study of neom city renewable energy mix and balance problem1251927/fulltext01.pdf · study of neom...

IN DEGREE PROJECT ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING,SECOND CYCLE, 30 CREDITS

, STOCKHOLM SWEDEN 2018

Study of NEOM city renewable energy mix and balance problem

MAJED MOHAMMED G ALKEAID

KTH ROYAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYSCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE AND THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

Study of NEOM cityrenewable energy mix andbalance problem

MAJED MOHAMMED G ALKEAID

Master in Electric Power EngineeringTRITA-ITM-EX 2018:655Date: September 26, 2018Supervisor: Rahmatollah KhodabandehExaminer: Rahmatollah KhodabandehSchool of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science

iii

Abstract

It is important for NEOM management in the contemporary worldto put in place NEOM projects using the available resources. The re-gion in which the NEOM project is spacious and vast with conditionssuited to generate energy from solar and wind. The NEOM projectis expected to be set up in the very resourceful state of Saudi Arabia.The purpose of the study is to assist in setting up a sustainable citythrough the exploitation of solar and wind energy. The aim of thestudy was to assist in the generation of more than 10 GW renewableenergy to replace approximately 80,000 barrels of fossil energy. Theproblem of coming up with renewable and sustainable energy fromthe unexploited sources is addressed. The renewable city is expectedto be a technological hub based on Green Energy with 100% renewableenergy, which is correspond to 72.4GW . Freiburg and Masdar as re-newable cities are used as case studies in the research. NEOM powergeneration capacity is capable to cover Saudi Arabia power genera-tion capacity (approximately 71GW ), which is more than enough fora city. The study reveals that the total power generation from windfarms, tidal farms, solar stations, and solar power tower stations are9.1373GW , 4.76GW , 57.398GW and 1.11GW respectively. Saudi Ara-bia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17 GW each) for energy pur-poses (total of 272 GW ), which will be part of Saudi Arabia nationalgrid and will be more than enough to cover NEOM electricity demandin case NEOM does not reach demand capacity. In case NEOM en-ergy does not meet the demand, electricity generation from 16 Nuclearpower plants generating 17GW each, and 6 Natural underground bat-teries with a capacity of 120MW each are recommended. The study re-sults can be applied in NEOM Institute of Science and Technology forfurther research on renewable energy. The findings can also be usedfor research extension of HVDC transmission lines between NEOMand Saudi Arabia main grid, Egypt, and Jordan.

Keywords : NEOM, Renewable, Energy, Solar, Wind, System, 100% re-newable, Sustainable, Futuristic, City, Saudi Arabia, Tidal, Solar PowerTower.

iv

Sammanfattning

Det är viktigt för NEOM projektets ledning att planera och införa pro-jektet med hjälp av förnybara energiresurser på plats. Regionen ärrymligt och stort och är en lämplig plats för att kunna generera tillräck-lig med energi från sol och vind för energiförsörjning av området. Syf-tet med studien är att studera en pågående planering och byggnationav en hållbar stad med upp till 10 GW förnybar energi som motsvararcirka 80 000 fat fossil bränsle. Problem och utmaningar för att försörjaen hel stad med förnybara energiresurser kommer att diskuteras. Denförnybara staden förväntas vara ett föredöme för 100% förnybar ener-gi , vilket i kapacitetssammanhang motsvarar 72.4GW , vilket är mertillräckligt än behovet för NEOM staden. Freiburg och Masdar städeranvänds som fallstudier i examensarbetet. NEOMs kraftproduktions-kapacitet kan täcka behovet av hela landet som uppgår till 71GW . Stu-dien visar att den totala kraftproduktionskapaciteten från olika för-nybara energiresurser såsom vindkraftparker, tidvattenanläggningar,solcellkraftverk och soltornskraftverk med en kapacitet av 9.1373GW ,4.76GW , 57.398GW och 1.11GW respektive kan uppgå till 72.4GW .Saudiarabien har planer på att skaffa 16 kärnkraftverk (17GW var-dera) med en total kapacitet på 272GW som kommer att ingå i Sau-diarabiens nationella satsningar för framtidens elproduktion och detkan täcka elbehovet om NEOM inte når efterfrågekapaciteten. Utöverovan har studien föreslagit 6 underjordiska batterier med en kapaci-tet på 120MW per batteri. Studieresultaten kan användas för kom-petensuppbyggnad och vidare forskning om förnybara energiresurserför NEOM Institute of Science and Technology. Resultaten kan ock-så användas för teknikutveckling och forskning inom HVDC- överfö-ringsledningar mellan NEOM, Saudiarabiens huvudnät, Egypten ochJordanien.

Keywords :NEOM, Förnybar, Energi, Sol, Vind, System, 100% Förny-bar, Hållbar, Futuristisk, Stad, Saudiarabien, Tidvatten, Solkraft Tower.

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Acknowledgement

I would first like to thank my thesis advisor Professor RahmatollahKhodabandeh of the Department of Energy Technology at KTH RoyalInstitute of Technology. Prof. Khodabandeh immense contribution inassisting me at different stages of my research writing has enabled meto advance smoothly from one part to another. Meanwhile, wheneverI encountered any issue, Prof. Khodabandeh was always there to of-fer guidance. Prof. Khodabandeh’s immense support, mentoring, andadvices allowed me to complete this thesis whilst removing all the hur-dles I faced by applying his great advisory skills.

I would also like to acknowledge Engineer Soliman Almohimeed atBright Vision Trading as the second reader of this thesis, and I amgratefully indebted for his very valuable comments on this thesis. Mr.Almohimeed truly helped me to refine my work for conciseness andbetter readability.

My sincere thanks also goes to Masdar City especially Faisal Alebri,for offering me the opportunity to visit Masdar City, leading me to theright sources, and answering my questions.

Finally, I must express my very gratitude to my parents and to mysiblings for providing me with unfailing support and continuous en-couragement throughout my years of study and through the processof researching and writing this thesis. This accomplishment would nothave been possible without them. Thank you.

AuthorMajed Mohammed Alkeaid

Contents

1 Introduction 11.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3 Relevance of the project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.4 Methodology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Review of the Literature 62.1 Renewable Energy Mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2 Renewable Energy Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82.3 100% Renewable city . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92.4 Solar system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

2.4.1 Solar system projects in the Middle East . . . . . . 112.4.2 Solar system projects in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 11

2.5 Wind Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.5.1 Wind Power Projects in the Middle East . . . . . . 142.5.2 Wind Power Projects in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 15

2.6 Solar Panels and Wind Turbines Compared . . . . . . . . 152.7 Methodologies used to Complete the Renewable Energy

Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.7.1 Generating Capacity of the Wind Turbine . . . . . 182.7.2 Generating Capacity of Solar Panel . . . . . . . . . 192.7.3 Combined Generating Capacity of the Wind Tur-

bine and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192.8 Smart Energy Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202.9 Challenges on the Implementation of Renewable Energy 202.10 Solution to the Challenges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.11 Renewable Energy Projects and Initiatives: Best Project

Done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

vi

CONTENTS vii

2.12 The Equipment that Make Wind Turbine and Solar CellsPossible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242.12.1 Wind Turbine Equipment Output during sum-

mer and winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.12.2 Solar Cells Equipment Output During Summer

and Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.12.3 Wind Turbine versus Solar Cells and their Out-

put During Summer and Winter . . . . . . . . . . 262.12.4 Amount of Power from Solar Panels and Wind

Turbines in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.13 What to Do If Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reach

the Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.13.1 Dealing with the Situation when there is no Wind

and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272.14 HVDC Transmission System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3 Case study of Freiburg, Germany renewable energy 303.1 How Germany Became a Clean Energy Efficient Country 313.2 Challenges Encountered in Implementing Renewable En-

ergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323.3 Capacities of Renewable Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . 353.4 The Best Energy Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation of renewable

energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.6 Freiburg, Germany Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . 393.7 Challenges that Faced the Implementation of Renew-

able Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393.7.1 How the Challenges were Solved . . . . . . . . . . 40

3.8 The Best Renewable Energy Projects that Freiburg hasDone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

3.9 Equipment that made the Green Revolution Possible . . 423.10 Power to be Supplied to other Cities by Freiburg . . . . . 433.11 Power Needed by Freiburg in Certain Situations . . . . . 43

3.11.1 Wind systems fail to reach the capacity . . . . . . 443.11.2 Solar system fails . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443.11.3 Both wind and solar systems fail . . . . . . . . . . 44

3.12 Dealing with the Problem of Shortages during Nights . . 443.13 HVDC Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

3.13.1 Germany’s HVDC Transmission Cable Length . . 45

viii CONTENTS

3.13.2 Electric Design of HVDC systems . . . . . . . . . 463.14 Electricity Pricing in Freiburg, Germany . . . . . . . . . . 483.15 Contingency plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493.16 Use of Clean Energy Solutions to Reduce Long-term En-

ergy Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

4 Case study of Masdar city renewable energy 544.1 Challenges in Implementing Renewable Energy in Mas-

dar City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554.2 Methodologies Masdar city used to complete the renew-

able energy project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574.3 Masdar Generating Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

