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observation; “Moreover, double standards and military might are experienced by many of the world’s population, not as the promotion of human rights, but as the imperialist exercise of power” (p. 85).

In view of this, I think there is validity in most Marxists’ argument that the current global order is still made up of nation-states, with an international state system characterized by the uneven nature of capitalist development; it is a system that is still built on imperialist structures (p. 39).

Finally, looking at world trade in the late 1990s, it has been observed that it was highly concentrated in favor of the advanced economies (p. 107); the developed economies accounted for about 75%, while the developing world, including Asia, had 25% (UNCTAD, 1999). Africa and Latin America’s share in world trade in the age of globalization declined: Africa’s share fell from 4.1% in 1970 to 1.5% in 1995, and that of Latin America from 5.5% to 4.4 during the same period (UNCTAD, 1998:183) (p. 107). These records serve to prove that “the actual processes of globalization that have occurred have been intrinsically uneven, unequal and unstable” (p. 114); free trade does not represent the interests of the periphery as has been championed, but rather reflects a particular form — the U.S. hegemony in contemporary globalization.

Francis AcquahHartford SeminaryHartford, Connecticut

Sufism in Europe and North America

Edited by David WesterlundRoutledgeCurzon, Taylor & Francis Group, 2004

Sufism in Europe and North America is a book worthy of note and should be seen as a potentially very useful and relevant work for those wanting to understand the importance and relevance of the phenomenon of Sufi movements in the West. A general overview of Sufism and select points on the spectrum of Sufi movements in Europe and North America is described, presenting some of the main and more visible actors within the historical and societal contexts of Europe and North America in which these movements are situated and function. The work also succeeds in describing some of the issues in Sufism that have arisen recently.

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Sufism in Europe and North America is a multifarious, variegated and widespread phenomenon across Europe and North America and it is therefore difficult to represent adequately in a short book. Nonetheless, the book focuses on different regions, orders, and themes and succeeds in depicting a good deal of the far-reaching variety of Sufi ideas and practices. Emphasis is put on studies of the effects of the contextualization and integration of Sufism in the West and the authors also speak about its enculteration. The first three contributions are broad overviews of various regions; the other contributions provide more specialized and detailed accounts.

David Westerlund provides a well-written introduction and chapter on the contextualization of Sufism in Europe. Westerlund describes the different types of Islam in Europe, placing Sufism in a wider Islamic context, handling the presence of important classical Sufi orders that followed Asian and African immigration to Europe, as well as the new types of Sufism, which he calls “Euro-Sufism.” With Euro-Sufism, Westerlund also presents some Sufi theologies of religion such as seen with Sufi perennialists. Westerlund notes that Euro-Sufism has shown openness to other religions such as Christianity, lacks some of the social and economic functions it had in predominantly Muslim societies, and has often provided more prominent roles for women than in predominantly Muslim societies.

Marcia Hermansen describes American Sufi movements and some of what characterizes them. American Sufi movements have quickly adapted to the American context. This is seen in individualism, voluntarism, and experiential modes of spirituality, and the emphasis on separation of church and state. White Americans and Afro-Americans tend to be attracted primarily by more perennial and hybrid forms of an intellectual and elitist kind, more popular varieties of Sufi Islam are found among immigrants. This popular Sufi-Islam is more popular in Europe, where immigrant Muslims tend to be less highly educated. Strong Afro-American involvement in Sufi circles is one of the factors which has contributed to a domestication of Sufism in North America. Important to note is that Sufism is part of a movement of “psychologisation” of religion and many Sufi sheikhs add psychology and psychotherapy to their spiritual training. The Internet is frequently used along with other media by Sufi groups in America.

Ravil Bukharev describes a history of Sufism in Russia, which is much longer than the often younger Sufi movements in Western Europe. Bukharev provides a detailed account of the historical development of Sufism in Eastern Europe starting in the ninth century with emphasis on the Volga-Urals area. Sufism and Muslims were persecuted after Ivan the Terrible and in some ways the persecution led to a softening of relations between Sufis and non-Sufi Muslims. Bukharev traces the revival in the nineteenth century as well as pressure put on Sufis in the twentieth century by anti-Sufi Islamist groups in Chechnya and

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Daghestan. This added substantially to problems caused by anti-religious policies during the Soviet period. Sufism today is in a weak situation, although new eclectic and ecumenically oriented groups have attracted followers.

