Summary LinguisticsWeek 1Chapter 1 Phonetics the study of speech sounds (describing what speech sounds are like, how they’re made) A symbol between square brackets [ ] indicates the sound [m]

Symbol between angled brackets < > indicates the letter (orthographic symbols) (could also be bold) Bilabial sound made with the lips

Nasal sound where air escapes through noseVoiced sound said with voiceAlveolar sound made with tongue tip against alveolar ridgeOral sound where air escapes from the mouthVoiceless sound said without voice

Phonology Study of selection and patterns of sounds in a single languagePhonetics Study of sounds in languageLinguistics The science that is concerned with the general study of language

There are different ways to describe speech sounds, corresponding to the different stages often called speech chain:1. Psycholinguistics formulation in brain of speaker2. Articulatory phonetics articulatory mechanism of speaker

Audio-feedback monitoring own speech by listening to ourselves3. Acoustic phonetics disturbances in air molecules producing the speech signal4. Auditory phonetics reception of signal by listener5. Psycholinguistics interpretation in brain of listener

Accents are the number of ways in which a language can be pronounced. If there are also differences in grammar and vocabulary (= lexis), we use the term dialects.

According to linguists there are two types of dialect:1. Regional dialect covers variation from one place to another quickly accepted2. Social dialect reflects differences between social groups might be offensive to

some (to say it’s not the prestige dialect of the country)Prestige dialect dialect of the better section of the population

RP means Received Pronunciation (socially accepted pronunciation), and it is actually a social dialect. It is heard all over the country, and it has a degree of prestige in a lot of English-speaking countries. RP is a classic example of a prestige accent; it has a high status all over the world.

Chapter 2 Utterance any stretch of speech

Continuum continuous stream of sound, broken up by pauses for breath (constant change)A task of phonetics is dividing up the continuum into smaller units. Those units are called segmentation and the resulting smaller units of sound are termed segments.

The segments correspond well to what we know as vowels and consonants. (They usually don’t operate in isolation; the segments have not meaning on their own, except maybe vowels.)Examples: moon [m][oo][n]

If we replace [m] by [s], we produce soon. The two words of this kind are termed a minimal pair.If we take this process further, we could produce a minimal set.

The contrastive units of sounds which can be used to change meaning are called phonemes. Moon has three phonemes: /m/, /u:/, /n/. Phonemes are placed between slant brackets / /.

The English phonemic inventory has 20 vowels and 24 consonants. Each phoneme has a number of different sounds allophones.

Phonemes are abstract units, it is impossible to ‘pronounce a phoneme’. You can only produce an allophone of the phoneme; we speak of the phoneme being realized as a particular allophone.

Phonetic norm is the most frequently occurring realization of a phoneme. Phonemic transcription is enclosed within slant brackets / /.Phonetic transcription is enclosed within square brackets [].

Allophones of a single phoneme have considerable phonetic similarity:1. They may sound similar2. They are articulated in a similar waySo a working definition of the phoneme:A member of a set of abstract units which together form the sound system of a given language and through which contrasts of meaning are produced.

Idiolect speech of a single individualTwo native speakers won’t have much difficulty learning each other’s idiolects, because their phoneme systems are similar. Non-native speaker could have problems with it, because sounds that for example sound alike to English ears don’t sound the same to the Dutch. The Dutch /hœyt/ huid and /haut/ hout sound like /out/ out.The English /men/ men and /mæn/ man sound like the Dutch /mεn/ men.

Phonemic contrasts are shown by --. Certain consonants function as pairs because they are in most respects similar, but they differ in

the energy used in production. Example:/p/ and /b/ /p/ is strong, energetic (fortis) /b/ is weak, less energetic (lenis)

The English consonants /h, m, n, ŋ, l, w, j, r/ do not enter into fortis/lenis opposition. The vowels fall into three groups:

1. Checked vowels2. Free steady-state vowels3. Free diphthongs

Checked vowels are for the most part shorter, they aren’t found at the end of a word-final stressed syllable. Checked vowels are always represented by a single phonemic symbol.

Free vowels are typically longer than checked vowels and may occur in any context. Free vowels may be of two types:1. Those which consist of a single sound are termed steady-state vowels, represented by a

symbol followed by a length mark: /e:/2. Diphthongs are the free vowels which include a movement from one vowel sound to

another, represented by two symbols: /ai/ Free vowel sequences in Dutch are combinations of free steady-state vowels: D /e:u/ meeuw. The schwa, /ə/, is found only in unstressed syllables and does not fit into the checked/free

categories. It is usually short, so we group it with the checked vowels. Words syllables phonemes. Phonemes are obviously the most basis phonological elements.

The syllable and the word are both regarded as a phonological unit, so we can define the syllable in terms of how it functions. In Dutch the syllable consists of an essential element at the centre: (syllable nucleus), usually vowels. At either side there may be one or more consonants. Range of possible syllable structures: ei (V, C0 V C0) to striktst (CCCVCCCC, C3 V C4).

English has the same C0-3 V C0-4 syllable structure, though the rules are not exactly the same. There are other restrictions on the possible combinations of consonants, consonant clusters. Dutch and English have both closed (ends in consonant) and open (ends in vowels) syllables.

Also certain consonants are capable of acting as nuclear elements of syllables: like the nasals /m, n, ŋ/ and the lateral /l/. Here the syllabic element is not formed by the vowel, but by the consonants syllabic consonants, marked by the diacritic [,] beneath symbol in transcription.

Chapter 3 There is a big difference between words pronounced in isolation, or in connected speech. Phonetic transcription indicates the minute articulatory detail of any particular sound.

Phonemic transcription confined to representing phonemes; it shows only the distinctive contrasts.

Phonemic transcription eliminates all detail and leaves only the information necessary to meaning. (broad) Broad small proportion of phonetic variation occurs

Narrow great deal of minor allophonic variation is shownNormally shown with more symbols and additional small marks diacritics

Any word in its citation form (in isolation) has at least one syllable which is more prominent than the others. This is the stressed syllable; stress can be partly related to the energy with which the syllable is articulated, indicated by placing [ ‘ ] before the syllable concerned.

Stress in isolated word is termed word stress. Stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. Lexical words are most likely to carry stress. (Nouns, main verbs, adjectives, adverbs)Grammatical words (determiners, pronouns, prepositions, auxiliaries, etc.) Only the demonstratives and the wh-interrogatives are frequently stressed.

Weak form (WF) form characteristic of the unstressed position (can’t be stressed)Strong form (SF) form characteristic of the stressed context

Contracted forms (CF) grammatical words combined with other grammatical words (can be stressed)

Use of weak and contracted forms:1. If a word is stressed for any reason, a WF cannot be used.2. SFs are used at the end of the intonation group, even if the word is unstressed. (Pronouns are

exceptional in this respect; they retain the WF even in final position)3. Demonstrative that always has the SF (even if not stressed)

(The relative that always has the WF; also in conjunction)4. WFs ending in schwa are not used before vowels.5. For the WFs which begin with h, pronunciation of the /h/ is optional.

(Used following a pause, at begin of a sentence)6. WFs which include schwa preceding /m, n, l/ are regularly pronounced as syllabic consonants.7. Have as a main verb is normally pronounced as a SF.8. Third person forms of have and be follow regular rules for pronunciation of s or ‘s.

a. Following the consonants /b, d, g, v, ð/ and all vowels: ‘s /z/b. Following the consonants /p, t, k, f, θ/: ‘s /s/c. Following /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/ is becomes /iz/, has becomes / əs/

9. Some common grammatical words do not have a regular WF, e.g. on, in, if, up, when, what, then

PED pp. 311-3151. Read the passage aloud several times2. Take account of the forms of connected speech. Mark of the intonation groups (recognized by

pause or the punctuation). Single bars ( l ), ends ( ll ).3. Mark the stressed syllables. 4. Begin your transcription into phonemic symbols.

Don’t use capital lettersDon’t confuse orthography and phonemic representation.Don’t include symbols which are used in orthography, but which aren’t part of the transcription system.Don’t use phonetic symbols in a phonemic transcription.Don’t enclose each word in slant brackets. Don’t show any punctuation, but you may use question marks and exclamation marks.Numbers or abbreviations that occur in a passage should be transcribed in their full spoken form. (Stress falls on the last item of abbreviation)

Schwa always occurs in unstressed syllables. (In stressed syllables strut-vowel and nurse-vowel) /r/ only occurs before a vowel, or possible as linking-r. The happy words, those ending on y, ie or ee, are regarded as having /i/. Pronunciation of s in plural and verb ending:

a. /p, t, k, f, θ/ s /s/b. /s, z, ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/ s /iz/c. All other cases /z/

The ending ed /t/ following fortis consonants (except /t/)Following /t/ or /d/ ed /id/Following all other consonants or vowels ed /d/

Certain adjectives have forms with /id/: naked /’neikid/

CEEL p. 236

Week 2Chapter 9 A phoneme is an abstract unit which is realized as a number of allophones which are concrete

entities of speech.Phonetic similarity allophones are usually articulated similarNo two realizations of a phoneme are identical.