4.3.1 Wind Turbine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594.3.2 Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594.3.3 Combined Generating Capacity of the Wind Tur-

bine and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594.4 Best Energy Solution for Masdar City that Made it Pow-

ered by Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604.5 Needs/challenges on the implementation of renewable

energy in Masdar City . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.5.1 Masdar City Renewable Energy Projects and Ini-

tiatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624.5.2 The Challenges that Faced the Implementation

of Renewable Energy in Masdar City . . . . . . . 634.5.3 Solutions to the Challenges Facing Masdar City . 634.5.4 The best Renewable Energy Projects that Masdar

City has done . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.6 Assessment of the Equipment that made the Project Pos-

sible . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.6.1 Kind of Wind Turbine and Solar Cells Equipment

Needed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644.6.2 Assessment of the Wind Turbine Equipment and

their Output during Summer and Winter . . . . . 654.6.3 Assessment of the Solar Cells Equipment and Their

Output During Summer and Winter . . . . . . . . 664.6.4 Comparison of the Equipment of the Wind Tur-

bine Versus Solar Cells and their Output DuringSummer and Winter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

CONTENTS ix

4.7 The Amount of Power that Masdar City can Deliver tothe State (other cities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

4.8 The Amount of Power Masdar City Can Receive fromthe State (other cities) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.8.1 Wind Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity . . . . . 684.8.2 Solar Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity . . . . . 684.8.3 Both Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reach

the Required Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 684.9 How Masdar City can Deal with this Scenario where

there is no Wind and Solar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694.10 HVDC Transmission between Masdar City and Other

Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694.10.1 How much time the Transmission occurs . . . . . 694.10.2 Electrical Design of HVDC Systems in Masdar City 70

4.11 Masdar Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.11.1 Transmission Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704.11.2 Transmission Tariff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714.11.3 Access to Parties Wanting to Connect to the Grid . 72

4.12 The Contingency Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5 Results and Analysis 755.1 Assumptions and considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 755.2 Challenges in implementing renewable energy in NEOM 77

5.2.1 Challenges and Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775.3 NEOM Generation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

5.3.1 Wind Turbine Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825.3.2 Tidal Turbine Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885.3.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power . . . . . . . . . . . 945.3.4 Solar Power Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

5.4 In case NEOM does not reach demand capacity . . . . . . 1225.4.1 Natural battery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.4.2 Nuclear Power Plants in Saudi Arabia . . . . . . . 127

6 Conclusions and Future Work 1326.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1326.2 Future Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

6.2.1 NEOM Institution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135

Bibliography 137

x CONTENTS

A MathCAD Calculations 151A.1 Wind Turbine Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151A.2 Tidal Turbine Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155A.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calculations . . . . . . . 159

List of Figures

1.1 NEOM location [137] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2.1 Renewable energy mix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72.2 Wind Power Generation and the Wake Interference [131]

82.3 Solar System [145] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102.4 KAPSARC Solar Park [77] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.5 PNBARU’s solar thermal plant [116] . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.6 Saudi Aramco Solar Car Park [133] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.7 KAUST’s 2 megawatts Solar-Plant [78] . . . . . . . . . . . 132.8 Wind Power System [18] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.9 Renewable Energy Project Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . 172.10 Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build [150] . . . . . . . . . 182.11 Multiple-Prime Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.12 Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System [4] . . . . . . . . . . . 202.13 Smart Energy Solutions [140] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.14 Smart Energy Solutions [140] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222.15 Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant [34] . . . . . . . 242.16 Iced Wind Turbines [84] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252.17 Ice on a Solar Panel [56] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262.18 Section of the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis [54] . . . . . 282.19 Power flow From Generation to the Consumption Point

through the HVDC Systems [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292.20 Detailed HVDC System [3] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3.1 Solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg [61] . . . . . . . 323.2 Household renewable energy source in Freiburg [112] . . 333.3 The Solar panels installations on private and public re-

sources in Freiburg, Germany [58] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363.4 Wind turbines near the border of Freiburg, Germany [58] 37

xi

xii LIST OF FIGURES

3.5 Solar panels being installed on a house [79] . . . . . . . . 383.6 Heliotrope, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany

[58] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403.7 SolarFabrik, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany

[124] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413.8 German citizens protesting against nuclear nukes [126] . 423.9 Design and equipment in Freiburg, Germany [60] . . . . 433.10 How energy is stored [144] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.11 Part of HVDC Baltic Cable [118] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463.12 How a basic HVDC system works [30] . . . . . . . . . . . 473.13 HVDC circuitry [67] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483.14 Basic structure of a residential HVAC system [65] . . . . 513.15 Annual energy consumption of a green community (Ar-

lington, Massachusetts) [9] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

4.1 The Knowledge Center at the Masdar Institute [86] . . . . 554.2 The view of concrete facade of the structures at the Mas-

dar Institute [86] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.3 Wind and Solar intermittency [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564.4 Illustrations of dirty solar panels due to accumulation

of dust [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574.5 The presentation of the master of Masdar City [86] . . . . 584.6 Wind turbines [101] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604.7 The feasibility comparison of various renewable ener-

gies within the GCC region [57] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614.8 Photos of the Masdar Institute Solar Platform [25] . . . . 624.9 Solar PV plant [49] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654.10 The electricity demand comparison [138] . . . . . . . . . 664.11 A simple diagram showing transmission and distribu-

tion system of electricity [1] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 714.12 Losses at every stage of electricity transmission [1] . . . . 724.13 The feed-in tariffs that are used in different nations around

the world [38] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73

5.1 Artificial wind farm in NEOM [106] . . . . . . . . . . . . 825.2 Wind turbine: swept area, blade length, and hub height . 855.3 Singe wind turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds . . . 875.4 Singe tidal turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds . . . 945.5 PV Panel [90] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965.6 . Components of PV system [90] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

LIST OF FIGURES xiii

5.7 PV system, its battery and grid connection [90] . . . . . . 995.8 Flow chart for PV module set-up [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . 995.9 Compounds in solar panels [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1005.10 Wave functions [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045.11 Basic circuit of PV [139] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1065.12 Grid connection [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1085.13 Overall classification and grid [96] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1125.14 Development of PV power generation in million kWh

2000-2012 [98] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1145.15 PV system prices decrease steadily [98] . . . . . . . . . . 1155.16 Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum power

points current and short circuit current vs. range of volt-ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

5.17 Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of cur-rents vs. range of voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

5.18 Artificial solar station in NEOM [106]. . . . . . . . . . . . 1185.19 Solar Power Tower system [66] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185.20 Thermal liquid heat storage capacity [46] . . . . . . . . . 1195.21 Large-scale PV Integration study [91] . . . . . . . . . . . . 1195.22 The Size of Heliostat Field and impact on Capacity [46] . 1205.23 Aerial view of Ivanpah Project [32] . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1215.24 PS20 solar thermal power plant, Spain [89] . . . . . . . . 1215.25 Airier view of Solar Two Power Plant in Daggett, CA

[93] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1225.26 Artificial solar power tower in NEOM [106]. . . . . . . . 1225.27 Design of Natural Battery Underground [102] . . . . . . . 1235.28 The site on which brine4power is been constructed [71] . 1265.29 The Design of brine4power [71] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1265.30 Design of Nuclear Power Plant [110] . . . . . . . . . . . . 1295.31 How nuclear power plants work. [110] . . . . . . . . . . . 129

A.1 Wind turbine data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152A.2 Wind turbine matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153A.3 Power curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154A.4 Tidal turbine data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156A.5 Tidal turbine matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157A.6 Power curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158A.7 Solar panel data and equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160A.8 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

xiv LIST OF FIGURES

A.9 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162A.10 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163A.11 Solar panel matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164A.12 Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum power

points current and short circuit current vs. range of volt-ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

A.13 Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of cur-rents vs. range of voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

List of Tables

5.1 Variables definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.2 Wind Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865.3 Total power vs. different wind speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 875.4 Tidal Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935.5 Total power vs. different tidal speed . . . . . . . . . . . . 935.6 PV solar Example Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

xv

Chapter 1

Introduction

This chapter introduces the background, problem statement, relevance of theproject, and the methodology of the thesis.

The world’s energy sector has been totally dependent on non-renewableforms of energy for eons. The most used form being crude oil that sofar has been the major source of energy in major stages of industrializa-tion. However, it is very evident with the forthcoming modernizationthat the consumption of this black gold may lead to its depletion inyears to come. Several types of research have been done and its evi-dent that the earth that we live in is blessed with a variety of energyforms which is yet to be exploited and adopted in our modern day liv-ing.

Renewable energy can be easily adopted. Also known as Green En-ergy, it encompasses Solar Energy and Wind Energy, which is very freeand in abundance. The two can generate enough energy that would,later on, supplement the monotonous use of crude oil with time ifproperly implemented in modern civilization ranging from Industri-alization to transport. Thus far, this project aims to bring about anoverview of this idea. We have seen so far how much crude oil and itsproducts run economies in cities. Then, why not come up with a citythat is totally dependent on green energy? NEOM will be the solution.A city that will seem futuristic as possible to many, with technologicaladvancement far out much better than the current [137].

1

2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

NEOM is a futuristic technological city that is to be built in Tabuk,Saudi Arabia to be connected to Egypt and Jordan. In a bid to re-duce the dependence on oil, being a non-renewable form of energy, theproject was introduced at the Future Initiative Conference in Riyadh[137]. The city seems futuristic as possible to many, with technologicaladvancement far out much better than the current. It will be governeddifferently with its separate laws and government systems. The Projectis worth $500 Billion Dollars and funding is to be propagated by thePublic Investment Fund of Saudi together with foreign investors [137].The Mega City will be fully dependent on 100% renewable energy. Itwould be almost comparable to cities like Norway and Iceland, whichis totally dependent on renewable electrical grids. In effect to that, it isexpected to lead to the construction of 100% green transportation.

