps have to be installed. One of the problems with waterdistribution is water loss as leakage which results in less water pressurethan is inadequate to reach some areas. Water leakage is sometimesillegal or by unauthorised connections made to the water mains by privateindividuals normally urban squaters. As water in Malaysia is meteredthen this loss or unaccounted water results in loss of revenue to the waterauthority. Another problem is the damage done to water mains orleakages at taps. Public education is carried out through the mass-mediaby encouraging them to report immediately to the water supplydepartment any leakages in the water mains.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author wishes to acknowledge with grateful appreciation to his supervisor,

Dr. Nigel Horan for his advice and guidance throughout the duration of this

discertation.

The author would also like to thank Prof. Jangi, Mohamad Jalal Bonkik and the

computing staff for the valuable assistance they have given.

Special thanks to Aishah and the children for their patience and support without

them this work could not be produced.

The author would also like to thank his employer, MARA Institute Of

Technology for allowing him to pursue this course.

Finally, the ultimate gratitude is to God Who has made all possible.

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CONTENTS

Abstract ii

Acknowledgement v

Contents vi

List of Figures x

List of Tables xi

Abbreviation xii

Synopsis xiv

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION1.1 Background 1

1.2 Case Study - Malaysia 3

1.3 Water Treatment - Urban 5

1.3.1 Screening 6

1.3.2 Aeration 6

1.3.3 Coagulation and Flocculation 7

1.3.4 Sedimentation 7

1.3.5 Filtration 8

1.3.6 Disinfection 9

1.4 Rural water Treatment 9

1.4.1 Rainwater 9

1.4.2 Springs 10

1.4.3 Hand Dug Wells 10

1.4.4Tubewells 11

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CHAPTER!

TYPES OF WATER TREATMENT AVAILABLE

2.1 Introduction 12

2.1.1 Ion Exchange 12

2.1.2 Reverse Osmosis 13

2.1.3 Electrodialysis 14

2.1.4 Freshwater Distillation 15

2.1.5Ozonation 15

2.1.6 Ultraviolet Radiation 16

2.1.7 Other Disinfectants 16

2.1.8 Activated Carbon (PAC and GAC) Treatment 17

2.2 Treatment Options Applicable To Malaysia In Future 18

2.2.1 Introduction 18

2.2.2 Case Study - Bintulu Water Treatment Works In East Malaysia 18

2.2.3 Case Study - The Upgrading Of The Sungai Linggi Water Treatment

Plant For Quality Enhancement 19

CHAPTERS

ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AGENCIES

3.1 Introduction 23

3.2 Water Supply Department(WSD) 23

3.2.1 At Federal Level - Federal Headquarters of WSD, Kuala Lumpur 23

3.2.2 At State Level - State WSD Office 24

3.2.3 At District Level - District WSD Office 24

3.3 Ministry Of Health (MOH) 25

3.3.1 At Federal Level - All Public Water Supplies 25

3.3.2 At State Level - All Public Water Supplies 25

3.3.3 At District Level - All Public Water Supplies 26

3.4 Department Of Chemistry (DOC) 26

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3.4.1 At Federal Level - Federal DOC 26

3.4.2 Regional DOC 26

3.5 Department Of Environment(DOE) 27

3.5.1 Headquarters Of DOE 27

3.5.2 Regional Office DOE 27

3.6 Comments On The Role Of Government Agencies 28

CHAPTER 4:

SURVEILLANCE OF POTABLE WATER

4.1 Introduction 29

4.1.1 The Need For A Potable Water Quality Programme 30

4.1.2 Objective Of Programme 31

4.1.3 Scope Of The Programme 31

4.2 Key Programme Elements 32

4.2.1 Monitoring 32

4.2.2 Sanitary Survey 34

4.2.3 Data Processing & Evaluation 40

4.2.4 Remedial Action 41

4.2.5 Institutional Examination 43

4.3 Organisational Arrangement 45

4.4 Institutional Relationship 45

4.5 Function & Responsibilities 45

4.6 Ministry of Health 47

4.6.1 Unit Of Drinking Water Quality Surveillance (DWQS) 47

4.6.2 State Medical & Health Services Department (SMHSD) 48

4.6.3 District Health Office (DHO) 48

4.7 Formulation of Guidelines & Manuals 49

4.8 Implementation 50

4.9 Man-Power & Training Requirements 50

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4.10 Equipments & Material 52