The /l/ has three allophones:1. Clear [ l ] before vowels little, leave2. Dark [ɫ] before consonant or pause bottle, milk, little3. Voiceless [ l ] beginning of a word when it follows /p/ or /k/ please, clean

It is possible to provide a descriptive phonological rule for distribution of /l/:/l/ [ l ] / -- V /l/ [ l ] / fortis plosive – /l/ [ l ] / -- C

O

/ -- in the context of O pauseV vowel realized asC consonant { } either/or

Complementary distribution The occurrence of allophones is predictable and can be described by a phonological rule (where one occurs, the other can’t)

Allophones can be in free variation the occurrence of one or another appears to be a matterof chance. (People vary, so their use of allophones also vary)

Sometimes two sounds sound alike but lack phonetic similarity: /h/ and /n/ in Dutch./h/ is pre-vocalically voiceless glottal fricative/n/ is post-vocalically voiced velar nasalNative-speaker intuition is hereby the most decisive factor.

Sometimes two phonemes may overlap in phonetic realization: Dutch /m/ and /n/ both labio-dental nasal, represented as [ɱ].They are both voiced and nasal. /m/ is bilabial, /n/ is alveolar; they’re never in opposition in this position in the word phoneme neutralisationOther example /i:/ and /i/ symbol I used to indicate neutralisation.

The phoneme system may vary considerably form one accent to another an accent may possess an extra phoneme contrast, or lack one.A valid phonemic analysis can only be made for one particular accent of a language.

Week 3Chapter 4 The lungs set airstream in motion, producing sound waves; the sound is amplified and modified

by the throat, mouth and nose. Inhalation breathing in

Exhalation breathing outSpeech ratio is typically 1:8 in favour of exhalation, instead of 1:1 for normal respiration.Buzz glottal tone, voice

Pulmonic egressive airstream making speech sounds while breathing out(Pulmonic ingressive airstream making speech sounds while breathing in; crying)

Lungs & their bronchial tubes trachea on top the larynx, containing vocal folds. Glottis The space between the vocal folds.Food goes to the stomach via the oesophagus.The vocal folds protect the lungs from particles of food.

When the vocal folds vibrate rapidly (120x per second) they produce voice almost all vowels & consonants.Phonation the function of the larynx as a vibration source

Voiceless (-)Voiced (+)Frequency speed of vibration of vocal foldsPitch way in which we perceive sounds as high or low. (slow = low; quick = high)Intonation Variation in pitch

Articulatory system if formed by area above the glottis supraglottal vocal tract:Three cavities: 1. Nasal cavity 2. Oral cavity 3. Pharyngeal cavityAlterations in shape of cavities are important for making different types of vowel sounds.Epiglottis part of the swallowing process, keeping food away from vocal-folds &trachea.

The airstream can be switched to pass either:1. Through both oral and nasal cavity simultaneously (normal breathing)2. Through oral cavity only: soft palate rises and shuts off the nasal cavity velic closure

Most speech sounds are oral, made with soft palate raised. All languages have at least one nasal consonant /m, n, n/ for nasal sounds: air escapes through the nose

Oral cavity

- Lips labial, bilabial lips can be rounded or spread or closed:1. Closed block the airstream /p, b, m/

lower lip close to upper teeth /f, v/2. Spread for production of vowels /i:, α:/3. Rounded 1. Open rounding /ɒ/

2. Close rounding Consonants also may have lip-rounding: /w/ we, /r/ red, /ʃ/ she, /tʃ/ in chew.

- Teeth * obstacles to the airstream* Upper front teeth are most important for speech: generation of the friction required for /s, z/* Tip of tongue is held close to front teeth for /θ/ and /ð/ dental* Lips against teeth = labio-dental /f/ and /v/

- Alveolar ridge * Tong pressing against or moving towards the alveolar ridge /t, d, n, s, z, l/* Sounds involving alveolar ridge alveolar

- Hard palate * Tongue moves towards hard palate /j/ palatal* Tongue rises to the front of the palate and the rear of the alveolar ridge alveolo-palatal* Palato-alveolar: Tongue rising towards alveolar ridge, and front part of the hard palate /ʃ, ʒ, tʃ, dʒ/.

- Soft palate *Also called velum * Velic closure: blocking of the nasal cavity; articulation of non-nasal sounds* Velar closure: tongue articulating against the velum for [k, g, n]* [k, g] have velic and velar closure, [ŋ] is a nasal, so only velar closure

- Uvula * The uvula is the hanging lump; it’s possible to make it vibrate uvular trill [R]* /r/ phoneme in Dutch

- Tongue * Dorsum whole upper surface of the tongue* Different parts of tongue: Tip – blade – front – back – root

Week 4Chapter 6 There are a lot of signals for the fortis/lenis contrast in English, particularly with plosives.

Homophones words that are pronounced the same way, but spelled differently.In English, fortis/lenis contrast can occur in final position.Losing the contrast due to assimilation is very rare in English.

Vowels are shortened before fortis consonants, but full length before lenis consonants.(Of special significance in stressed monosyllabic words)Examples of shortened: Examples of full length:

grit gridgreet greedneat needpup pubwet wed

Pre-fortis clipping the vowel shortening effect before fortis consonants Fortis stop consonants have important special additional phonetic markers for fortis/lenis contrast:

1. In final position, the fortis stops /p, k, t, ʧ/ are reinforced by a preceding glottal stop. (Pre-glottalisation or glottal reinforcement)

2. Initially in stressed syllable fortis plosives /p, t, k/ are strongly aspirated there is a brief period of voicelessness (sounding like a short [h]) following the plosive. ([h])

Fortis consonants are always voiceless; lenis consonants are only fully voiced between vowels (or other voiced sounds).

At the beginning of a syllable, if preceded by silence or a voiceless sound, the voicing of lenis consonants does not begin until some way into the articulation initial devoicing. In syllable-final position, before a voiceless consonant or pause, lenis consonants lose voicing early final devoicing.

Voice is showed by a wavy line, voiceless by two parallel lines.Diacritic for voiceless or partially devoiced is [o] or [o].

The nasals /m, n, ŋ/, lateral /l/ and approximants /w, j, r/ do not undergo devoicing in the manner described following or preceding pause. I.e. in words like ram, wall, long, moon, yell, the initial and final sounds are fully voiced.

If a pair of lenis consonants occurs before silence or a voiceless sound, the first typically has partial devoicing and the second is completely voiceless: robbed

Chapter 10 Model of the larynx:

The larynx has many different positions to create different types of phonation. Voiced

- Vocal folds brought together in light contact- High speed vibration- Arytenoid cartilages are pressed together- [a], [m], [z]

Voiceless- Vocal folds are wide apart- Arytenoid cartilages are wide apart- Clear passage for the airstream form the lungs- [h], [p], [s]

Glottal stop- Vocal folds pressed close together- Arytenoids pressed close together- Airstream is blocked On release of the closure, air rushes out, giving plosion- Not a phoneme; symbol is [ ] It occurs before many initial vowels, though its occurrence is less frequent. It plays an important part as a reinforcement to fortis stop consonants in may contacts. It cannot have a voiced counterpart; so it’s treated as a voiceless sound.

Creaky voice- Noise of a creaking door- Produced by the anterior portion of the vocal folds (Posterior vibrate rapidly, anterior part slowly)- The arytenoids are pressed together

Whisper- Vocal folds, no vibration- Arytenoids leave a gap, through which airstream passes whisper gap (increasing force of airstream stage whisper)

Breathy voice- Larynx state: combi of voice & whisper- Vocal folds normally as for voice- Arytenoids open as whisper gap- Associated with ‘sexy voice’

- Voiceless is an extreme of openness of the larynx; glottal stop is the extreme of closed larynx state.- Vowels, nasals and approximants: usually voiced. Lenis stops and fricatives: potentially voiced

- Fortis stops and fortis fricatives always voiceless

Week 5Chapter 5 Descriptive label of consonants: two or three terms:

1. Energy of articulation2. Place of articulation3. Manner of articulation

Place of articulation - Tells us where the sounds is articulated- Active articulator term for the organ that moves in the articulation Passive articulator target of the articulation Sometimes they make contact [t], in other cases the active is positioned close to the passive [s]. Sometimes only a slight movement [r], sometimes the distinction isn’t possible [h], or sometimes by the lips [p, b, m]- The descriptive label is normally derived from the passive articulator.

Two possibilities are missing: 1. Retroflex (underside tongue

tip + rear alveolar ridge) 2. Pharyngeal (root + pharynx) Manner of articulation

- Concerned with how the airstream is modified- Stricture shape of the vocal

tract, described in terms of the relationship between the active and passive articulators. It implies blocking, hindering or altering the passage of the airstream.

- Three possibilities:

1. Complete closure* Stops For stop consonants, the soft palate is raised, airstream is blocked, stop.

Air can be released:a. articulators part suddenly: plosion plosives /p, t, k, b, d, g/b. closure released slowly: brief second of close approximation homorganic friction (friction same point of articulation as stop closure).Sounds made this way are affricates /ʧ/ and /ʤ/.