1.2 Problem Statement

It is evident that ever since the dawn of industrialization that man hasbeen progressing exponentially and continuously improving himselffor efficiency. In the earlier years, we have been inclined to utilizenatural forms of energy so as to make our work easier by develop-ing machinery and tools. This has brought forth total dependence onit over time. For every action, there is a reaction and this evident bythe abuse and misuse of this limited resource. To add, ever since thediscovery of crude oil, we have seen the destruction of nature and en-vironmental resources. The carbon emission from factories and ourautomobiles is alarming. Cases of crude oil spillage have led to pollu-tion of marine habitat leading to the death of aquatic animals. We cansay that the more we have been utilizing this form of energy, the morewe have lost our discipline in environmental conservation and yet weare seemingly dependent on it.

With all this evidence, it necessary to say that apart from depletion ofthat non-renewable form of energy, we are followed by the aftermatheffect of it by polluting where we live. This study is set to address thisproblem by coming up with a unique approach to providing ourselvesenergy, by using the free energy that we have in plenty. It also comes

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 3

with a futuristic approach to developing a new form of industrializa-tion and new forms of governance. NEOM city will be a technologicalhub totally dependent on Green Energy [23]. Thus should be able tolift the weight faced on the usage of Crude oil by an estimated 5% peryear if it is to be implemented. Pollution will also be a thing of the pastas Green Energy is also clean energy. The main objective of the projectis to develop NEOM city in a manner that it can sustainably maintainitself. The city should be self-reliant in terms of energy power and itscompletion should give birth to a new blueprint of sustainable life.

1.3 Relevance of the project

NEOM project is expected to be set up in the very resourceful stateof Saudi Arabia. This region is very spacious and vast with condi-tions best suited to generate volumes of energy from Solar energy andwind energy. With Saudi Arabia expected to generate more than 10GW per year of Renewable Energy from solar and wind, it is expectedto replace about 80,000 barrels per day from burned power. Solar en-ergy has become extensively popular in Saudi Arabia ever since theincrease in oil prices over time. That is why the location best suits theproject.

The project is estimated to record an average of 5700Wh/m2 to 6300Wh/m2

from lowest areas and highest areas of the region. 7300Wh/m2 in theclearest of skies [51]. Though it has been extrapolated that most pho-tovoltaic cells may degrade performance at the highest of temperature(Above 30 ◦C). The research above is inclined to the various measure-ments in the radiation in the region. Wind Energy has already gainedpopularity with companies like Siemens AG taking about most ma-jor projects in Saudi Arabia. Many studies have been carried aboutSaudi Arabia’s Wind energy potential. Though not extensively cov-ered in major parts of the region. This is because challenges have beenposted on major parts of the Arabian Penisula with regards to integrat-ing wind energy into existing power systems.

However, in the design consideration, wind energy is extrapolated bywind power per air density meaning the size of the blade of the turbinematters when one opts to incline with that form of renewable energy.

4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

With wind energy still an ongoing research at various institutes thatdeal with Natural renewable energy, solar energy is arguably the mostconvenient form of renewable energy that NEOM will rely on thusfar [24]. Solar Energy in Saudi Arabia is averaged to generate about2000kW/h/m2/year of energy [6]. One wind turbine is expected to en-ergize about 250 homes which are equivalent to about 18000 barrelsof oil or about 2.75 MW thus reducing intake of electricity from thenational grid [152]. NEOM is expected to extend into the NorthernEgyptian territory thus far including Tiran and Sanafir Island as wellas North Sinai. It is expected that both Jordan and Egypt will benefitfrom the extent of energy generation in this city since both countriesare allies. Due to lead dissimilarities in the load times, both partieswill have a fair share of the cake by sharing electricity in both coun-tries thus improving each country. Figure 1.1 shows the location ofNEOM city.

Figure 1.1: NEOM location [137]

Therefore, with an onset of renewable energy utilization on the trend, Ifeel that NEOM is the future and most nations should follow suit withthe abundance of renewable energy yet to be explored deeper.

1.4 Methodology

The NEON project being carried out by Saudi Arabia is still in its in-fancy stages as the government is in the process of laying the ground

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 5

for kick off. Therefore, this project will involve a qualitative studywhere most of the information will be based on non-numerical andunquantifiable elements obtained from secondary sources. In that, thecore mode of conducting research will involve literature review study.The study will be used to collect information regarding such projectsglobally and compare it with what Saudi Arabia is trying to accom-plish.

The thesis is divided into 6 chapters. After this introduction, Chap-ter 2 surveys the literature on sustainable Energy, renewable energymix, renewable energy balance. It also remarks the concepts of 100%renewable city, solar and wind systems.

Chapter 3 intends to describe Freiburg, Germany renewable energy. Itstarts by presenting the challenges that encountered in implementingrenewable energy in Freiburg, Germany. Then the methodologies usedto complete the renewable energy project and the generating capacityare highlighted. The chapter ends by talking about the electricity pric-ing and contingency plan.

Chapter 4 introduces the case study of Masdar city renewable energy.It starts by explaining the challenges that encountered in implement-ing renewable energy. Then the methodologies used to complete therenewable energy project and the generating capacity are highlighted.The chapter ends by talking about Masdar electricity (transmissionlosses and tariff) and contingency plan.

Chapter 5 concentrates on results and analysis. It starts by explain-ing the assumptions and considerations. It also shows the calculationsof Wind Turbine and Solar Power.

In the last chapter, it shows the derived conclusions with recommen-dations on future work.

Chapter 2

Review of the Literature

The literature review describes and analyzes previous research on the topic.This chapter surveys the literature on sustainable Energy, renewable energymix, renewable energy balance. It also remarks the concepts of 100% renew-able city, solar and wind systems.

Energy plays a critical role in human life and development; its genera-tion, supply, and usage have significant impact on social, political, andeconomic needs. However, fossil energy, which includes coal, is notonly unsustainable but also lead to environmental degradation [145].Therefore, it is imperative to look for alternative sources of energy thatare sustainable and environmentally friendly to reduce the risks asso-ciated with global warming and climate change.

Sustainable energy sources such as wind and solar are the way to goif the world is to be more stable for the current and future generations[145]. The concept, in this case, indicates the application of systems,technology, and resources that support the production and supply ofunconventional energy. The shift from the non-renewable to renew-able energy sources is driven by three fundamental objectives. Thefirst intention is to facilitate the preservation of the essential naturalsystems upon which catastrophic climate change would be avoided.The second objective is to assist in making it possible for a large num-ber of people who have no access to conventional energy to enjoy thebasic energy and related services. The third objective of upholdingthe sustainable energy is to reduce the security risks arising from thecompetition for energy resources such as oil and natural gas.

6

CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 7

2.1 Renewable Energy Mix

Renewable energy is the form/type of energy derived from naturalprocesses such as sunlight and wind power. The percentage of theworld energy sourced from renewable sources in 2012 was around13.2% of the total supply, which increased to 22% in 2013 and is pro-jected to be about 26% in 2020. According to International EnergyAgency, the goal to achieve efficient energy supply, which is depen-dent on the renewable energy mix exploited [69]. Therefore, the stake-holders should seek to exploit the different sources of renewable en-ergy, including wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, and biomass. The op-timal exploitation of the mix is necessary because of the variability ofthe power generation due to changes in weather patterns. The sourceswould, therefore, complement each other. For instance, at the seasonswhen the sunlight is relatively low, the wind energy can be relied up.The diversification of energy mix through the increased investment inrenewable energies is considered as the opportunity to increase energysecurity. Figure 2.1 shows the renewable energy mix.

Renewabe Energy Mix

Wind Power

Biomass

Hydro-electric Power

Solar Power

Geothermal

Figure 2.1: Renewable energy mix

8 CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.2 Renewable Energy Balance

The optimal exploitation of renewable energy requires the balancingact to avoid the underlying areas of conflict. In regard to wind en-ergy, a significant attention is drawn in regard to disputes over windrights, wind severance statutes, and the conflict between wind plantand wildlife. The wildlife concerns entail the likelihood of unneces-sary noise from the wind power plants, which is likely to scare awaywild animals and interfere with their bleeding patterns. The turbineblades may harm birds and bats by injuring or killing them. The so-lar panel systems are also associated with the interference with thewildlife and their habitats, including the desert tortoises, squirrels,lizards, and toads [131]. The ambition to generate energy should bedone in consideration to the need for wildlife conservation.

In the wind energy production, parties are involved in many conflicts,including the right to tap the power and the associated interference.Different parties may be interested in exploiting the potential blowingalong a given line. In other cases, the downwind developers expe-rience relatively weak strength of wind due to wake-based setbacksfrom other developed setups. For instance, in figure 2.2, the Predom-inant and strong wind flow to Plant A hence able to drive the turbineand generate a substantial amount of energy. However, the turbinesin Plant A break the strength of the wind and hence Plant B does notget the strong wind to generate electricity. The strength of the windstabilizes after Plant B and blow predominantly strong. The investorsor owner of Plant B and Plant A are likely to engage in disputes [131].However, the primary issue, in this case, is that the plants were not setin consideration to the need for the balance between the distances be-tween the plants such that the wake impacted wind can stabilize andregain the strength. Figure 2.2 shows the wind power generation andthe wake interference.