CHAPTERS:

PROBLEMS FACED BY WSD REGARDING WATER TREATMENT PLANT

5.1 Introduction 57

5.2 Choice Of Source 59

5.3 Choice Of Treatment Process 60

5.4 Existing Water Treatment 63

5.4.1 Example In Penang 66

5.4.2 Example In Johor 68

5.5 Plant Personnel 68

CHAPTER 6:

RECOMMENDATION & CONCLUSION 71

BIBLIOGRAPHY & REFERENCES 74

IX

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List of Figures

Figure 1: Standard Conventional Treatment System

Figure 1.4.2: Pot chlorinators for disinfecting wells

Figure 1.4.3 Example of a distribution network

Figure 2: Experiment fixed bed adsorber system

Figure 3: Ozonation pilot plant

Figure 4: Organic breakthrough curves - GAC adsorption

Figure 4.2.1 Sampling apparatus

Figure 4.4: Inter and Intra-agency organisation chart

Figure 5: Langmuir adsorption isothem test plots

Figure 5.3: Flow diagram of a conventional rapid filtration plant

Figure 6: Turbidity removal and headloss profile

Figure 7: Preozonation of raw water

Figure 8: Intermediate ozonation of settled water

Figure 9: Schematic illustration of five basic methods of ground water

extraction.

Figure 10: Pot chlorinators for disinfecting wells. Two alternative designs.

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List of Tables

Table 1: Drinking water quality

Table 2: Drinking water treatment system in Malaysia

Table 3: Treatment efficiency of a conventional system

Table 4: Results of treated water quality monitoring

Table 4.2.2: Sanitary survey of water supply sources

Table 4.5: Functions and responsibilities of the various agencies

Table 4.9: Categories of staff involved in DWQMP

Table 4.10: Equipment and reagents required by the various agencies

Table 5: List of treatment plants undergoing upgrading

Table 5.2 Quantity of raw water sources

Table 5.5: Rough estimate guidelines for water treatment plants

Table 6: Sungai Linggi raw water quality

Table 7: Removal of organics by PAC adsorption process

Table 8: Removal of turbidity and micropollutants by different filters

Table 9: Removal of micropollutants by ozonation

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ABBREVIATION

ASCE American Society of Civil Engineers

BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand

COD Chemical Oxygen Demand

DHO District Health Office

DOC Department of Chemistry

DOE Department of Environment

DWSD Water Supply Department

EEC European Economic Community

FDOC Federal Department of Chemistry

FDOE Federal Department of Environment

FWSD Federal Water Supply Department

GAC Granular Activated Carbon

ICWE International Conference on Water and the Environment

IRC International Reference Centre

MLD Million Litres per Day

MOH Ministry of Health

MR Malaysian Ringgit, Local Currency

NDWQSP National Drinking Water Quality Surveillance Programme

NGDWQ National Guidelines on Drinking Water Quality

PAC Powdered Activated Carbon

PEP AS Promotion for Environmental Planning and Applied Studies

PO Private Operator

PUB Public Utilities Board

PWD Public Works Department

RDOC Regional Department of Chemistry

RDOE Regional Department of Environment

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RESP Rural Environmental Sanitation Programme

RGF Rapid Gravity Filter

SLWTP Sungai Linggi Water Treatment Plant

SMHSD State Medical and Health Services Department

SWSD State Water Supply Department

SUNGAI River in Malay Language

THM Trihalomethane

TDS Total Dissolved Solids

UDWQS Unit of Drinking Water Quality Surveillance

USEPA United States Environmental Protection Agency

WB Water Board

WHO World Health Organisation

WSD Water Supply Department

WTP Water Treatment Plant

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Synopsis

The discertation is divided into six chapters and each chapter are divided into

sub-headings. The first chapter is the introduction to the title of discertation

regarding water in developing countries. This chapter also gives the background to

the case study - Malaysia.