* Nasals Complete closure in oral cavity, soft palate is lowered /m, n, ŋ/* Trills and taps Trill: series of rapid, percussive movements made by active (E: no trill) articulator. Commonest: alveolar trill (tongue-r) and uvular trill

(huig-r).Tap: single rapid movement of percussive type, also alveolar and uvular. (More common than trill)

2. Close approximation (narrowing) *Fricatives Articulators move close to each other but do not form complete closure,

airstream is not blocked, but escapes through narrow opening.

English

[1] Bilabial (lips) pub

[2] Labio-dental (lips and teeth) five

[3] Dental (tip and teeth) though

[4] Alveolar (tip/blade and alveolar ridge)

side

[5] Palato-alveolar (blade/front and alveolar ridge/front of hard palate)

church

[6] Palatal (front and hard palate) you

[7] Velar (back and soft palate or velum) cake

[8] Glottal (vocal folds) - how

Nature of stricture Effect of stricture1. Complete closure Forms obstruction which blocks airstream2. Close approximation Forms narrowing giving rise to friction3. Open approximation Forms no obstruction but changes shape of

vocal tract, thus altering nature of resonance

This gives rise to air turbulence, result: audible friction: /f, v, θ, ð, s, z, ʃ, ʒ, h/

3. Open approximation * Central approximants The articulators merely modify the shape of mouth. The space

between the articulators is large to allow the airstream without any audible friction. /w, j, r/(/r/: post-alveolar approximant)

4. Partial closure (less common fourth type of stricture)* Lateral The central part of the tongue forms a closure with the roof of the

mouth, but the sides remain lowered. Normally the airstream escapes without friction, producing a lateral approximant, most /l/.But, the distance between lowered sides and roof of mouth is only sufficient to produce a narrowing, when there’s a forceful airstream, result: lateral fricative, [ɬ], [ɮ].

Manner of articulation - Fortis: /p, t, k, ʧ, f, θ, s,ʃ/- Lenis: /b, d, g, dʒ, v, ð, z, ʒ/- Nasals have no energy!- Table: fortis/lenis contrast in English

Fortis LenisArticulation is strong & energetic Articulation is weakVoiceless May have voicePlosives /p, t, k/ have strong aspiration when initial in stressed syllable

Plosives are unaspirated

Vowels are shortened before fortis consonants

Vowels have full length before final lenis consonant

Syllable-final stops often pre-glottalisation

Syllable-final stops never have reinforcing glottal stop

Chapter 15 Systems in English

Labio-dental Dental Alveolar Palato-alveolar Alveolo-palatal Velar GlottalEnglish f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h

Labio-dental fricatives /f, v/- Description Lower lip makes a light contact with upper front teeth. /v/is weaker and has

potential voice. /f/ is louder and longer, no voice.- Main allophonic variation /f/: Fortis voiceless labio-dental fricative [f]. Exact point

contact may vary./v/: Lenis voiced labio-dental fricative [v]. Between voiced sounds full voicing, initial is slightly devoiced. Final /v/ is strongly devoiced.

Dental fricatives / θ, ð/- Description They’re both slit fricatives, lacking the grooving along the mid-line of the

tongue found in the alveolar fricatives /s, z/.This means that the air escapes in a diffuse manner over the whole surface of the tongue.For /θ/: tongue-tip contacts the rear of the upper teeth. (+ may protrude)

Energetic articulations of /ð/ also may be inter-dental. In connected speech it is weaker and noticeably retracted post-dental. Weak friction.

- Main allophonic variation /θ/: Fortis voiceless dental fricative [θ]. /ð/: Lenis voiced dental fricative [ð] if between voiced sounds. Devoiced if final before pause or voiceless sound.When it is initial in unstressed syllables it is realized as an approximant [ð] (frequent phonetic context).

Alveolar fricatives /s, z/- Description Tip/blade rises to alveolar ridge, sides are held against upper teeth. Air goes

through a groove, giving rise to friction between tongue-blade & alveolar ridge.- Main allophonic variation /s/: Fortis voiceless alveolar fricative [s].

/z/: Lenis voiced alveolar fricative [z].Between voiced sounds, full voicing. Initial [z] slight devoicing. Final [z] strongly devoiced. [z] often realised without voicing at all.

Palatal-alveolar fricatives /ʃ, ʒ/ - Description Articulated with the rims of the tongue raised against the upper side teeth so

that a groove is formed along the midline of the tongue; however the depression is shallower. The extent of stricture is larger than alveolars.Strong lip-rounding and protrusion.

- Distribution /ʒ/ occurs only in medial position, between vowels. It can also be syllable-initial or syllable-final in recent French loanwords. (Alternative pronunciations with /dʒ/.

- Main allophonic variation /ʃ/: Fortis voiceless labialised palato-alveolar fricative [ʃw]/ʒ/: Lenis voiced labialised palato-alveolar fricative [ʒw] if between voiced sounds. Devoiced [ʒ] if not.

Glottal /h/- Description /h/ can be considered as a type of voiceless vowel. Articulators are in

position for following vowel sound and strong air produces friction both at glottis & vocal tract.

- Distribution /h/ occurs only preceding vowels- Main allophonic variation /h/: Voiceless glottal fricative [h]. Voiced glottal fricative [h]

between vowels and voiced sounds, e.g. apprehensive

Chapter 16 Stops include plosives and affricates. Stages of a stop:

1. Approach stage: Articulators come together and form a closure2. Hold stage: Air is compressed behind the closure3. Release stage: Closure is released(Result is equalisation of air pressure in vocal tract and atmosphere, giving rise of plosion.)

The following factors are significant in fortis/lenis contrast: 1. Voicing - In voiceless stops, the hold stage is a brief period of silence. All info about

place of articulation is in the first and third stage.

- In lenis stops, voicing may be heard throughout the stop, or only in a part.a) English stops have initial devoicing if preceded by silence or voiceless sounds. Voice does not usually begin until well into the hold stage.b) Between vowels (& other voiced sounds), voice will continue through all stages.c) Preceding silence or voiceless sounds, English stops have final devoicing in 2nd & 3rd stage, and are frequently completely devoiced. Nevertheless, the vowel preceding a final lenis is always lengthened.

2. Aspiration - Aspiration is heard in initial fortis plosives /p, t, k/, where these occur in stressed syllables. Symbol of aspiration [h]. Symbol of lack of aspiration [=],

when necessary.- The period of aspiration in English can be compared to the leaking of air as the closure opens.- Aspiration is most marked in stressed syllable-initial position. Aspiration in final position, is in variation with pre-glottalisation.

3. Pre-glottalisation - The possibility of the addition of a reinforcing glottal stop at or before the hold stage, is an extremely significant feature for English syllable-final stops. - The sequence is normally as follows:

1. Vocal fold vibration for preceding vowel ceases2. Vocal folds close tightly together before 2nd stage of the stop3. Vocal folds part and relax4. Oral closure is inaudibly released

- The effect of pre-glottalisation is to cut off sharply the voicing of the preceding vowel. In final part of the vowel there may be a tight, slightly creaky voice quality. The vowel is shortened before a fortis consonant.- Pre-glottalisation is one of the most significant phonetic markers of final fortis stops. Found in following contexts:

a. Syllable-final fortis stops are regularly pre-glottalised before another consonant.b. In following contexts, non-glottalised forms are also frequent: 1. before pause 2. before /h/ 3. word-finally preceding vowelc. Pre-glottalised forms are never used: 1. with any lenis consonant

2. with any consonant other than a stop3. word-medially between vowels4. preceding syllabic dark [ ]ɫ

4. Glottal replacement - Sometimes, /t/, there may be complete replacement by [ ] before another consonant or before syllabic /n/. (Also when /p, k/ are followed by homorganic stop or nasal)- /t/ is never replaced by [ ]

Affricate release * If articulators don’t part immediately, then friction is heard in 3rd stage. This Friction is homorganic, i.e. at the same place of articulation to the stop.* So a [p] gives rise to bilabial fricative release [pφ], a [t] to alveolar friction [ts], etc.* Affricates can be described as having slow release as opposed to the rapid release of the plosive stops.* /ʧ/ and /dʒ/ are phoneme fricatives, as shown as by minimal pairs where they contrast with other phonemes. * English also has phonetic affricates. (/t, d/ in clusters give rise to sequences which are affricate articulations eighth [tθ]*Post-palatal affricate: /kj/ as in boekje [cc]

Nasal release * When a plosive is followed by a homorganic nasal, closure is not released asusual soft palate lowers, so airstream can pass out through nasal cavity: nasal release.* English sequences involving plosive followed by homorganic nasal: stop me, Sydney, fitness: Nasal release of /t, d/ is also heard in final /tn, dn/ leading into syllabic nasal, e.g. bitten /’bitn/* In rapid speech, nasal release can be heard in cases when bilabials or velars precede /n/ results in place assimilation.* There may be accompanying glottalisation when nasal release is cited with fortis plosives.

Lateral release */t/ and /d/ can have lateral release alveolar closure is released bylowering the sides of the tongue; e.g. rattle, shortly. Following /t/, there is initial devoicing of /l/.*Lateral release often leads into syllabic laterals. *Realisations without lateral release have become increasingly common.