Figure 2.2: Wind Power Generation and the Wake Interference [131]


2.3 100% Renewable city

Cities or urban centers contribute to the increased environmental degra-dation due to commercial activities, including transportation, industri-als operations, and residential wastes. According to the City of Van-couver, renewable city is associated with the consumption of renew-able energy while at the same time respecting the principles of sustain-ability [123]. The renewable cities are particularly driven by the matu-rity in the renewable energy technology. The focus areas upon whichrenewable cities are built include buildings, transportation, economy,people, and environment. Buildings for both residential and commer-cial operations are consumption points to a large portion of energy forlight, powering machines, heating, and cooling. Meeting the electricneeds in the buildings from solar panels, wind, and hydro projectsis highly recommended as a component of 100% renewable energy.Transportation in a renewable city is largely powered through envi-ronmentally responsibly sourced fuels such as biofuels, electricity, andrenewable natural gas.

A 100% renewable city is also characterized with the support fromthe people. In this case, the residents in their diversity are requiredto support the development of relevant technology, energy generationand supply and consumption of the alternative/renewable sources ofenergy. Furthermore, the economy of the given city should be strongand dynamic to facilitate the investment in renewable energy gener-ation and consumption. The economy must be attractive to both thelocal and foreign investors in the energy sector. Lastly, the environ-ment must be favorable with the abundance of the necessary naturalresources to support the generation of alternative energy [123]. Forinstance, the solar energy should be exploited for all the number ofhours the city is under sunlight while the wind strength should be re-liable for effective generation of wind energy. At times, a 100% renew-able city is required to collaborate with the neighboring communitiesin which landscape and natural resources are viable for the generationof the renewable energy.

The City of Vancouver provides the guidelines on the three key com-ponents and strategic approaches collectively required in facilitatingtransition to energy and later to 100% renewable cities. The first pillar


is the reduction of the energy use for the purpose of conservation andreduction of greenhouse effect [123]. For instance, the managementin the city should improve bike network and encourage residents touse the bicycles for transit purposes. The second pillar is the increasein the use of renewable energy by switching to the already availableforms of renewable energy to the full potential. The third pillar is toincrease supply of the renewable energy to make it accessible to boththe commercial and domestic users.

2.4 Solar system

A solar system is a structure used in converting the heat and light fromthe sun into energy. The light energy is generated using the Solar PV[145]. The solar cells are made of PV material, which when exposedto light tend to transfer electrons between the different bands in thematerial. Consequently, the differences between two electrodes arise,leading to the flow of the direct current. The solar PVs are used invarious applications, including buildings, solar farms, and auxiliarypower supply. However, the utilization of the PVs requires that thedirect current be run through an inverter and a corresponding relayprotection. In addition, since the PV energy can only be generated onlyduring the daytime specifically when there is sunlight, the reliabilityof solar PV is, therefore, relatively low. However, technology is usedsuch that the energy generated during the pick hours and seasons isstored in batteries and consumed during the off-peak hours when PVsare not available. Figure 2.3 shows a solar system.

Figure 2.3: Solar System [145]


The solar panel is also used in the conversion of solar energy into ther-mal/heat energy. In this case, the panels are made of three collectors,including the low, medium, and high thermal collectors. The differ-ent collectors depend on the temperature levels. According to Borlase,low-temperature collected through the low thermal collectors is usedin heating swimming pools, and the middle collectors are used in heat-ing water and air in a building, while high-temperature collectors arelargely used in electric energy production [18]. Importantly, the solarpanels are able to produce electricity even during the daytime whenthere is no sunlight as long as the temperature is high. The electricitygenerated is transferred through conduction to the point of use, stor-age, or connection to the grid.

2.4.1 Solar system projects in the Middle East

According to Majzoub, solar energy is gaining ground in the MiddleEast. In 2015, Dubai launched a 200 MW solar plant targeted to gener-ate 3,000 MW by 2030, which will be 15% of the total energy demand[95]. At the same time, Jordan awarded contracts for 12 solar projects,whose completion in 2018 will contribute to 1,800 MW into the na-tional grid. These are among the projects in the Middle East coun-tries, which are a clear indication of the fact that the exploitation of thesolar energy would lead to significant diversification of energy fromprimarily fossil energy-dependent to a system mixed with substantialsustainable energy.

2.4.2 Solar system projects in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia has mega projects in which solar system plans are be-ing carried out. The Saudi Arabia Solar Industry Association (SASIA)identifies four of the projects which would be used as benchmark de-velopments that will come up in the country and beyond in the future.The first project is the KAPSARC (King Abdullah Petroleum Studiesand Research Center) Solar Park. It is located in Riyadh and has thepeak power generation capacity of 3.5 megawatts. The project is thelargest grounded scheme in the country. After the project completionand full capacity, the park is expected to generate about 5,800 MWh ofenergy. Consequently, it will offset about 4,900 tons of carbon releasedin the atmosphere annually. Figure 2.4 shows KAPSARC Solar Park.


Figure 2.4: KAPSARC Solar Park [77]

The second solar system project identified is Princess Noura Bint AbulRahman University’s (PNBARU) solar thermal plant. It is a fully oper-ational project with about 36,305 square meters of panels. The projectproduces heat energy used in providing over 900,000 liters of hot wa-ter. About $14 million were spent in investment, which serves morethan 40,000 students and staff in the university. Figure 2.5 shows PN-BARU’s solar thermal plant.

Figure 2.5: PNBARU’s solar thermal plant [116]

The third solar system project in Saudi Arabia is Saudi Aramco SolarCar Park. It is the largest solar plant in the country. The project is lo-cated in Dhahran and produces about 10 megawatt Photovoltaic Car-port System occupying 4,500 parking spaces. Figure 2.6 shows SaudiAramco Solar Car Park.

KAUST Solar Park is the other significant project in Saudi Arabia. Thesolar park has a capacity of 2 megawatts. The panels are placed on


Figure 2.6: Saudi Aramco Solar Car Park [133]

the rooftop of King Abdullah University of Science and Technology(KAUST). It is the first project in the Kingdom to be LEED Platinumcertified. Figure 2.7 shows KAUST’s 2 MW Rooftop Solar-Plant.

Figure 2.7: KAUST’s 2 megawatts Solar-Plant [78]

2.5 Wind Power

Wind power is generated through the conversion of wind energy bythe turbines into electricity. According to Borlase, wind power hasbeen used over the centuries notably for the sailing of ships [18]. How-ever, the appetite for renewable energy has increased the generation


and utilization of the alternative energy in recent times than any othertime in the past. The primary success factor for the wind power gener-ation is the speed of the wind. The technology is preferred because itoffers 100% green energy, but it is not a reliable source of energy, par-ticularly because of the fluctuations in the speed of wind. At the timewhen the wind is not powerful, the power is not generated. However,when it is peak hours and seasons, a lot of energy can be produced.In fact, with the appropriate installation of battery energy storage, thereliability of wind power system is enhanced. The energy stored inthe batteries is usable during the wind -off-peak period. On the otherhand, the energy can be connected to grid to complement electricityfrom other sources. Figure 2.8 shows Wind Power System.

Figure 2.8: Wind Power System [18]

2.5.1 Wind Power Projects in the Middle East

Tafila Wind Farm in Jordan is one of the mega wind power projects inthe Middle East. The 117MW wind farm produces 400 GWh of electri-cal energy annually. The project was a step towards the target of 10%of energy from renewable energy by 2020 [114]. Wind turbines in theproject will supply about 3.5% of the annual electricity consumption inthe country. Besides, the wind power plant is expected to save aboutUS$50 million every year as a result of reduced importation of electric-ity by the Jordanian government.

The second mega power project in the region is the Gulf of ElZayt


Wind Farm in Egypt. The project is regarded as the largest in the Mid-dle East so far [35]. The other notable wind project in the Middle Eastis located in Oman. The project is undertaken by Masdar in collabo-ration with GE and Spain TSK. The 50 megawatt Dhofar Wind PowerProject is expected to serve more than 16,000 homes [2]. Consequently,it will reduce about 110,000 tons of carbon dioxide emitted every year.According to Kassem, the project was compelled by the economic im-plication felt by Oman during the oil glut.

2.5.2 Wind Power Projects in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is in the early stages of exploiting wind energy. It re-ceived the first wind turbine in 2016, which was the collaboration withSaudi Aramco and GE. The turbine was located in Turaif Bulk Plant,in the north-west region of the country. According to Saudi Aramco,it was a groundbreaking project towards the continuous explorationand generation of wind energy in the country. Subsequently, the coun-try offered a contract for the building of 400 megawatts wind powerplant in the northern area of Domat al-Jandal. The project is one of 30renewable energy projects the Ministry of Energy is willing to investto achieve 10% of the total power consumed from the sustainable en-ergy sources [94]. Nevertheless, Saudi Arabia does not have in placeas much wind power projects as the solar power projects which arealready functional, which is because the Gulf region has the highestsolar potential in the world.