The second chapter is the various types of existing water treatment methods

that are available in the world. This chapter also looks at the treatment options in

future for Malaysia by looking at two case studies especially on the experimental

method of using ozonation as well as activated carbon at a treatment plant in

Malaysia.

The third chapter discusses the role of government agencies involved with the

water industry. The various agencies or department's roles are explained so as to be

able to see the role each department can present to the water industry. An example

emphasising the roles of these departments in the need for proper inter-related and

co-ordination are given.

The fourth chapter is on the surveillance of potable water. The key

programme elements of surveillance were explained in detail. The work of the

drinking water quality surveillance unit in the Ministry of Health outlined.

The fifth chapter is on the problems faced by the water supply department

regarding water treatment plant in Malaysia. It explained the sort of problems faced

and illustrated by examples of two states in peninsular Malaysia. The cost of water

treatment plants in Malaysia were also given.

The sixth chapter is the conclusion and recommendation for the discertation.

The conclusion indicates the need to undertake more research in order to get the

most appropriate system for developing countries with reference to Malaysia.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND

Water is one of the most precious elements of mankind heritage : Natural water

supplies, such as spring and rivers have played a key role in the establishment of cities.

History is rich with examples of the ingenuity of successive civilisation in managing

water resources : Egypt is a gift of the Nile; the Tigris and Euphrates created the great

civilisation of Mesopotamia , and the Romans constructed the longest aqueduct to

supply water to Carthage.

When cities are small (250 km^), they did not need complex infrastructure for

their drinking water supplies, and human activities at that time did little damage to the

water quality. For three decades and particularly during the last decade, cities have

undergone an incredible transformation into urban areas. The current area of cities are

over 6000 km^ ( ICWE,1992) and in developing countries, migration to the cities and

population growth have created metropolises which are surrounded by belts where

health condition are very poor.

Urban water supplies are experiencing a decline in quality. Rivers and streams

which supply cities also receive urban wastewater and industrial effluents , which

means that they cannot be used directly as a water supply. Toxic chemicals from

industry, pesticides , nitrates and phosphates from agriculture are all contributing to

the contamination of the freshwater resource.

Water is indispensable to life, and as such has a political significance, for

springs, rivers, etc., gives rise to sites for settlements. It is essential that the supply of

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CHAPTER 1

water for human consumption should be free from unpleasant or harmful impurity.

Most water legislation or acts were introduced after a big disaster happen like the

outbreaks of cholera in London in 1848 cause the Metropolitan Water Act of 1852.

In 1980 the " EC Directive relating to the quality of water intended for human

consumption " (80/778/EEC) was issued and this EEC legislation sought to control

and define the quality of water consumed. This EC directive defines water quality with

62 parameters specifying the properties of water fit for consumption.

These parameters are split into six main groups :

1. Organoleptic parameter such as colour or turbidity.

2. Physico - chemical parameter such as pH or aluminium concentration.

3. Parameters concerning substances undesirable in excessive amounts such as

the concentration of nitrates or phenols.

4. Parameters concerning toxic substances such as lead or mercury.

5. Microbiological parameter which covers the levels of indicator bacteria

permitted in the water.

6. Minimum standard for softened water.

The term "water quality" is a very widely used expression which has an

extremely broad spectrum of meanings. It is also dynamic and changes with time

because demand by consumers also changes with time. It is also essentially important

to meet promulgation of higher water quality standard as the quality of life improves.

The United Nation Organisation designated the period 1981-90 as the

International Drinking Water Supply and Adequate Sanitation Decade with the aim of

providing safe drinking water and adequate sanitation for all by 1990. Such an aim was

laudable but unrealistic hence the United Nation in 1992 launched the second Decade

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CHAPTER 1

called SAFE WATER 2000 which has more pragmatic objectives and which involves

setting achievable targets (Tebutt,1992).

WATER QUALITY CRITERIA

Drinking water is required to be ;

1. organoleptically acceptable ie good taste, no smell, no colour, no turbidity and

pleasant low temperature.