Lateral escape *Similar type of articulation in /kl, gl, pl, bl/ prickle, struggle, grapple, bubbly *It’s not really the same process as in /tl, dl/ cause is does not really involve lowering of the tongue sides. The tongue for the /l/ is taken up during 2nd stage of the stop. On the release of the bilabial or velar closure, the airstream escapes over the lowered sides of the tongue.* As with lateral release, lateral escape occurs before syllabic laterals.

Nasal and lateral * Sequences as /nt/ or /nd/ are examples of nasal approach. The articulators are approach in position for alveolar stop, and it’s necessary for the soft palate to rise.

* A bilabial stop preceded by /m/, slump, and a velar stop preceded by /ŋ/, angry, are examples of nasal approach.* /lt, ld/ are examples of lateral approach. Change from alveolar lateral to alveolar stop is effected by raising the sides of the tongue.

/pt, pd, pk, bg, kt, gd, pfʃ, gdʒ/, are examples of overlapping stops, where plosive consonant is followed by a stop. 1st stop has inaudible release, represented by diacritic [ ] big deal [big ‘di:l]. The 2nd stop as an inaudible approach:

The articulation sequence is as follows:1. Back of tongue approaches the velum for /g/ and makes a firm closure2. Closure is maintained (giving hold stage of /g/)3. Tip/blade rises to form a second closure at alveolar ridge (inaudible)4. The back of the tongue lowers, so releasing the velar closure (inaudible)5. Tip/blade lowers from alveolar ridge with inaudible plosion (release stage of /d/)

In a sequence of three stops, the central consonant lacks both audible approach and release stages. Such a stop is always alveolar and in the case of /t/ is realized by a period of silence.

- Sequences of homorganic stops (two stops at same place) result in a single prolonged 2nd stage, with only one approach and one release stage. effect is longer stop- ! Prolonged stops /pp, bb, dd/ can be shown phonetically as [p:, b:, d:]- Examples homorganic stops: hip pockets, black comedy, chipboard, punk group, hard time.

(Plosive precedes other plosive)- Prolonged 2nd stage is also found in plosive/affricate sequences: spot check, hard cheese, short jacket, blood drip. Where there is an affricate/affricate sequence, or affricate/plosive the two stops retain all their stages.- Energy contrast in sequence, the vocal folds either begin or cease vibrating during hold stage. Example: chipboard, voicing begins shortly before the release stage.- When first of a sequence of homorganic stop is a fortis, this will be subject to glottal reinforcement. (glottal replacement)

Systems of EnglishBilabial Alveolar Post-alveolar Palato-alveolar Alveolo-palatal Velar Glottal

English p b t d [t d ] tʃ dʒ k g [ ]- The phonemes occur in all positions.

Bilabial plosives /p, b/- Description Airstream is compressed behind closure formed at the lips and then released

with force. Fortis consonant /p/ is more energetic than lenis /b/, /b/ has potentially voice.

- Main allophonic variation /p/: Fortis voiceless bilabial plosiveStrong aspirated [ph] when initial in stressed syllable. Syllable-final slight aspiration. Syllable final before consonants, pre-glottalised [ p]. Unaspirated [p=] in clusters beginning with /s/

/b/: Lenis voiced bilabial plosive [b] if between voiced sounds.Partially devoiced [b] in initial position.Strongly devoiced [b] in final position./p/ and /b/ are palatalised [pj, bj] before /j/; labio-dental [p, b] before /f,v/

Alveolar plosives /t, d/- Description Closure is formed by tip/blade of the tongue against alveolar ridge. /t/ is

fortis with energetic articulation; /d/ is lenis with weaker articulation and potential voice.

- Main allophonic variation /t/: Fortis voiceless alveolar plosive.Strongly aspirated [th] when initial in stressed syllablesSlight aspiration in syllable-finalGeneral pre-glottalised when syllable-final before consonantsUnaspirated [t=] in /s/ clusters/d/: Lenis voiced alveolar plosive [d] between voiced sounds.Devoiced [d] in initial position.Strongly devoiced [d] in final position/t, d/ may be labialised [tw, dw] before /w/; palatised [tj, dj] before /j/; dental [t, d] adjacent to dentals.

Velar plosives /k, g/- Description Back of the tongue rises to form a closure against velum. /k/ has

energetic articulation; /g/ has weaker articulation with potential voice.

- Main allophonic variation /k/: Fortis voiceless velar plosiveStrongly aspirated [kh] when initial in stressed syllables.Slightly aspirated in syllable-final.Pre-glottalised [?k] when syllable-final before consonants.Unaspirated [k=] in /s/ clustersPalatalised [kj] before /j//g/: Lenis voiced velar plosive [g] if between voiced sounds.

Devoiced [g] in initial position; strongly devoiced [g] if in final position.

Palato-alveolar affricates /tʃ, dʒ/- Description Closure between large area of tip, blade & front of tongue with

alveolar ridge and front of hard palate. Airstream is compressed behind closure, released slowly, rise to homorganic frinction. /tʃ/ is fortis and energetic, /dʒ/ is lenis, weak and potentially voiced.

- Main allophonic variation /tʃ/: Fortis voiceless labialised palato-alveolar affricate [tʃw]May be pre-glottalised [?tʃ] when syllable-final./dʒ/: Lenis voiced labialised palato-alveolar affricate. [dʒw] if between voiced sounds. Partially devoiced [dʒ] in initial position.Strongly devoiced [dʒ] in final position.

Chapter 18No summary, just see PED pp. 182-188

CEEL pp. 242-245 Fortis (strong) consonants:

/p, t, k, f, θ, s, tʃ, ʃ/ Lenis (weak) consonants:

/b, d, g, v, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ/ Nasals:

/m, n, ŋ/ Place + manner + energy of articulation

Place Manner EnergyBilabial Palato-alveolar Plosive FortisLabio-dental Palatal Nasal LenisDental Velar AffricateAlveolar Glottal LateralPost-alveolar Retroflex Fricative

(Roll, trill, flap)

Week 6Chapter 7 Besides the main articulation (primary articulation), there may be an additional articulation

(secondary articulation). Position of rank scale: 1. Strictures in oral cavity above those in the remainder of vocal tract.

2. In oral cavity, strictures of complete closure above open approximation.Primary articulation Secondary articulation

1. Oral stricture of complete closure or close approximation, i.e. stops and fricatives [t, s].

2. Oral stricture of open approximation, i.e. approximants, vowels, e.g. [j,a:]

3. Stricture at the glottis, e.g. glottal stop [ ]

4. Resonance of the nasal cavity, e.g. nasals [m, n, ŋ]

1. Labialisation2. Palatalisation3. Velarisation4. Pharyngealisation

Glottalisation

Nasalisation

Summary of secondary articulationSecondary articulation Description Symbol Example

Palatalisation Front of tongue raised to hard palate

j after symbol Tune [tju:n]

Velarisation Back of tongue raised to soft palate (velum)

y after symbol (or ~ through symbol)

Still [stily], [sti l ]

Pharyngealisation Root of tongue drawn back to pharynx wall

after symbol (or ~ through symbol)

D stil [stil ]

Labialisation Addition of lip-rounding

w after symbol Talk [tw :k]

Glottalisation Addition of glottal stop

Before symbol Stopwatch [‘st pw tʃ]

Nasalisation Addition of resonance of nasal cavity

~ above symbol Morning [‘m :niŋ]

Glottalisation Frequent in the form of pre-glottalisation op the fortis stops /p, t, k, ʧ/ in syllable-final position.

Nasalisation Vowels preceding nasals are nasalised. Example: signalman: [‘sign l m n/ [l] occurs between two nasals.

The example above is also an example that more than one secondary articulation can occur simultaneously: the [l] is velarised and nasalised.

Double articulationtwo places of articulation are employed, but there can’t be adistinction made in terms of narrowness of the stricture.Example: /w/ 1. Lips 2. Velum

Chapter 17 Systems in English

Bilabial, alveolar and velar nasals /m, n, ŋ/- Description The place and manner of articulation is similar to that of the corresponding

stops /b, d, g/. The soft palate is lowered, adding resonance of the nasal cavity. Vocal folds vibrate.

- Main allophonic variation /m, n/ Following /s/ in initial clusters, partially devoiced [m, n]Before /j/, palatised [mj, nj]. Also before /i /.Before labio-dental /f, v/ both may be labio-dental nasal [m]./n/ Shows place variation typical of alveolars: dental [n] before and following dentals; palato-alveolar [n] before /tʃ, dʒ, ʃ, ʒ/./ŋ/ shows place variation typical of velars: advanced [ŋ] after front vowels and retracted [ŋ] after velars.

- Nasalisation Soft palate anticipates the action of the other articulators. Vowels are somewhat nasalized preceding nasals.

Lateral (approximant)

Bilabial Alveolar Alveolo-palatal VelarEnglish m n ŋ

- Description Tip and blade of tongue form central closure with alveolar ridge, tongue sides remain lowered. Air escapes over lowered sides.