2.6 Solar Panels and Wind Turbines Com-pared

The exploitation of solar and wind power is a noble course, with alot of benefits, including reduced cost of energy generation and theconservation of the environment. However, the two sources of energyare different in various ways, including the underlying cons and pros.The pairing of the two sources of energy can assist an investor or aresidence in deciding on the option to uphold. The wind turbines canbe considered advantageous because of the capability to produce elec-tricity during the day and night. Contrary to this, solar panels wouldonly be used in power generation during the day when there is ample


sunlight. Therefore, solar panels are not economical for power gener-ation in areas where there is a lesser exposure to sunlight. However,the wind turbines should be located at high heights above any possi-ble obstacles. Furthermore, wind turbines are not suitable in regionswith a large number of birds and bats. The moving turbines can causeinjuries and death, and hence a threat to the ecosystem.

The solar panels do not require substantial maintenance. They areusually stationed with no movable parts, hence no issues of wear andtear. The only important aspect required is to clean the panels to re-move possible particulate elements on the surface. Conversely, windturbines require regular maintenance and repair. The system has mov-able parts, particularly the joints between the vertical posts and thepropellers where wear and tear takes place substantially.

The two power generating systems are dependent on weather pat-terns, and hence their capacities would fluctuate. As wind turbinescannot generate power when the wind strength and speed is low, thesolar panels, on the other hand, are unreliable without adequate sun-light. The effectiveness and reliability of the two systems in electric-ity supply is enhanced by installation of power storage batteries. Thepower generation of the two systems does not require storage afterthe production because it is regarded as a renewable source. Increasedscale of production from the system should be encouraged and theexcess amount connected to the grids. Evidently, neither of the twosystems is perfect, hence the investors and residences interested in thealternative energy should consider the nature and weather patterns todetermine the most appropriate method.

2.7 Methodologies used to Complete the Re-newable Energy Projects

The methodologies required in the completion of renewable energyprojects involve the assessment to determine the viability and the se-lection of the project delivery system. The first phase is eligibility as-sessment, which can be positive or negative. A project that is consid-ered illegible is avoided while the one that has positive outcome is sub-jected to the next step of the assessment [33]. In the second phase, as-


pects of concentration include technical, economic, and social-environmental.Data is collected from the various stakeholders or interested partiesthrough a survey to assist in decision-making on whether the projectwould attract the necessary support for its effective implementationand consequently to completion [33]. Figure 2.9 shows Renewable En-ergy Project Assessment.

Figure 2.9: Renewable Energy Project Assessment

Just like any other project, a renewable energy project requires theadoption of the best project delivery method. A project owner is ex-pected to understand the available methods upon which the imple-mentation contract would be based. The three primary delivery meth-ods include design-bid-build, design-build, and multiple-prime meth-ods. In the Design-bid-build model, the project owner designs theproject through its experts or external engines and call for bids fromcontractors to complete the project. The competitive bid attracts in-terested contractors where the owner selects the contractor who meetsthe intended needs and quality [150]. The method is considered ap-propriate when the project owner is certainly aware of the intendedproject features and that there are numerous contractors with the ca-pability and interest in the project.

The Design-build is adopted when the project owner can only describethe project, but unable to design appropriately. The contractor, in thiscase, is required to design the project and build it accordingly. Theselection of the contractor is primarily based on their ability to designand build the project; hence no competitive bidding is required. Fig-ure 2.10 shows the Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build.Lastly, multiple-prime method involves several players in the threephases of project. The players include the owner who engages the de-signer and specialty contractors [83]. The owner has the control overthe entire project; all the contractors report to the owner. It is impera-tive for the owner to have the detailed aspects of the technical specificsof the business. Figure 2.11 shows the Multiple-Prime Method.


Figure 2.10: Design-Bid-Build and Design-Build [150]

Owner

Designer/architecture

Project Manager

Contractors

Figure 2.11: Multiple-Prime Method

2.7.1 Generating Capacity of the Wind Turbine

The power generating capacity of a wind turbine is fundamentally in-fluenced by the speed of wind. According to Stiebler, the amount ofpower a turbine is able to deliver is a function of the tip speed ratio[143]. This aspect implies that the wind velocity and rationality arecritical determinate of the energy output. In addition, to the velocityof the wind, the flexibility of the wind turbine to rotate at the mini-mum flow of the wind plays a central role. The ability rotation capa-bility and speed is critical because it determines the strength of kineticenergy created and transferred into direct current (D/C) energy. Inother words, the wind turbine should be positioned in a strategic placewhere there is a constant flow of wind at high speed and for a rela-tively long time. Furthermore, the system can give the optimal outputin places without wind flow obstacles such as trees or buildings.


2.7.2 Generating Capacity of Solar Panel

The solar panel capacity in power generation is dependent on threefactors. First, the sunlight and solar radiation should be adequate.Therefore, a panel is expected to have a high output during the sunnyand hot day, and a relatively low output at night and on cloudy days.The second fact is the selection of the site. For instance, a panel on therooftop of a build surrounded by tall trees is likely to have a relativelylow power generation due to the obstruction of the sunlight and radia-tion by the shadows of the trees. The other fact is the internal capacityof the solar panel cells. Breeze states that a single silicon solar cell canproduce about 2 to 3 W of power equivalent to about at least 3 to 5 Abatteries at 0.6 V [21]. It means that the capacity of a panel can be de-termined by the size and number of silicon cells. It implies that a solarpanel of 40 solar cells in a series has the capacity of output of about24W.

2.7.3 Combined Generating Capacity of the Wind Tur-bine and Solar

The capability of both the wind turbine and solar fluctuate depend-ing on weather patterns. The implication is that the supply of energyfrom the two sources may not be relied upon. Consequently, a hybridsystem combining the solar and wind power systems has been devel-oped. According to Tog, the two sources of power are intermittentgeneration due to periodic fluctuations. The hybrid system comple-ments the output of the two systems for steady energy supply [45][146]. For instance, at night when the power generated from the so-lar panel is relatively low, or there is none, the wind turbine would berelied upon. Besides, the system is arranged in such a way that whenthe two systems are generating power, the excess is stored in batter-ies and used during the low generation intervals. The combination,in this case, is also triggered by the amount of energy needed for theload/work for which the power is needed. For instance, a utility thatcannot depend on the generation capacity of one of the sources cancombine the two for better results. From figure 2.12, it is clear that theenergy generated from both the solar panel and wind turbine is put to-gether in a combined converter and transferred into the battery bankready for consumption or transmission into a grid. Figure 2.12 shows


Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System.

Figure 2.12: Wind/Solar Hybrid Power System [4]

2.8 Smart Energy Solutions

Smart energy solutions are the initiatives adopted to ensure that therenewable energy sources are exploited and that the usage of energytakes place efficiently. From figure 2.13 below, the renewable energyis associated with diversification of energy sources for self-sufficiency.Efficiency in energy consumption is a function of energy managementsystem, storage, and charging system [140]. Figure 14 identifies smartenergy solutions such as engineering, tools and software, procurementexpertise, and planning in construction among others.

2.9 Challenges on the Implementation of Re-newable Energy

Despite the increased awareness of the need for the shift from the con-ventional sources of energy to the renewable and sustainable sources,the implementation is faced with challenges. The challenges reducethe rate at which the renewable resources are exploited [53]. The firstchallenge is the fluctuation or lack of supportive natural componentsrequired for power generation. For instance, some countries, partic-ularly in Northern Europe have weather patterns, which are largelycold with limited sunlight. Consequently, it would be challenging or


Figure 2.13: Smart Energy Solutions [140]

impossible to generate solar energy. Similarly, the fluctuation in windand sunlight intervals makes it hard for a steady generation of energy.

The second challenge is the lack of knowledge and skills . The im-plementation of the renewable energy systems is a technical undertak-ing. Individuals and firms without the knowledge of the technologyrequired and from where to outsource reduces the opportunity for itsimplementation [53]. Consequently, potential exploiters of the alterna-tive energy sources are discouraged.

The shift from the conventional to renewable sources of energy is dra-matic and interruptive to systems build over the years. The stakehold-ers in the conventional energy consider the sustainable energy as athreat to their business and hence politicize renewable energy projects.Some of the stakeholders are highly influential due to the wealth ac-cumulated over the years through the conventional fuel sources. As aresult, investors are discouraged due to the threat of project failure asa result of such forces.

The governments across the world have immense influence and role toplay in regard to the uptake of the renewable energy in their respectivejurisdiction. Government policy on the concept should be supportiveto enhance the uptake of technology for optimal utilization of the en-abling resources [53]. However, governments in many countries donot have in place the policy framework to attract potential investors


Figure 2.14: Smart Energy Solutions [140]

in renewable energy resources. Furthermore, as it is evident from theanalysis, large-scale renewable energy projects require huge amountof capital and would largely depend on the financial support of thegovernment. The absence of the policy framework is a challenge be-cause it hinders public-funding on projects while the private sectorsare unable or unwilling to fund.

Lack of social acceptance and support of the renewable energy projectsis the other challenge. Some of the natural renewable energy resourcesare inaccessible because they are owned by communities and familieswho are not willing to allow investors to set up resources. Besides,there is the absence of social pressure to the government and privatefirms to invest in the renewable energy plants [53]. The society is yetto devise mechanisms of rewarding entities upholding sustainable en-ergy technology and exploiting the available resources while punish-ing noncompliance.

