styles of scientific reasoning, scientific practices and argument in science and science education

Jonathan Osborne

Graduate School of EducationStanford University

Styles of Scientific Reasoning, Scientific Practices and Argument in Science and Science Education

The History of Science

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“A history of vision and argument”

Crombie, Alistair Cameron. (1994). Styles of scientific thinking in

the European tradition: The history of argument and explanation

especially in the mathematical and biomedical sciences and arts

(Vol. 1): Duckworth London.

Crazy Ideas in Science

Day and Night is caused by a Spinning Earth

The Continents have moved

We have evolved from other animals

The Earth is 5 billion years old

Diseases are caused by tiny living organisms

We live at the bottom of a sea of air

You look like your parents because every cell carries a chemically coded message of how to reproduce yourself

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History of Science as a History of Error

Ptolemy’s geocentric universe,

Lamarkianism

The ether,

The Denial of Wegner/s Theory

Cold fusion

Phlogiston

Spontaneous generation,

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Styles of Reasoning in Science

1. Mathematical Deductive Logic

2. Experimental Exploration

3. Hypothetical Modeling

4. Categorization and Classification

5. Probabilistic and Statistical Thinking

6. Evolutionary/Genetic Explanations

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Crombie, Alistair Cameron. (1994). Styles of scientific thinking in the European tradition: The history of argument and explanation especially in the mathematical and biomedical sciences and arts (Vol. 1): Duckworth London.

Features

Style

Entities Procedural Enties

Epistemic Constructs

Heroes

Mathematical Deduction

ExponentsDifferentials

Geometry, Calculus Deductive proofPythagoras, Euclid, Newton, Maxwell, Einstein

Experimental Exploration

Intrumentation Control of VariablesObservations

Experimental TestsControls/RCT testing

Galileo

Hypothetical Modeling

Wave model of light Thought ExperimentsExplanatory coherence

Accuracy/ParsimonyGalileoBohr

Probabalistic and Stastical Thinking

Gaussian Distribution Statistical Testing Role of uncertainty Pascal, Gauss, Poisson, Cronbach

Categorization and Classfication

Species,ElementsRock Types

Criteria for Category Membership

The significance & role of classification

LinnaeusMendelev

Evolutionary/Genetic Reasoning

GeneAdaptationDNA

Genetic DeterminationRole of Observation and Inference

Mendel, Darwin

Teaching and Learning

Content Procedural

Epistemic

The Forms of Knowledge in Science

Content

Procedural

Epistemic

Teaching and Learning

Procedural Knowledge

• Concepts of Evidence

• Observation• Measurement• Instrumentation• Reliability/Validity• Variables/Fair Testing• Control of Variables

Epistemic Knowledge

• Ideas-About-Science

• Observation• Argument• Theory• Model• Hypothesis

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PISA 2015 Scientific Literacy Framework

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Elaboration of the Definition

•Explain phenomena scientifically:Recognise, offer and evaluate explanations for a range of natural

and technological phenomena.

•Evaluate and design scientific enquiry:Describe and appraise scientific investigations and propose ways of

addressing questions scientifically.

•Interpret data and evidence scientifically:Analyze and evaluate scientific data, claims and arguments in a variety

of representations and draw appropriate conclusions.

A scientifically literate person, therefore, is willing to engage in reasoned discourse about science and technology which requires the competencies to:

What is wrong with inquiry?

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Students describe objects and events, ask questions, construct explanations, test those explanations against current scientific knowledge, and communicate their ideas to others. They identify their assumptions, use critical and logical thinking, and consider alternative explanations. In this way, students actively develop their understanding of science by combining scientific knowledge with reasoning and thinking skills.

The Role of Argument in Science

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The Practices of Science

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1. Asking Questions and Defining Problems

2. Developing and Using Models

3. Planning and Carrying out Investigations

4. Analyzing and Interpreting Data

5. Using Mathematics and Computational Thinking

6. Constructing Explanations and Designing Solutions

7. Engaging in Argument from Evidence

8. Obtaining, Evaluating and Communicating Information

Thee Central Questions of Science

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1. What exists? (The ontological question)

2. Why does it happen? (The causal question)

3. How do we know? (The epistemic question)

2.Developing and Using Models

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Water Model of an Electric Circuit

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Bicycle Model of An Electric Circuit

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Bohr Model of the Atom

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3. Planning and Carrying Out Investigations

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A Teacher asked her students to investigate this problem:

How does temperature affect the time taken for sugar to dissolve?The students were asked to describe the investigation. These are some of the things they write. How clearly has each student described the investigation? And which is the best?

JEMMA: We have got to write down what we are going to do and then do it.

KIRSTY: We are looking to see how different temperatures affect how long it takes the sugar to dissolve.

EMMA: We are trying to see if sugar dissolves in water.

ANITA: We are adding sugar to hot and cold water to see how long it takes to dissolve

ALEX: We are trying to find the best temperature for dissolving sugar in water.

LOUISE: We have to put the same amount of sugar in water with different temperatures and see what happened


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(a) One pupil had the most breaths and she also had the highest pulse rate.

(b) All the people with a high breath rate had a high pulse rate.

(c) The higher your breathing rate, the greater the pulse rate.

(d) On the whole, those people with a higher breath rate had a higher pulse rate.

5. Using Mathematics & Computational Thinking

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1. Who is the tallest

2. Who is the smallest

3. What is the average?

6. Constructing Explanations

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Why do objects fall at the same rate in the absence of air?

• Gravity pulls on all objects

• If the mass is double, the pull of gravity will double

• Twice the mass takes twice as long to speed up

• Think of two objects, one twice as massive as the other

• Force is double but so is the mass

7. Engaging in Argument from Evidence

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7. Engaging in Argument from Evidence?

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Construction Critique&

Knowing why the wrong idea is wrong matters as much

as knowing why the right idea is right

THE MARRIED TASK

Peter looks at Linda

Linda looks at Henry

Peter is married

Henry is not married

Is this an example of someone who is married looking at someone who is not married?

YES NO CAN’T TELL

Argumentative Theory of Reasoning

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Humans are poor at reasoning

Group Discourse forces epistemic vigilance

Reasoning should work best when used in group contexts

Mercier, H., & Sperber, D. (2011). Why do humans reason? Arguments for an argumentative theory. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 34(02), 57-74.

Before

Day & Night Caused By A Spinning Earth?

Arguments For

Arguments

Against

After

Day & Night Caused By A Spinning Earth

50%

50%

How Likely? Ratio of 1:129

Before Teaching


After Teaching


Arguments For

Arguments

Against

66%

33%


Before Teaching


After Teaching


Arguments For

Arguments

Against

80%

20%


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Text

6 Arguments for Argument

Empirical Case

Moral Case

History of Science Case

Literacy Case

Pedagogical Case

Affective Case

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Arguments Against a Spinning Earth

1. The Sun moves from East to West during the day

2. If the Earth was spinning, you would not land on the same spot when you jump up.

3. If it was spinning, once a day, the speed at the equator would be over 1000 miles an hour. At that speed everybody would be flung off.

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8. Obtaining, evaluating and communicating information

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Science without Literacy is like a ship without a sail

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•Draw it

Phenomena

Ideas

Literacy Development

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Basic Literacy

Intermediate Literacy

Disciplinary Literacy

Theory of Reading in Science

Reading is a constructive

Dependent on interpretation

Principled

Good reader is a critical reader

Specific Challenges of Science Texts Density Academic Language Multi-modality Genre

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Summary and Conclusions

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Styles of Reasoning offer a rationale for the cultural value of science Content

Procedural

Epistemic Knowledge

The turn to practice is a move in the right direction

But??