- Main allophonic variation Clear [l] before vowels and /j/ tongue shape is slightly palatalized, upper surface is convex. Close front vowel [i]-type resonance to lateral articulation.Dark [ɫ] before consonants and pause articulation is slightly velarised.Voiceless fricative [l] occurs in initial clustersf following /p, k/ in a stressed syllable and corresponds to the aspiration of the fortis plosives found in other contexts. Some devoicing following fortis fricatives.Similar devoicing and slight friction is found in syllabic /l/ sparkle.* Adjacent to nasals, /l/ is nasalized [l]. Before rounded vowels and /w/, labalised [lw]. Before and after dentals, [l].

- Effect of dark [l] on vowels - Vowels are centralized and lowered. Palatal approximant /j/

- Description Only occurs pre-vocalically; rapid vowel-like glide on to a vowel of longer duration. Tongue is raised toward hard palate.If /j/ is followed by a close vowel, closer starting-point.Because of its similarity to vowel sounds, /j/ can be indicated on a vowel diagram.

- Allophonic variation 1. In syllable-initial clusters following /p, t, k/ devoiced and fricative [j]. May be realized as completely voiceless palatal fricative.2. The sequence [hj] huge, is frequently realized as a weak palatal fricative.3. Sequences /tj, dj/ often realized as corresponding palato-alveolar affricates /tʃ, dʒ/. The most common form, also occurs in assimilated form. Also frequently heard in stressed syllables.

Labial-velar /w/- Description /w/ a crescendo glide on to another vowel. Considered as type of double

articulation, combination of two strictures of equal rank labial and velar open approximations. Consonants preceding /w/ are strongly labialised.

- Allophonic variation /w/ varies according to the degree of openness of following sounds. Following fortis plosives /t, k/ /w/ is partially devoiced [w]. In initial clusters with /t, k/ is stressed syllables, may be complete devoicing inquest, /w/ will be realized as voiceless labial-velar fricative [ ]. Friction is only at lips, not velar, between, quick, twelve. Labialisation begins in the preceding consonant.

Post-alveolar approximant /r/- Description Tip of tongue moves towards rear of alveolar ridge, stricture of open

approximation. Sides of tongue are expanded and raised to come into close contact with back teeth and rear edges of the palate.

- Allophonic variation 1. Ideolectal Little or no lip-rounding except before rounded vowels. Alveolar tap [ ] in intervocalic position after checked vowels, ferry, sorry, very. Today only heard by old-generation.2. ContextualThe initial clusters /r/ and /dr/ are realized as post-alveolar affricates.In initial clusters in stressed syllables, completely voiceless post-alveolar fricative [ ] is realised following fortis plosives /p, k/.In /pr/ bilabial friction may be heard. In clusters /spr, str, skr/ no friction, but possible devoicing.

- Distribution Rhotic /r/ is always pronounced.Non-rhotic /r/ is never pronounced before a consonant or pause.

Linking-r In connected speech.Intrusive-r Linking-r, though there isn’t one in the spelling. (After vowels)

Week 8Chapter 8 For vowels the articulators do not make any type of close contact as with consonants.

The tongue will always be either director towards hard or soft palate. (palatal—velar)Vowels are always voiced; there is no fortis/lenis contrast.

Parameters for vowel description:1. Tongue shape2. Lip shape3. Whether 1 & 2 are held constant or undergo change (i.e., steady-state or diphthong?)4. Position of soft palate5. Duration6. Larynx setting variation

1. Tongue shape -Parameter of tongue height: how close is the upper surface to the roof of the mouth? Tongue lowers oral cavity size increases.- Close vowels vowels articulated with upper tongue surface close to roof of the mouth Open vowels vowels articulated with upper tongue surface far away from roof of the mouth- It is essential to know which part of the tongue is highest: Front vowels vowels where the front of the tongue is the highest /i e: ε: a: / Back vowels vowels where the back of the tongue is the highest / α ɔ u/ (For back vowels we can’t see the change, because the back of the tongue is the highest)- It’s not possible to see what happens in the pharynx cavity: * Small oral cavity large pharynx cavity /i/ * Large oral cavity small pharynx cavity /a/ * Fairly large oral cavity fairly large pharynx cavity /u/

Cardinal vowels - Daniel Jones devised his system of Cardinal vowels in 1917.- Upper vowel limit, beyond which the surface of the tongue cannot rise. (If the tongue is moved closer to the palate, the vowel would become a fricative) Vowels at upper vowel limit are front vowel [i] and back vowel [u]- Lower vowel limit, dependent on extent to which tongue may be depressed. (otherwise a pharyngeal fricative would be produced) Other extreme vowels: Front vowel [a] and back vowel [α]- Jones then created the vowel area:

- The basic vowel diagram:

- Primary cardinal vowels: The series of eight sounds (after cardinal points of the compass)

2. Lip Shape - The main effects of lip-rounding on the shape of the mouth are: 1. to enlarge the space within the mouth 2. to diminish the size of the opening of the mouth- Lip shape is an additional variable in the CV system

- Front & open vowels are articulated with spread/neutral lip position; back vowels have lip rounding.- Secondary Cardinal Vowels It’s not unusual to find languages with vowels which do not conform the lip shape of primary CV. Solution Secondary Cardinal Vowel system, with reverse lip positions.

Lip-shape indicators: Unrounded /ei/ in FACE From rounded to spread/neutral / / Rounded throughout From spread/neutral to rounded / /

Later additions - These vowels were further added to fill in the high central area : [ i ] & [ u ] The central vowel, the schwa, might be the most important.

- The value of the VC system: It is a mapping system which presents the essential auditory and acoustic information.

Steady-state vowels and diphthongs Steady-state vowel if the position of tongue & lips is held steady in the production of the vowel

(Also called ‘pure vowel’ or monophthong)Diphthong if there’s an obvious change in tongue & lip shape (‘double sound’)- The change (glide) in a diphthong must be accomplished in a single movement without a break.- The starting point of a diphthong is shown on vowel diagram by a lip-shape indicator; the direction of the movement of the upper surface of the tongue is shown by an arrow

4. Position of the soft palate High or low- Nasalisation = secondary articulation. Nasalised vowels are produced with soft palate lowered.

5. Duration Duration = time taken by an articulation

- Measure a sound in isolation only provides absolute duration. Vowel length is always relative. A vowel has to be considered in relationship to other vowels.- When comparing two vowels, use the same conditions.- Combinations of duration and vowel quality give contrast checked (short) and free (long) vowels.

6. Larynx setting variation - Main types: voiced, voiceless, whisper, creaky voice, etc.- Only vowel phonemes with normal voice are found in most languages.- Voiceless vowels can be heard at the end of words before pause. - [h] can be considered as voiceless vowel.

Description of vowels in terms of CV system

Vowels and consonants Distinction between vowels and consonants:1. Acoustic vowel/consonant

Sounds are of 2 types: 1. Those made up of vibrations in form of regular repeating wave patterns tones (bell, whistle)2. Those consisting of irregular non-repeating vibrations noise (bangs, props, hisses)In speech, sounds made up of tones vowels, central and lateral approximants & nasalsSounds made up of noise voiceless consonants (plosives, affricates, stops) and fricatives.Acoustic vowel a speech sound which has no noise component

2. Phonological vowel/consonant A syllable can consist of an obligatory vowel nucleus surrounded by consonants (three in initial position, four in final position)Vowel a speech sound which functions as the nucleus of the syllable.Consonant a speech sound which occurs at the margins of the syllable.Sonority sounds which occur as nucleus are those who are most sonorous

(those with the greatest carrying power (composed largely of tones))Rank of selection of sounds:1. Vowels (nucleus)2. Nasals & approximants (syllable margins)3. Voiced/voiceless fricatives & voiced/voiceless plosives (syllable margins)

3. Articulatory vowel/consonant A phonetic consonant can be defined as an articulation with stricture which:

1. Blocks airstream completely (stops, trills, taps)2. Blocks airstream, allows nasal escape (nasals)3. Blocks airstream centrally, allows lateral escape (laterals)4. Hinders airstream, rise to audible friction (fricative)

Contoid phonetic consonants (all manners of articulation, except central approximants)Vocoid phonetic vowels (also central approximants)But contoids sometimes function as vowels. Nasals /m, n, ŋ/ and /l/ may act as nuclear non-marginal elements.

- Main characteristics:Contoid Vocoid

Articulatory Stricture involving closure, or narrowing giving rise to friction

No such stricture

Phonatory May or may not have voice Usually has voicePhonological

Corresponds to phonological consonant. Generally, marginal in the syllable

Corresponds to phonological vowel. Nuclear in the syllable

Examples Plosives, affricates, fricatives, laterals, nasals Central approximants (including vowels)

- It is not clear-cut and there may be different criteria than those above.

Chapter 11Checked vowelsKIT /ɪ/ LOT /ɒ/DRESS /e/ FOOT /ʊ/TRAP /æ/ bonUs /ə/STRUT /ʌ/ Checked vowels:

1. do not occur in word-final stressed open syllables2. can occur before consonant /ŋ/3. In similar phonetic contexts, the checked vowels are shorter than the free vowels. /ə/ must be regarded as outside free/checked classifications, but because it’s, short it’s checked.