2. microbiologically safe ie no contents of pathogenic bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoa

and helminth eggs.

3.chemically hygienic ie no or low contents of toxic metals, organics and inorganic and

appropriate contents of iodide, fluoride and hardness ions.

4. technically acceptable ie low contents of non pathogenic bacteria and bacterial

nutrients and neutral contents of calcium carbonate.

5. radiologically safe ie low contents of radioactivity.

Nowadays, water quality can be measured by arrays of equipment with

accuracy never achieved before,

1.2 CASE STUDY - MALAYSIA

Malaysia, a country in south east Asia, got its independence from Britain in

1957. Malaysia is made up of 13 states and one federal territory with the capital Kuala

Lumpur. Malaysia is made up of east and west where west Malaysia is a peninsular

bordering with Thailand in the north and Singapore in the south while East Malaysia is

on the island of Borneo which borders Brunei and Indonesia.

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CHAPTER I

The climate is Equatorial with seasonal monsoon between the months of

November to January and affecting the northern states of peninsular Malaysia . The

population of Malaysia is about 18 million and there are a few cities with a population

of 1 million, Existingly, there is a total of about 430 water treatment plants being

operated by various water supply authorities in Malaysia. Of these 80% are

conventional in treatment capability and 20% are sub conventional, ie possessing only

part of a complete conventional treatment processes and capabiIity(Johari,1992). The

source for all the water treatment plants are rivers and the problems from the rivers

such as flooding and contamination elevated the problems in the water treatment

plants.

Most of the water treatment plants are monitored 24 hours a day by technical

teams headed by a technician and not by an engineer so some emergency decisions are

taken by the technician.This resulted in some decisions done not following the

Malaysian standards or the WHO guidelines. In the large water treatment plant where

the work are computerised then engineers are stationed there to make the necessary

decisions.

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CHAPTER 1

1.3 WATER TREATMENT - URBAN

The urban population are where all the large towns and cities are located and as

mentioned earlier most of the water treatment plants are using the rapid gravity

filtration system. The whole process of water treatment is Aeration, coagulation and

flocculation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection, which is explained briefly below.

Most of the urban water source in Malaysia is from surface water taken from

streams and rivers. Surface water originates from ground water outflows and partly

from rainwater that had flowed over the ground to the receiving bodies of surface

water. The problem with rain in industrial areas are acid rain which also fall into

surface waters and river intake to water treatment plants. The ground water outflows

will bring dissolved solids into the surface water, the surface run-off is the main

contributor of turbidity and organic matter as well as pathogenic organisms.

In rivers, the dissolved mineral particles remain uncharged but the organic

impurities are degraded through chemical and microbial processes. Most rivers in

Malaysia do not require any treatment three decades ago and are suitable for drinking

but now are polluted because of effluents discharge from industries and plantations

(Johari,1992). The Consumer Association of Penang, a third world NGO had

highlighted serious problem in peninsular Malaysia. The three principal sources of

polluting rivers are the organic wastes from sewage, and discharges from oil-palm and

rubber factories.

The range and complexity of water pollution problems caused by discharged of

non agro-based industrial effluents has increased especially in industrial centres. The

main industrial sources of pollution come from electroplating industries, tanneries,

textile mills, food processing industries, distilleries, chloro-alkali plants, sulphuric acid

plants and electronic factories. Many of these industries discharge wastes containing

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CHAPTER I

different compounds, including heavy metals into public water course without prior

treatment. Significant levels of toxic heavy metals have been found in.some river basin

like the Juru River Basin. Measurement in coastal waters and estuarine waters in

various location showed very high concentration of coliform

bacteria(Mahesuaran, 1982).

1.3.1 SCREENING

The first stage in preliminary treatment usually involves a simple screening or

straining operation to remove large solids. A coarse screen with openings of about

75mm is used to prevent large objects reaching the intake. The main screen are usually

provided in the form of a mesh with openings of 5-20mm. The screenings removed

from water are normally returned to the source downstream of the abstraction point.