2.10 Solution to the Challenges

The challenges identified should be addressed to assist in boosting theuptake of the renewable energy technology. The first solution is thatgovernments should put in place favorable legal and policy frame-work in regard to exploration, investment and exploitation of renew-


able energy resources. Consequently, both the domestic and foreigninvestors would be attracted to the sector, hence increasing the gen-eration and usage of the green energy. The governments should alsobe committed to research and engage in development activities withthe purpose of facilitating appropriate mapping of the resources to beexploited. The findings from the research will also provide the inputto the policy and legal framework and form the basis of supportiveinfrastructural development to make the resources accessible.

The public-private partnership approach is a potential solution to thechallenge associated with the high initial cost of renewable energyprojects. The partnership would make it possible to raise huge amountsof capital for the investment on mega projects producing large amountof sustainable energy [53]. Furthermore, financial institutions shouldredesign their credit facilities to assist in financing both the domesticand commercial (small and large) renewable energy projects. The ac-cessibility of the funds would increase the demand for the renewableenergy equipment and systems, which is likely to attract more suppli-ers. In other words, this means that the challenge of reaching out tosuppliers would be addressed.

Lastly, the efforts to increase the exploitation of green energy wouldbe futile if the people in the society are not enlightened. The effortsto enhanced public awareness are therefore an imperative solution tothe problem going forward. Nongovernmental organizations and therelevant government agencies should work together in ensuring thatmembers of the public are aware of options or opportunities of sus-tainable energy [53]. The knowledge would also assist in triggeringthe social demand for compliance to green energy requirements to theprivate sector operators.

2.11 Renewable Energy Projects and Initia-tives: Best Project Done

Despite the challenges identified as hindrances to the exploitation ofrenewable energy, various projects have been done across the world.However, one of the best projects is the Ouarzazate solar power plantin Morocco, within the Sahara desert. The first phase of the project was


completed in May 2016, with the capacity of producing 160 megawattsof power [34]. The project was projected to occupy about 6,000 acres by2018, with the output of 580 megawatts. The energy produced wouldbe adequate for 1.1 million people, making it the largest renewable en-ergy project. Each of the solar panel mirrors is 40 feet tall, focusinglight and radiations into steel pipeline carrying synthetic thermal oilsolution. In this case, the oil solution is heated to about 740 ◦F; thehead is used in creating steam, which is then used in driving turbinesused in the creation of electricity [34]. The plant is strategically orga-nized such that the heat can be maintained at high levels and createselectricity even at night making it a reliable source of energy. Figure2.15 shows Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant.

Figure 2.15: Phase 1 of Ouarzazate Solar Power Plant [34]

2.12 The Equipment that Make Wind Turbineand Solar Cells Possible

Apart from the differences in the type of the solar cells and wind tur-bines, the amount of power generated is dependent on the numberand size of panels and turbines. However, the two systems requiresimilar equipment for the power generation from the wind and sun-light to be possible. First, the systems require batteries, which are usedfor the storage of electricity as it is generated from the panels and tur-bines for later usage. The second component is the charger controller


used in directing the amount of power flowing into the batteries toprevent overcharging [39]. The system meter is also relevant, and it isused in monitoring the amount generated and consumption rate. Theinverters and converters are used in the conversion of the current fromthe AC to DC or vice versa. AC breaker panel is part of the solar andwind power systems to break the high voltage power from the grid asit enters into the consumption point (homes and utilities).

2.12.1 Wind Turbine Equipment Output during sum-mer and winter

The output from the wind turbine equipment during the winter sea-sons is relatively low compared to during summer. The low temper-atures and icing during winter affect the electrical equipment and lu-bricant at the propelling joints. The propellers covered by ice becomerelatively heavier and inflexible. Furthermore, the cold weather is con-sidered heavy, hence reducing the speed of wind [84]. Therefore, theoutput from wind system is significantly lower during winter com-pared to summer where the wind blow at fairly high speed and theturbines perform optimally. Figure 2.16 shows Iced Wind Turbines.

Figure 2.16: Iced Wind Turbines [84]

2.12.2 Solar Cells Equipment Output During Summerand Winter

If we take the state of California as an example, we can see that the so-lar cells in a good day in summer are 14-kilowatt hours [136]. Duringwinter, an average output on cloudless day will yield about 7.5 kWh,but in a rainy day, the average production drops to as low as 2.1 kWh.However, at times, it is hard for the solar cells to generate even 1 kWh


of power. The poor output during winter is associated with low sun-light exposure and radiation as well as obstruction by snow as shownon figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17: Ice on a Solar Panel [56]

2.12.3 Wind Turbine versus Solar Cells and their Out-put During Summer and Winter

Evidently, the generation of power from wind and solar systems ishighly influenced by the changes in weather patterns. However, apartfrom the mechanical issues, the wind turbines are likely to generatepower during the winter as long as the wind speed is appropriatelyhigh. However, clouds, rain, and icing reduces the capability of solarpanels significantly, to as low as below 1 kWh, which is the case in thestate of Alaska [26].

2.12.4 Amount of Power from Solar Panels and WindTurbines in Saudi Arabia

Saudi Arabia is highly committed to the exploitation of renewable en-ergy with an aggressive investment of $109 billion. The objective ofthe investment is to ensure that about a third of the domestic energydemand is generated from the renewable energy. Although the cur-rent output from solar and wind are not published, the national en-ergy plan in 2013 was to generate 41 GW and 9 GW from solar andwind power respectively [107]. The statistics, in this case, reveal that


although the country was dependent on conventional energy sources,the commitment is changing towards bringing on board the renewableenergy into the national energy mix.

2.13 What to Do If Wind and/or Solar Sys-tems Fail to Reach the Capacity

It is important to note that both the wind and solar systems may failto reach the energy capacity as expected. In case the solar systems donot meet the expectations, the first step is to establish whether the so-lar panels are made of the materials required for optimal output. Theassessment can lead to the replacement of the panels. However, if thepanels have the capacity required, the setting in terms of the exposureto sunlight should be evaluated and rearranged. Wind data shouldbe used to evaluate a potential location of wind power plant beforesetting up a location and if the wind turbines are not efficient in gen-erating power to their capacity, then this may require the evaluationof possible changes in the environment, including new structures ob-structing the flow of find to propel the turbines. In such a situation, theturbines may be placed higher or relocated. Besides, the systems maybe in need of maintenance to enhance the generation capacity. Never-theless, the failure of the hybrid system can be addressed by checkingwhether the flow of the power generated from each of the sources isconverted effectively and stored or transmitted to the grid or point ofconsumption.

2.13.1 Dealing with the Situation when there is no Windand Solar

In retaliation, there are times when the solar and wind systems are un-able to generate electricity. The sources of energy would require someenhancement to ensure that there is a steady supply of energy evenwhen there is no wind or sunlight, particularly at night. Two optionsare available to assist in ensuring the steady supply of power. First,high capacity storage batteries should be in place such that the excessenergy during the peak hours is conserved and used during the lowor no power generation hours. In addition, technology at a higherlevel behold the concept of storage in batteries can be developed. For


instance, Ouarzazate solar power plant in Morocco directs sunlightand heat radiations collected by the solar panels into oil-solution filledpipes. In this case, the solution is heated to high temperatures andused to generate hot steam to drive turbines used for power genera-tion. The most important aspect is that the heated oil retains the hightemperatures and ensures constant energy generation even at night.Such innovations would be required in a situation where there are noother sources of renewable energy other than Wind and Solar.

2.14 HVDC Transmission System

HVDC transmission lines are used in the transmission of high voltagedirect current electricity from one city or region to the other. One ofthe best HVDC systems is the power line transmitting wind energygenerated in Oklahoma to Memphis in Tennessee. The project spent$2.5 billion, and is 720 miles in length [54]. Figure 2.18 shows a Sectionof the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis.

Figure 2.18: Section of the HVDC Oklahoma to Memphis [54]

The electricity from different sources is converted from the Alterna-tive Current to Direct current (DC) and then connected into the HVDClines for transmission. The power from the HVDC system is then con-verted to AC and connected to consumption. Figure 2.19 shows Powerflow From Generation to the Consumption Point through the HVDCSystems.


Figure 2.19: Power flow From Generation to the Consumption Pointthrough the HVDC Systems [3]

From figure 2.20, the power from the source is carried on the AC busand converted into DC after passing through the converter transformer.The smoothing reactors assist in the safe transfer of the high voltageDC into the HVDC lines through the AC filter to ensure that the twocurrents are separated [130].

Figure 2.20: Detailed HVDC System [3]

Chapter 3

Case study of Freiburg, Germanyrenewable energy

This chapter intends to describe Freiburg, Germany renewable energy. Itstarts by presenting the challenges that encountered in implementing renew-able energy in Freiburg, Germany. Then the methodologies used to completethe renewable energy project and the generating capacity are highlighted. Thechapter ends by talking about the electricity pricing and contingency plan.