KIT vowel /ɪ/- Description Front-central, close-mid, unrounded, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm [ɪ]- Idiolectal variation 1. Happy words, have now a considerably closer realisation than

formerly. It’s now closer to /i:/ than /ɪ/.2. /ɪ/ is centralised and lowered before dark [ɫ] (still, quilt)3. Front vowels tend to be closer before velars (kick)

- Distribution /ɪ/ varies with /ə/ in unstressed syllables. The schwa tends to be the dominant form, particularly in words ending in –less, -ness, -let and – ity./i:/ is only used for productive prefixes (when prefix is used to convert and existing word to a new form).

DRESS vowel /e/- Description Front, above open-mid, unrounded, checked, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ε]- Idiolectal variation Qualities are heard just from below close-mid to open-mid.- Contextual variation 1. Lowered and centralized before dark [ɫ] (tell, felt)

2. /e/ is closer before velars. (peg, peck)

TRAP vowel /æ/- Description Front, slightly above open, unrounded, checked, steady-state vowel.

Phonemic norm [a]- Idiolectal variation 1. Qualities vary from lowered CV3 to CV4. Close qualities sound old-

fashioned; a very open /æ/ is heard from many speakers.2. /æ/ is variable in length, being longer than other checked vowels.(/æ/ may be lengthened before lines consonants and nasals)3. It often has pharyngeal constriction, with sort of creaky voice.

(helps setting it of from /e/)- Contextual variation 1. /æ/ is like other front vowels, affected by dark [ɫ] [a]

2. It’s closer before velars, giving [æ] (back, bag, bang) STRUT vowel /ʌ/

- Description Central-front, below open-mid, unrounded, checked, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm [ə]

- Idiolectal variation Individual variation is wide, but average quality is more central-front than a back vowel.

- Contextual variation 1. /ʌ/ is the shortest checked vowel, and doesn’t show lengthening before lenis consonants.2. /ʌ/ tends to be retracted before dark [ɫ] (bulb, dull)

LOT vowel /ɒ/- Description Back, slightly above open, slightly rounded, checked, steady-state vowel. Secondary

CV5. Phonemic norm : [ɒ]- Idiolectal variation Little variation in tongue position. Lip-rounding varies from being slight

together to being absent altogether. FOOT vowel /ʊ/

- Description Back-central, close-mid, slightly rounded, checked, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ʊ]

- Idiolectal variation Lip-rounding is generally slight. bonUs vowel /ə/

- Description Central, open-mid, unrounded, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ə]- Idiolectal variation Mainly degree of openness in word-final context- Contextual variation Two distinct allophones:

1. A closer allophone before velars; again2. A more open variety in final position, similar to /ʌ/, which can be phonetically represented as [ ]; doctor, china, soda, bitter. Witch some speakers this allophone is strikingly open.

CEEL, pp. 237-238 /ʌ/ refers only to the vowel in such words as sun. (And also the worry words). Vowels are articulated with a relatively open configuration of the vocal tract, the mouth is open,

and none of the vocal organs come close together that we can hear the sound of air passing (which is called audible friction).

Vowels are units of the sound system which typically occupy the middle of a syllable (nucleus). Consonants are typically found at the edges of syllables.

Vowels normally involve vibration of the vocal folds. Lip position: 1. Rounded: The lips are pushed forwards into the shape of a circle.

2. Spread: The corners of the lips are moved away from each other.3. Neutral: The lips are not noticeably rounded or spread.

Cardinal vowel diagram[a] is the lowest point that is theoretically possible for the tongue to reach and [a] is the lowest point at the back they’re open or low vowels.[i] is the highest point at the front, [u] is the highest point at the back close or high vowels.Most vowel positions, it’s possible to hear a difference in lip shape (unrounded/rounded)

Week 9Chapter 12

Free steady-state (long) vowelsSteady-state vowels vowels having a fairly steady position of the speech organs throughout

their articulation (no obvious lip/tongue change) The free vowels:1. may occur in stressed open syllable: key /ki:/, car /kɑː/2. do not occur before /ŋ/, except as a result of assimilation (green cucumbers)3. In similar phonetic contexts, they are longer than checked vowels.

FLEECE vowel /i:/- Description Centred from front close, unrounded, free, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ï]- Idiolectal variation A narrow diphthongal glide in contexts where /i:/ has full length (in

open syllables and before lenis or nasal consonants) is regularly used.Before fortis consonants a steady-state vowel is usual.

- Contextual variation 1. See diagram for glide forms2. Before dark [ɫ], a centring glide is used. (almost no contrast between /ɪə/ and /i:/ before /ɫ/.

GOOSE vowel /u:/- Description Centred from back close, rounded, free, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ü:]- Idiolectal variation 1. Most speakers regularly use a narrow glide where it has full lengt:

i.e. in open syllables and before lenis or nasal consonants.Before fortis consonants it’s more usual to hear a steady-state vowel.2. Lip-rounding is generally rather weak

- Contextual variation 1. See diagram before glide forms2. After /j/, a very wide glide is found with all speakers, giving [ɨu] (use)3. Before /ɫ/, /u:/ is regularly steady-state for all speakers (fool)

PALM vowel /ɑː/- Description Central, open, unrounded, free, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: ɑː- Idiolectal variation There is some variation in tongue position along the front/back axis.

THOUGHT vowel /ɔː/- Description Above open-mid, back, strongly lip-rounded, free, steady-state vowel. This is

the most strong lip-rounded vowel. Phonemic norm: [ɔː]

Free steady-state DiphthongsFLEECE /i:/ FACE /eɪ/ MOUTH /aʊ/GOOSE /u:/ GOAT /əʊ/ NEAR /ɪə/PALM /ɑː/ PRICE /aɪ/ CURE /ʊə/THOUGHT /ɔː/ CHOICE /ɔɪ/ SQUARE /εə/ NURSE /3:/

- Distribution Formerly a contrast between / ɔː/ and /ɔə/ existed, the latter being used for words spelled ore. (no longer present today)

NURSE vowel /3:/- Description Central, open-mid, unrounded, free, steady-state vowel. Phonemic norm: [ə:]- Idiolectal variation Tongue height varies (see diagram) Very open qualities are typical of

the speech of the older generation. Diphthongs

Direction of tongue movementClosing diphthongs involve tongue movement towards the roof of the mouth.Centring diphthongs involving movement to [ə]

Backing moving to [ʊ]Fronting moving to [ɪ]

Diphthongs can be further divided into:- Narrow: /əʊ, eɪ, εə/ involving slight movement of the tongue- Extensive: /aɪ, ɔɪ, aʊ, ɪə, ʊə/ involving greater tongue movement

Lip-shape changesDiphthongs /ɪə, eɪ, aɪ, εə/ have unrounded lips throughout the articulation:

Diphthongs /ʊə, ɔɪ/ involve change from rounded to unrounded: Diphthongs /əʊ, aʊ/ move from unrounded to rounded: There are no diphthongs that are completely rounded.Prominence of elementsEnglish diphthongs are typically diminuendo glides second element is briefer & less prominent.Opposite is crescendo glide first element is briefer & less prominent.

FACE vowel /eɪ/- Description Narrow closing diphthong. Begins front, below close mid. Moves towards

front-central. Phonemic norm: [eɪ]- Idiolectal variation Some variation in openness of the starting-point. Very closed older

generation; more open e.g. Cockney- Contextual variation 1. Before fortis consonants typical shortening effect results in

reduction of length of the first element e.g. late – laid 2. Before dark [ɫ], the final element is obscured or may be of an [ə] type e.g. tale

GOAT vowel /əʊ/

- Description Narrow closing diphthong. Begins central, close-mid. Moves towards back-central, slightly above close-mid. Unrounded slightly rounded. Phonemic norm: [əʊ]

- Idiolectal variation Starting-point of the glide may vary considerably. Back starting-points = old-fashioned; very front = unpleasantly; open = e.g. Cockney

- Contextual variation 1. First element is shortened before fortis consonants coat – code2. Before dark [ɫ], second element is sometimes lost, partly reducing contrast.

PRICE vowel /aɪ/- Description Extensive closing diphthong. Begins front-central, open. Moves towards front-

central, close mid. Unrounded. Phonemic norm [aɪ]- Idiolectal variation Closing starting-points, above /æ/, are characteristic of affected

speech. Retracted (close to CV 5) are found in accents as e.g. Cockney.- Contextual variation 1. Before fortis consonants typical shortening effect results in

reduction of length of the first element.2. Before dark [ɫ], the final element is obscured or may be of an [ə] type.

CHOICE vowel /ɔɪ/- Description Extensive closing diphthong. Begins back, below open-mid. Moves towards

front-central, close-mid. Rounded unrounded. Phonemic norm: [ɔɪ]- Idiolectal variation Very close starting-points (CV 7 or above) are heard only in dialects e.g.