Micro straining is used for removal of algae and similar-size particles (Boucher, 1961).

1.3.2 AERATION

The water from the river is pumped up to a reservoir or plain sedimentation

tank and from there the water is aerated for the purpose of:

a) increasing the oxygen content

b) reducing the carbon dioxide content

c) removing hydrogen sulphide, methane and various volatile organic

compounds responsible for taste and odour(Cox, 1964).

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The purpose of (a) and (c) above are useful in production of good drinking

water. Aeration is widely used for the treatment of ground water having too high an

iron and manganese content (Awwa,1975).

1.3.3 COAGULATION AND FLOCCULATION

The development of rapid gravity sand filter (RGF) has emphasised the need to

eliminate, as much as possible, the particles of suspended matter through processes

known as coagulation and flocculation. Coagulation is the step to treat raw water with

chemicals usually aluminium sulphate (alum) to coagulate the particles but sometimes

ferric sulphate, ferrous sulphate and sodium aluminate are also added.

Flocculation is the growth of coagulated particles to unite the colloidal and

larger particles of suspended matter leading to an easier settlement and more effective

filtration to follow.

1.3.4 SEDIMENTATION

There are two sedimentation processes undertaken. One is after the intake from

the river (plain sedimentation) where the settling of suspended matter without the aid

of chemical coagulation. Sometimes prechlorination is recommended at low dosage to

avoid THM. The other one is after coagulation/ flocculation and for better results and

improved utilisation of settling basins by using the chemical coagulant and followed by

the filtration process. The alum sludge accumulated at the bottom .of the basin are

needed to be removed from time to time. The problem is the sludge is not highly

biodegradable and sometimes are dumped back into the river.

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CHAPTER 1

1.3.5 FILTRATION

The most commonly used filtration type is the rapid gravity sand filters (RGF)

and in some parts of the country slow sand filters (SSF) are still being used. The basic

principal of filtration is to filter the tiny floating floes which escape the opportunity to

settle at the basin. The mechanism by which the tiny particles are removed by simple

filtration are summarised by (Ives et al, 1967 and 1969).

The best single process that can effect an improvement in the physical,

chemical and bacteriological quality of normal surface water is the slow sand

filter(Huisman ,1974). The advantages of slow sand filter in developing countries are :

1) The cost of construction is low especially where manual labour is used.

2) Simplicity of design and operation means that filters can be built and used

with limited technical supervision. No special pipework, equipment or

instrument is needed.

3) The labour required for maintenance can be unskilled as the major job as

cleaning the beds,can be done by hand.

4) Imports of materials and equipment can be negligible and no chemicals are

required.

5) Power is not required if a fall is available on site, as there are no moving

parts or requirements for compressed air or high pressure water.

6) Variation in raw water quality and temperature can be accommodated

provided turbidity does not become excessive; and overloading for short

periods does no harm.

7) Water is saved because of no backwashing.

8) Sludge is less troublesome and quantity is small and easily dewatered.

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CHAPTER 1

1.3.6 DISINFECTION

Disinfection by chlorination is the process of killing disease causing bacteria in

water through the germicidal effect of chlorine. The killing effect through oxidising by

chlorine on the bacteria is not immediate. To be effective the minimum duration for the

contact time between chlorine and bacteria should be about 20 minutes. Chlorine

residual is the remained chlorine constituent after the application of chlorine in the

treatment process.

Chlorine residual are of two kinds, namely combined chlorine residual and free

chlorine residual. Free chlorine residual has better disinfection effect than combined

chlorine residual, but for it to be available throughout the pipe network then heavy

dosage of chlorination is necessary.

The World Health Organisation has recommended that there should be about

0.1 to 0.2 ppm of free chlorine residual throughout the water distribution network

(Wong,1987).

1.4 RURAL WATER TREATMENT

The water treatment plant in the rural or villages are usually the sub

conventional system (possessing only part of a complete conventional treatment

processes and capability) or the disinfection of wells ie ground water. The villages

which are far from the public water distribution system will have to rely on ground

water from wells, rainwater and springs

1.4.1 RAINWATER

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