More than thirty percent of the electric power being supplied aroundGermany comes from naturally occurring sources of energy such asthe wind and sun [48]. This is considering that the country has welllaid strategies for going green. Solar panels and wind turbines startedbeing introduced in 2000 after a clear-cut energy bill that demandedclean energy was passed. Like their neighbor, France, the country hadthe option of using nuclear power, which produces a lot more energy.However, one would notice that nuclear energy is not only expensivebut is also not as clean as other renewable energy sources that Ger-many opted. At the center of the revolution towards green energy isFreiburg, a town in southwest Germany [103]. It is easy to notice thenumerous solar panels that have been mounted on the roofs of housesand the wind turbines when you get into the town. Many refer to thetown as Germany’s solar heartland. In fact, the strategic location ofthe town is an advantage because it results in too much sun and blueskies.

30

CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDY OF FREIBURG, GERMANY RENEWABLEENERGY 31

3.1 How Germany Became a Clean EnergyEfficient Country

To become a clean energy efficient country, Germany first passed a billthat resolved to make the country opt for renewable sources of energy.With nuclear power taking root in most economies, especially thosecompeting with Germany, there are increased concerns to whether thecountry should go for nuclear energy too [135]. As one of Europe’sbiggest economic powerhouses, it was expected that Germany wouldfollow suit in the race for nuclear power.

However, the country decided not to do this. Protests in the 1970s thatwere held to prevent the construction of nuclear power plants. Thebiggest incentive that propelled Germany to begin exploring naturallyoccurring sources of energy was the anti-nuke movement. The 2011meltdown in Japan made Germany resolve to completely do awaywith all of its nuclear plants within ten years. This happened as thecountry also struggled to do away with coal, which was not only un-clean but also tended to emit high amounts of carbon dioxide to theenvironment. The anti-nuke campaign also brought people together,with the will to go green being diversified among communities. Peo-ple were determined to change the future of energy in the country to-day more than ever before. Green and clean sources of energy includesolar power and the use of wind turbines. Freiburg was then iden-tified as the place to lead this revolution. The selection was becauseof its suitable location [64]. Experts like to argue that the happeningsin Freiburg were an initiative not brought by the government but bypeople. The decisions by the locals arm-twisted the government to im-plement green energy. The solar panels have been installed in the city,making it to be considered a green city as shown in figure 3.1.

Germans naturally have a tradition of self-reliance developed by thefact that most people have independently practiced farming and sur-vived through it. The government took advantage of this and decidedto give green power to the people by allowing themselves to produceit. In 2000, the bill was set up in such a way that anyone that providedpower to the grid was paid a fee, which was labeled a feed-in tariff[15]. With technology, rapidly advancing, wafer-thin solar panels that

32 CHAPTER 3. CASE STUDY OF FREIBURG, GERMANYRENEWABLE ENERGY

had just been developed at that time became cheaper. The cost of go-ing green was to be significantly huge for the economy. However, thecontributions by the people to the green power grid, even though thegovernment paid them the feed-in tariff, made it a lot cheaper for thegovernment. The win-win situation made it easy for the penetration ofgreen energy in towns like Ontario and Freiburg. Figure 3.1 is show-ing solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg.

Figure 3.1: Solar panels on top of houses in Freiburg [61]

Green power can, however, be highly unreliable since the sun andwind have unpredictable patterns most of the times. However, Ger-many figured a way to store excess power produced by the citizens,mostly from Freiburg. This way, the stored energy would be used tosupply the country with electricity in case the power output from thenaturally occurring sources becomes too low at any point. The amountof stored energy has since been too high in such a way that there is al-most zero electricity downtime in Germany [100]

3.2 Challenges Encountered in Implement-ing Renewable Energy

Depending on naturally occurring energy is a gamble that most coun-tries are afraid to risk because of the numerous challenges that comewith it. These challenges include how to implement the generationand distribution, how to merge the alternative sources to the maingrid, where to implement the structures. However, the current solarpanels have been implemented and widely used by households as a


preferred source of renewable energy in spite of these challenges asseen in figure 3.2.

Those who criticize alternative sources of energy base their argumentson the fact that the whole system is unpredictable as it depends on theshining of the sun and blowing of the wind [115]. While this is fact,Freiburg shows a case in which these problems have been intensivelyhandled which indicates that the intermittent nature of alternative en-ergy sources is something that has been exaggerated. However, this isnot to say that there were no problems when implementing renewableenergy in Freiburg, Germany. These problems will be discussed below.Figure 3.2 is showing household renewable energy source in Freiburg.

Figure 3.2: Household renewable energy source in Freiburg [112]

The biggest problem lies in how to integrate alternative sources to themain grid since the alternative sources are highly variable. Thus, thepower grid was designed in such a way that sources of power werelarge and could be controlled. The system even evolved into a three-phase system that was planned is such a way that at any time, theright, and sufficient amount of power was produced. The upgradeis because storing such power proved to be difficult and, therefore,the supply of power at any instant had to meet the demand to avoidblackouts and related problems. The challenge that renewable energysources introduce is that they are disruptive in that they make plan-ning for the normal methods difficult. The power coming from suchsource fluctuates heavily as mentioned before. The fluctuation meansthat anyone operating the main grid has to adjust it a day before orseveral hours and in real time [62]. For instance, the energy from the


solar panels was available only during the day when there is sunlight.The grid operator, therefore, was forced to adjust the plan on a dailybasis to enable the generators to be included since one could easilyadjust their outputs. This activity was done since they could compen-sate for the increase in power production over daytime and decreasein production during the night. At times, the generators, which pro-duce powers at any given time, may be forced to shut down at timeswhen the production from the panels is too high such as in the after-noon [135].

In addition to the fluctuations that occur daily due to the rising and set-ting of the sun, the power output solar panels can unpredictably andsuddenly change due to an increased amount of cloud. The weatherchange is the most difficult variable to comprehend by the grid oper-ator as it is difficult to predict the amount of cloud cover. Therefore,there is a need for the correction to be done to ensure efficient and ef-fective supply of electricity to the grid.

The above case only aims at slowing fluctuations that can be predictedand as well give time for the adjustments to be made. However, thereare always possibilities of fast fluctuations, which have to be dealt withwhen they happen. This means that the planning of hourly load onphase system tends to be disrupted most of the times, meaning thatthe balance has to be done in absolute real time, every second. As ofnow, operators in Freiburg have to send signals to the power grid afterevery four seconds. These signals are sent with the aim of ensuringthat the amount of power that the various power sources pump intothe main grid equals the amount of power that is being consumed atany instance. If this is not the case, an auto-corrective action runs inwhich the difference between the supply and demand is establishedand the difference compensated as required. The more the alternativesources of wind and solar energy, the greater the amount of shortageor increase of power into the grid at any particular time. This situationmeans that the correction that has to be done increases as the numberof alternative sources increases in bulk [151]. However, to help withthis, there are energy storage points that help cater for the downtimeof renewable energy sources.

This problem came in majorly when the country wanted to fix wind


energy. The terrain in Freiburg is not suitable for mounting of windturbines and hence making it difficult to install them. Therefore, it isimportant to have an understanding of the capacities of the renewablesources of energy in Freiburg as discussed below.

3.3 Capacities of Renewable Energy Sources

The main naturally occuring energy sources in Freiburg include solarpower and the use of wind turbines. However, as mentioned before,wind energy has been difficult to capture because of the nature of theterrain. Wind turbines are suitably installed in plain areas such as thecoast. However, Freiburg is not only hilly but also has a lot of woodytrees which act as windbreakers [5]. However, there are still five wind-mills that have been strategically placed on top of the hills. There arealso other greater naturally occuring sources of energy such as biomassand hydropower. All of these alternative energy sources account fordifferent amounts of power in the main grid, as discussed below.

Solar energy

Solar panels use photovoltaic cells to capture solar energy [20]. Thereare just over 400 installations of photovoltaics across Freiburg. Theseinstallations have been made on both private and public resources asshown in figure 3.3. The biggest of these installations include:

1. The roof of the convention center.

2. The solar factory known as SolarFabrik.

3. The roof of the soccer stadium.

4. The Heliotropie, a structure that rotates so as to follow the risingand setting of the sun.

5. The façade of the main train station that has 19 floors.

6. The solar settlement also known as the Solarsiedlung and thebusiness park or Solarshiff next to it known as the Solar Ship.Figure3.3 shows the Solar Settlement and Business Park in Freiburg,Germany.


7. The town’s waste control offices’ roof and the recycling stationnext to it.

Figure 3.3: The Solar panels installations on private and public re-sources in Freiburg, Germany [58]

These are just but a few of the most prominent installations. In totalFreiburg has a photovoltaic accumulation of over 150, 000m2, whichis responsible for the generation of over 10 million kWh every year.There are over 60 homes where these installations are located. Thesehomes generate more energy than the residents can ever consume. Thetotal feed-in tariff that is paid to the resident’s amount to 6, 000euros

every year. There also exist solar thermal panels that convert energyfrom hot water. They cover a combined are of 16, 000m2 although theamount of power that they contribute to the main grid each year is yetto be quantized.

Wind

As mentioned before, the town’s terrain does not allow for proper in-vestment in wind turbines due to the hilly and woody nature it has.This however, did not stop Germany from installing 5 windmills atthe boundaries of the town as seen in figure 3.4. The turbines producean estimated 14 million kWh every year. This is more than the pro-duction from solar energy despite the potential for wind energy beinglow. Figure 3.4 shows the wind turbines near the border of Freiburg,Germany.


Figure 3.4: Wind turbines near the border of Freiburg, Germany [58]

Hydropower

There is only one river that flows through Freiburg, and only a littlesection of it flows through there, explaining the reason for only a fewhydropower stations in this part of the country. These facilities havebeen placed on streams and canals, and in total, they have been ableto generate 1.9 million kWh every year.