Cockney.- Contextual variation 1. Before fortis consonants typical shortening effect results in

reduction of length of the first element e.g. late – laid 2. Before dark [ɫ], the final element is obscured or may be of an [ə] type e.g. tale

MOUTH vowel /aʊ/- Description Extensive closing diphthong. Begins central, open. Moves towards back-

central, close-mid. Unrounded slightly rounded. Phonemic norm: [aʊ]- Idiolectal variation Back starting-points are found in older-generation. Fronted close

starting-points are characteristic accents as Cockney.- Contextual variation First element is shorter before fortis consonants lout – loud

NEAR vowel /ɪə/- Description Centring diphthong. Begins front-central, above close-mid. Moves towards

central, open-mid. Unrounded. Phonemic norm: [ɪə]- Idiolectal variation The starting-point may be somewhat closer, but it’s nearer to /ɪ/

than /i:/. With dialect speakers the glide may be regarded as a /ə/. Very open endings are of the older-generation or Cockney.

- Contextual variation /ɪə/ is frequently realised as a crescendo glide in unstressed syllables, e.g. media, greedier, invidious, but it may also be found in stressed context, e.g. mere, here. Note that the word year is said as /j3:/.

CURE vowel /ʊə/- Description Centring diphthong. Begins back-central, above close-mid. Moves towards

central, open-mid. Slight rounded unrounded. Phonemic norm: [ʊə]- Idiolectal variation The ending varies is degree of openness, but is typically around open-

mid. It also may be released as a crescendo glide, e.g. influence. - Contextual variation Before dark [ɫ], the /ə/ glide may be reduced.

- Distribution 1. Many speakers use /ɔː/ instead of /ʊə/ in certain high frequency words, e.g. sure, poor, your. The use of in is less common words, e.g. tourist, moor, cure, furious, appears to be becoming more frequent.2. In words where /ʊə/ can be considered to be derived from a sequence of /u:/ + /ə/, e.g. truer, fewer, an alternative pronunciation with /ʊə/.

SQUARE vowel /εə/- Description Centring diphthong. Front, slightly below open-mid. May glide to below central

open-mid. Unrounded. Phonemic norm: [εə] or [ε:]- Idiolectal variation Chief variation is the presence or absence of the [ə] off-glide. Today, it

normally appears in open syllables. It would be possible to regard the square vowel as a steady-state vowel with potential glide allophones.

Diphthongal sequences /aɪə, aʊə/In common sequences /aɪə/and /aʊə/, the [ɪ] or [ʊ] element is generally reduced, and may be absent. This is termed smoothing. But, words like shire and shower are normally distinct since the former will be realised with a more front starting-point than the latter. The contrast of /aʊə/ and /a:/ may be absent in the relaxed speech of some RP speakers, but this may suffer stigmatization, being labelled ‘affected’. In mainstream RP, a clear contrast of /aʊə - aɪə - a:/ is generally maintained. It is also possible to hear smoothing in other sequences, /eɪə/ as in conveyor, /eʊə/ as in royalist. Extreme reduction as the levelling of /eɪə/ and /εe/ (layer – lair) or /eʊə/ and /3:/ (slower – slur) are again characteristic of affected speech.

CEEL, pp. 239-241 The contrast between long and short vowels is not just one of length (quantity); a different place

of articulation (quality) is involved. There are three types of diphthongs:

1. First group ends with glide towards the /ə/ vowel in the centre of the mouth centring diphthongs. /ɪə/, /εə/ and /ʊə/.2. The remainder from the first group end with a glide towards a higher position in the mouth closing diphthongs.

- One type of closing diphthongs moves into the direction of an [i] quality at the front of the vowel area. /eɪ/, /aɪ/ and /ɔɪ/.- Another type moves into the direction of an [u] quality at the back of the vowel area (and adds some lip rounding). /əʊ/ and /aʊ/.

Week 10/11Acoustics (Blackboard) Acoustics is the study of the physical properties of sound. Sound waves can be compared with dropping a stone in a pond. The molecules in the water are

disturbed, which can be seen in the form of waves/ripples. Eventually, the energy is gone and the wave movement ceases.

With sound waves, air is set in motion by a source of energy. The molecules of air are disturbed and the energy is transmitted from one molecule to the other.

Differences:1. Sound travels outwards through air in all directions, not just over the surface.2. Sound waves travel much faster (Speed of sound in air is 330 metres/second). Through liquids sound travels even more rapidly, because the molecules are closer together.

Pattern of vibration pattern of the air molecules as they vibrate under the influence of a force (= sound wave).

The individual air molecules vibrate and pass the energy to their neighbours. A molecule is elastic, so it bounces back to and past its location and continues till the energy is

exhausted.When molecules are close together rise in air pressure; far apart fall in air pressure.The resulting (difference in) air pressure wave is detected by the ear, converted into nerve impulses that are sent to the brain.

The most useful way of dealing with a sound wave is to consider the movement in relation to time, which gives us this kind of graph (also called sinusoidal curve or sine wave):

A sound wave has a frequency, meaning the number of cycles: if a cycle takes a second, the frequency is one cycle per second. Above one cycle takes 0.06 second, so the frequency is approximately 16 cycles/second. Hertz (Hz) is the official unit for frequency, so the frequency is 16 Hz.

Frequency is perceived as the pitch of a sound (the higher the frequency, the faster the vibrations, the higher the pitch of a sound).

The human ear can perceive frequencies from about 20 Hz to 15000 Hz (Varies per person). Amplitude the distance between the peak of a sound

wave and the average value.It’s related to the amount of energy involved, and it’s important in what the ear perceives as loudness.

Simple sound waves tuning fork (typically 440 Hz). It is a pure tone, like whistling. Most sounds in speech have complex (“compound”) sound waves. These are two or more waves

combined:

+ =

The complex sound waves can be shown in the resulting graph a spectrum:

Frequency

All the frequencies are termed harmonics. The lowest harmonic, with the lowest frequency, is called the fundamental frequency (F0).

The other harmonics are the multiples of the fundamental frequency.(The higher the frequency, the lower its amplitude)

The fundamental frequency is the sound we hear as the pitch. Intonation is a result of F0. The other harmonics provide quality or timber.

Harmonics produce the differences between the various vowel sounds. All bodies – tuning fork, guitar string, glass, etc = have a natural resonating frequency.

One vibrating body can affect other vibrating bodies nearby; if the second can vibrate at the same rate as the original frequency it will do that. This is call resonance. A body which can be made to vibrate in this way is called a resonator.

If high frequency harmonics are reinforced sound with clear timber is obtained.If fundamental and low frequency harmonics are reinforced timber is deepened.A resonator used this way is called an acoustic filter (Like the vocal tract).

The vibration of the vocal cords creates a complex tone consisting of the fundamental frequency and numerous harmonics above the fundamental. The pharyngeal, oral and nasal cavities act as air-filled resonating chambers, which form a system of acoustic filters. Depending on the shape of the vocal tract, certain of the harmonics produced by the glottal tone will be reinforced and others will be diminished.

Factors that affect the shape of the vocal tract:1. Changing the relative size of the oral and pharyngeal cavities (by altering tongue-shape).2. Extending the length of the oral cavity (by protruding the lips).3. Diminishing the size of the entrance to the oral cavity (by rounding the lips).4. Adding or subtracting the resonance of the nasal cavity (by lowering/raising the soft palate).

Any change in the shape of the vocal tract will change the acoustic nature of the glottal tone; this is also responsible for the changes in timbre of vowel sounds, i.e. the difference between [i], [a] and [u].

When producing vowel open approximation (free passage of airstream through vocal tract). The vibrations pass through the pharyngeal and oral resonating cavities they’re acoustic filters, so there will be a range of reinforced harmonics.

When examining spectrograms of vowels, we see that vowels have a regular pattern of resonant frequency bands (bands of reinforced harmonics).

Formants the reinforced bands of harmonics.

For vowels, the lowest formants above the fundamental are most significant; called F1, F2 and F3.

There is a close relationship between the formant pattern of vowels and the varying shape of the vocal tract.

(The arrows show the first three formants)

Because vowels alter the shape of the vocal tract, it is expected that it is reflected in the formant patterns. Diphthongs show obvious glides when they change from one element to another. Steady-state vowels don’t have this, but there are still bends to be seen, because of the preceding or following consonants

The bends are called transitions. They are visible in spectrograms. Most of the acoustic information necessary for the recognition of consonant sounds is contained in these transitions.

Everything said so far concerned resonant speech sounds; i.e. sounds which involve periodic wave patterns producing melodic tones as a result of resonances produced by the passage of the airstream through the vocal tract.

Many speech sounds are derived from non-repetitive, aperiodic sound waves, termed noise (e.g. pops, hisses).

“Noisy” activities (like a car horn) actually produce melodic tones consisting of regular periodic vibrations. Vowels are melodic tones.

Voiced plosives and fricatives are produced by articulation the speech organs in such a way as to produce noise. For plosives, air is compressed behind a closure and then released “popping” period of noise. For fricatives, hiss is produces by passing the airstream through a narrow constriction.

Voiced plosives and fricatives involve both the production of a melodic tone and simultaneously a noise component.

It is possible to categorise noise on the basis of its acoustic characteristics. Example: the hiss of [s] contains more high frequencies than that of [ʃ]. We say that hiss which is characterised by higher frequencies is sharp; hiss which is characterised by lower frequencies is termed grave.