Thomas McElwain provides an optimistic chapter on Bektashism bridging East and West, describing some variegation of Bektashism and tracing some of the history of Bektashism from Anatolia and westward. Despite persecutions of Bektashis from orthodox Muslims, McElwain sees some very interesting and positive attributes within Bektashism and, with its variegation, often an interesting openness and flexibility that has facilitated the spread of Bektashism in the West.

Garbi Schmidt, in a chapter on how the Internet is used by Sufism in the West, describes how the Internet has been playing out in a dialogue about Sufism, with its proponents and skeptics, and how Sufis have represented themselves on the Internet. Schmidt follows some of the webpages and discourse surrounding the Naqshbandiyya Sufi order represented by Sheikh Hisham Kabbani A central question that Schmidt poses is whether or not the Internet can convey the charisma which is so characteristic of Sufism. Internet pages are consultative in nature and have their utility and limitations. Schmidt makes a crucial observation that searches in cyberspace are comparable to the process of anthropological fieldwork. In this the anthropologist continually makes choices and selects contacts and materials, as to be compared with talking with individuals or attending meetings or events. Not being present or being there at a later point in time means withdrawing from the knowledge of a specific experience. The effect of such preconditions is crucial, affecting the creation of contacts within and the understanding of spaces of human interaction and knowledge, including spaces on the Internet. Schmidt notes that the webpages appear to be an important aspect for this branch of the Naqshbandiyya and her study is an interesting addition to understanding the phenomenon of the Internet and some of the ways in which it is used within and to describe contemporary Sufism.

Olav Hammar takes the reader again to a broader perspective in his essay “Sufism for Westerners,” and this provides an interesting contrast and overlapping perspective with the other essays having a broad perspective on Sufism. Hammar describes the intellectual impact on Sufism of some important Western individuals in Sufism, such as Fritjof Schuon, Agueli, Rene Guenon and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, as well as the history of the phenomenon of new religious movements, tracing some of the historical development since the nineteenth century. Hammar also describes the growth of the universal Sufism of Hazrat Inayat Khan and Sufism in literature. Hammar presents the contrast between “Islamic Sufism” and Western “neo-Sufism.”

Ian K. B. Draper provides a chapter describing the Sufi presence in Glastonbury, England, which is a location open to a number of new religious

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movements and spiritual alternatives. Draper describes not only the more liberal Chishtiyya, which in some ways opened an interest in Sufism, but a more detailed account of the Haqqaniyya Naqshbandis in Glastonbury. The article presents an interesting focus on how some Sufis have been engaging the contemporary British alternative spiritual context. In Glastonbury, Draper maintains there is evidence of a unique European Sufism which is neither wholly universal nor wholly traditional and engages significantly with Western spiritual paths and contributes to a rich diversity of British spirituality.

The select bibliography at the end is well-introduced with a mention of certain relevant webpages and suggests a good selection of bibliographies and books in general about Sufism, as well as country-specific sources.

As Westerlund notes, a majority of Europeans likely have a very limited knowledge of Sufism and Islam; they have begun to be seen as a great threat since September 11th, 2001. This book provides valuable insights and an overview both broadly and with a selection of detailed studies and should be useful for Muslims in the West wanting to know more about the phenomenon of Sufism for possible inter-Muslim encounter and dialogue and for non-Muslims interested in dialogue and encounter with members and adherents of these variegated movements in the West. For these purposes and for scholars of Islam and Islamic minorities wishing to attain a good overview of the phenomenon of Sufism in the West in its societal context, the book is a valuable contribution.

Kemal ArgonHartford SeminaryHartford, Connecticut

Towards Understanding the Qur’an: Abridged Version of Tafhim al-Qur’an

Translated and Edited by Zafar Ishaq AnsariThe Islamic Foundation, 2006, reprinted in 2007

Though many agree that it is a difficult task to find a translation of the Holy Qur’an that will serve everyone’s purpose, Muslims have been continuously attempting to provide possible alternatives. While the poetic tone and delicate language of some of the classic well-known translations is attractive, younger generations often struggle to grasp the meaning. The quest has been for a