(Classification of speech sounds according to their acoustic properties)

Duration of particular acoustic features is a very significant factor in our perception of speech.Week 12Chapter 23 (§1 t/m §3) The most important factor in determining the pitch is the speech of vibration (frequency) of the

vocal folds higher the frequency, higher the pitch. Pitch variation is essential for speech. When pitch is absent, the speech is robot-like and

considered inhuman. Pitch movement

1) Pitch rises (like a ‘revving’ car motor)2) Level pitch (‘open road’)3) Pitch falls (‘coming to a halt’)

Pitch variation adds meaning additional to that conveyed by the segmental phonemes. There are two ways in which pitch functions: Tone & Intonation

Tone the function of pitch used to distinguish the dictionary meanings of words. Those languages are called tone languages. There are different numbers of pitch levels two (high & low) or three (high, mid and low).

Register tone languages languages which use a tone system of two or three pitch levels. Contour tone languages they chiefly employ falling and rising pitches (China)

The tones of a tone language may be analysed in a way comparable to the segmental phonemes tonemes and allotones.

Most languages around the world employ tone. Europe has few tone languages. (Limburg)Two contrasting pitch patterns, sleeptoon (douf) and stoottoon (bein).

English, Dutch, French and German do not use tone to indicate dictionary meaning. (They have different ways to say a word). We cannot distinguish homophones by means of pitch. The pitch variation takes form of intonation operate over an extent greater than a single word, usually over complete clauses or sentences.

Intonation can be used in different ways:1. Focussing function focus on or highlight certain words2. Attitudinal function reflect the attitude of the speakers to the words they utter3. Grammatical function provide extra grammatical information in addition to what is

provided by the bare text.4. Discourse function organise the structure of conversations by indicating that the

speaker has finished, or that there is more to come. Intonation is crucial to human communication adding meaning additional to what is supplied by

the words themselves. There are marking systems for intonation:

Interlinear system indicates pitch patterns between an upper and lower line corresponding to the highest and lowest normal pitch range of the voice. Stressed syllables are shown by lines (--) and unstressed syllables by dots (.). Thicker lines show stressed syllable with particular prominence (extra loudness, longer duration.In-text system removes some of the complexity of the interlinear system, and allows us to see more clearly the significant elements of intonation structure. These patterns are shown within the text by means of circles, angled marks and arrows, placed before each stressed syllable.

Chapter 24 (§1)Intonation performs four important linguistic functions:

1. Focussing function allows the speaker to focus on the most significant information in an utterance. The location of the nucleus is the most important aspect of the accentual role of intonation. It acts as the focus of attention of the speaker. The nucleus is normally found in the intonation group and it is frequently a syllable of the last lexical item. Any shifting of the nucleus indicates a desire to highlight an other part of the utterance. Nucleus location functions as a focussing device.

2. Attitudinal function allows the speaker to superimpose an attitude on top of the bare semantic content of what is being said. Different attitudinal implications can be designated for the nuclear tones, because the attitude implied by a tone depends on context and on the basic semantic content. Distinctions:

- Two tones, high fall and low rise neutral- Two tones, low fall and high rise strengthenings. These tones tend to emphasise or

exaggerate the attitude.- Two tones, fall-rise and rise-fall attitudinally marked, i.e. these tones are inherently laden with one or more or the following implications:

* Fall-rise: doubt, correction, reservation, appeal to the listener to reconsider.* Rise-fall: impressed, arrogant, confident, mocking, self-satisfied, putting down.

But one cannot judge patterns only in terms of nucleus combination head & nucleus.3. Grammatical function permits the speaker to distinguish certain syntactic relationships, e.g.

phrase and clause boundaries, question vs. statement.Frequent example is where a statement is distinguished from a question.In English it is also possible for a question to be turned into an emphatic statement.

4. Discourse function covering such diverse matters as the organisation of conversation between speakers (turn-taking signals), indication of speaker/listener relationship, indication of new vs. old information.There are two categories to allocate the nuclear tones on basis of whether they are falling or rising:

- Falling tones (high/low fall, rise-fall) 1. Finality, 2. Completion of utterance, 3. unloading of information.

- Rising tones (low/high rise, fall-rise) 1. Non-finality, 2. Incompleteness, 3. Information is requested or anticipated.

Usually complete statements and commands involve falling tones, question and introductory non-final clauses have rising nucleuses.However, there are exceptions, often reflecting a combination of discourse and attitudinal function.Yes-no questions are normally said with a rise. Wh-questions may be said with either a rising pattern (friendly, leading, engaging), or with a falling pattern (distant, business-like).

CEEL, pp. 248-249 Verbal meaning relies on vowels and consonants to construct words, phrases and sentences.

Non-verbal meaning uses intonation, rhythm, tone, etc. Prosodic features pitch, loudness, speed, rhythm, silence. The most important prosodic effect are pitch movement (tone) and the intonation system. Loudness is used in various ways (e.g. for emotion) difference between strong (stressed) and

weak (unstressed) syllables. Speed (tempo) by speeding up or slowing down, we convey several kinds of meaning, like

excitement and impatience or emphasis and thoughtfulness. Functions of intonation:

- Emotional express attitudinal meaning (sarcasm, surprise, impatience, shock, anger, etc)- Grammatical help to identify grammatical structure in speech.- Informational draw attention to what is old and what is new in an utterance. (most

prominent tone is new)

- Textual helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. - Psychological helps to organize speech into units that are easier to perceive and memorize. - Indexical it’s an important marker of personal or social identity.

Rhythm = the combination of pitch, loudness, speed and silence combined.

Week 13Chapter 20 In connected speech, articulatory sequences are modified to simplify the articulation process. Phonetic conditioning = term used to cover the way in which speech segments are influenced by

adjacent segments. There are three types: 1. Allophonic variation; 2. Assimilation; 3. Elision. Allophonic variation: deviations of phonemes result from phonetic condition, and are responsible

for the wide range of allophones. Assimilation when one phoneme is replaced by a second under the influence of a third.

E.g. English hard cash /ha:d ‘kæʃ/ Phoneme 1 Phoneme 2 Phoneme 3 /ha:g’ kæʃ/ /d/ /g/ before /k/

Ideal form the form of a word in isolation (produced in slow and careful styles of speech).Assimilated form the connected speech form.

Direction of influence:- Leading assimilation sound is influenced by the following sound (lead into).- Lagging assimilation sound is influenced by the preceding sound (lag).- Reciprocal assimilation two sounds fuse into a new segment

Type of influence:1) Place assimilation Assimilations that involve a change in place of articulation. Example:

final alveolars in ideal forms are often replaced by bilabials (preceding /p, b, m/) or velars (preceding /k, g/) or palato-alveolar (preceding /ʃ/).

2) Energy assimilation Assimilations that involve reduction of fortis/lenis contrast.In stressed syllables, these assimilations are less common in English, occurring only in certain words and phrases. In unstressed syllables they’re more frequent.

3) Assimilation of manner Assimilations that involve a change in manner of articulation, e.g. an ideal form containing a fricative may be replaced by a nasal or a lateral. This occurs in English, mainly affecting initial /d/ in unstressed words: all the best /ɔːl ðə ‘best/ /ɔːl lə ‘best/.

Co-occurrence of assimilations1. Assimilations of different types may occur simultaneously: should you /ʃʊdju:/ /ʃʊdʒu:/ (Both place and manner assimilation affect the /d/ and /j/./d/(alveolar plosive) + /j/(palatal approximant) = /dʒ/ (palato-alveolar affricate)2. More than one phoneme may be affected by an assimilation.

Elision Deletion of a phoneme in connected speech.Liaison The insertion of an extra sound in order to facilitate the articulation of a sequence.

E.g. the linking-r and intrusive-r. In contemporary assimilation/elision there is an ideal form. It only takes place in certain phonetic

context, and normally it is optional.Historical assimilation/elision refers to cases where the original ideal forms have disappeared, and the assimilated/elided forms are fixed.

Patterns:Assimilation and elision are more frequent in:1. Unstressed rather than stressed syllables2. Rapid rather than slow tempo3. Informal rather than formal registers

CEEL, p. 247 Vowels & consonants syllables words phrases & sentences

Certain segments run together; extra segments may be added to ensure smoothness of speech; some disappear completely; etc.

Assimilation adjacent sounds often influence each other so that they become more alike.There are different types of assimilation:- Anticipatory (regressive) assimilation sound is influenced by the following sound (ten balloons; ten tem).- Progressive assimilation sound is influenced by the preceding sound (bridge score)- Coalescence reciprocal influence; two sounds fuse into a new segment (won’t she)

Elision sounds are likely to be left out when speech speeds up. - Vowels in weak syllables are often elided in informal speech. (police = p’lice)- Consonant clusters are often simplified. (acts = aks) - Whole syllable may be elided, especially when there is a repeated consonant (library = laibri:)

Liaison sound between words or syllables to help them run together more smoothly./r/ at the end of a syllable is only pronounced when there is a following vowel (linking-r).Intrusive r placing a /r/ where it isn’t really needed.

Strong forms used when the word is said in isolation or is being emphasized.Weak forms used in connected speech.