Biomass

This is the biggest alternative energy source in Freiburg, accountingfor close to 17 million kWh every year. This has been facilitated bythe existence of the Black Forest that supplies the town with woodpellets and chips from the trees. These pellets mostly come from in-dustries that process these woods. The solar factory has a CombinedHeat and Power (CHP) plant that it uses to bun rape seed hence pro-ducing energy. However, this is not what is responsible for the hugeamount of energy being produced this way. The innovation and de-velopment of biogas are what opened doors for a generation of thehigh amounts of naturally occurring energy. The companies withinthe city dealing with waste management decided to gang up, forminga joint venture. The goal of the venture was to collect organic wastefrom houses within the town that was to be directed into a digesterfor the production of compost and biogas with the biogas placed in aCHP plant for combustion to produce more than seven million kWh of


power annually [82]. Heat is also a byproduct of the CHP plant. Thecombined generating capacity of the wind turbine and solar. The totalenergy produced by wind and solar amounts to 24 million kWh everyyear.

3.4 The Best Energy Solutions

The use of natural source of energy as a substitute for clean power hashelped Freiburg and, by extension, Germany solves its energy prob-lems. This bold initiative has finally borne fruits as the city has beentermed to be among the world’s greenest cities.

The country has already invested enough in solar energy and its en-ergy sector as a whole [15]. The investment can be proved by the factthat citizens are being paid to supply the country with energy to anextent in which energy companies in the area are crying foul. How-ever, the population in Germany is increasing. In the next ten years,the energy being supplied currently will not be enough to cater for thepower needs then. The population growth means that, despite alreadyhaving good structures, the country needs to obtain better energy so-lutions for future purposes. Thus, the installation of the solar panelsin Freiburg is as depicted in figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5: Solar panels being installed on a house [79]


3.5 Needs/challenges on the implementationof renewable energy

The start of the implementation phase was difficult for Germany dueto the complex system that had to be put in place. To begin with, theprices of solar panels at that time were high. The interesting thing isthat the residents were determined to acquire solar panels for their usemaking the prices to go low [14].

The biggest challenge, however, came in the integration of the natu-rally occurring energy system to the main grid. Germany’s main grid,like many other grids, had been set up to receive power from gener-ators and such stable sources. However, naturally occurring energysources are completely unstable as they fluctuate intensively. For in-stance, solar power depends on the sun and hence can only be pro-duced during the day, while the levels of solar power go down atnight. Integrating such a system into a grid that has been designedto take in stable continuous power was a big challenge.

3.6 Freiburg, Germany Renewable Energy

Popularly referred to as the sustainable city, Freiburg is among theworld’s leading green city. This achievement has been realized as aresult of the policies that were implemented to make it a green city[11]. It was the targeted town due to its high solar radiation [82]. Thegovernment would take advantage of this to come up with projectsthat involved installing huge solar panels and structures to supportthem. One of these projects is shown in figure 3.6. In addition to thesolar panel projects, there are wind turbines installed in the town tocapture wind energy used to produce electricity.

3.7 Challenges that Faced the Implementa-tion of Renewable Energy

To begin with, the country had to be arm-twisted by the citizens toagree to come up with the policy that resolved to make Freiburg agreen city [121]. The main challenge, however, arose from integrating


Figure 3.6: Heliotrope, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany [58]

the power from naturally occurring energy sources to the main grid.As result, many people have raised complaints to an extent of protest-ing as shows in figure 3.8.

3.7.1 How the Challenges were Solved

The government had to sit down and agree to lay policies that gavethe go-ahead for them to begin the implementation of the naturallyoccurring energy projects [55]. This step helped in cooling down thepolitical temperatures that were high at that time, as some lawmakerswanted the country to invest more in nuclear energy.

To solve the problem of integrating electricity from naturally occur-ring energy sources to the main grid, methods to adjust the poweroutput were devised. Additionally, energy storage facilities were alsodesigned to enable excess energy to be stored and used at the time thatthe naturally occurring energy sources produced less power.


Figure 3.7: SolarFabrik, a solar panel project in Freiburg, Germany[124]

3.8 The Best Renewable Energy Projects thatFreiburg has Done

The wind turbine project has to be the best project so far. This is be-cause of the high amount of energy the turbines produce despite thefact that there are only a few of them. They produce more energythan the extensive solar panel project does. However, the solar panelprojects give the town a rare beautiful sight. The structures build cur-rently act as landmarks for the town. Figure 3.7 is showing one of thesolar panel projects.


Figure 3.8: German citizens protesting against nuclear nukes [126]

3.9 Equipment that made the Green Revolu-tion Possible

The main source of naturally occurring energy in Freiburg is the windturbine. This is despite there not being too much wind in the area. Thearea has been covered by woody trees making the amount of windthere moderate. However, five wind turbines have been installed withtwo more on the way, where each of the wind turbines has a heightof 98 meters and diameter of 66 meters [80]. Altogether, they generatea total power of 10,800 kW. The success of naturally occurring energypenetration in the city can be attributed to the massive installation ofsolar panels and energy storage facilities in the area. Almost everyhousehold in the area has a solar panel that it uses to produce electric-ity for domestic use. The residential solar panels measure 65 incheslong and 39 inches wide, and every solar panel has 60 solar cells in-stalled in it [80]. Moreover, there are mega solar panel structures in-stalled in the city by the government. There are over ten structures thatproduce energy that supplies the town and other parts of the country.Each structure is made up of commercial solar panels with an averagelength of 78 inches and width of 39 inches. Each of the solar panels has72 solar cells. Since solar energy is not dependable as its levels dropat night, there are storage batteries that store excess energy producedduring the day and which is used to meet the demand at night. Com-paring the amount of energy produced by the panels during winterversus during summer, expert analysis states that more wattage and


amperage is achieved during summer due to the longer periods of ex-poser of the panels to the sun. However, the exact amount of poweroutput during these times cannot be defined as the periods of expo-sure tend vary [134]. This is also the case for the wind turbines as theamount of wind during different seasons vary, thus the variation in theamperage produced by the turbines. Therefore, the design and equip-ment of these renewable energy resources in Freiburg is as illustratedin figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: Design and equipment in Freiburg, Germany [60]

3.10 Power to be Supplied to other Cities byFreiburg

The total power produced by Freiburg is excessively much to be usedwithin the town. The town supplies most parts of Germany with elec-tricity [47]. About 5% of the power is used locally whereas 95% is sup-plied to other cities. There is also a HVDC line that connects Freiburg,Germany to Sweden.

3.11 Power Needed by Freiburg in CertainSituations

There are situations when the power generated by the various natu-rally occurring energy sources do not meet the minimum threshold[75]. This situation, however, rarely happens concurrently for all the


energy sources. This means that there are times when the city dependsmore on wind than solar and also the vice versa. The following situa-tions may exist.

3.11.1 Wind systems fail to reach the capacity

The solar panels would, in such a case, sufficiently Freiburg withoutnecessarily having to receive power from other cities. The amount ofenergy generated by the solar panel plants and households can sustainthe city in case wind systems fail.

3.11.2 Solar system fails

The five wind turbines in Freiburg will supply the town with enoughpower in the case that all solar panels, including the ones installedin all households, fail [148]. This achievement is realized because theamount of power produced by the five turbines is sufficient enough todo this.

3.11.3 Both wind and solar systems fail

In case this situation happens, the hydropower will sufficiently supplythe electricity that the town needs. It is impossible to quantize the ex-act amount of electricity that would be needed in all the above cases. Itoccurs because the amount of energy supplied by these sources of theenergy that occurs naturally mixes up in the grid. One can, therefore,not know the exact amount of energy, like solar power, that is suppliedto Freiburg [50].

3.12 Dealing with the Problem of Shortagesduring Nights

As discussed before, with solar and wind being among the largest con-tributors of energy that naturally takes place, there are times that theproduction of power from these sources goes down as they depend onthe sun and wind. To solve this, the excess power produced as thesesystems run especially during the day is stored in batteries. The storedpower is then used to make up for the downtime by the wind and solar


sourced at night. However, with an increase in the penetration of windand solar energy, there has been a need to develop other technologiesthat would be used in place of having bigger batteries to store moreenergy as this would be expensive for the country. These technologiesare rising to give long-term solutions to the problems of battery stor-age. The first solution is chemical energy storage. In Germany, expertsargue that providing storage thought chemical means is the best wayto store energy from natural sources. The use of electrolysis plays afundamental role, and several projects seek to apply this principle tosave energies from solar and wind. The likely electrolytes are methaneand hydrogen [11].

The second one is the use of Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES).According to experts that are developing this technology, this storageis suitable for a utility-scale lying between 10 to 100 megawatts. Itworks well with storing energy from wind. The technology requiresstorage below the ground. This storage places naturally occur althoughthere is a possibility of there being a man-made one. This technologyaims majorly at making energy from the wind turbine to behave like agas-fired power station that is flexible and able to provide a base loadand peak generation whenever needed [153]. The technology wouldbe able to store energy for use days or weeks later. The storage periodcan even be extended to a month.

The Pumped hydro is the other technology that is being pursued byresearchers. However, this one is looking to store energy producedfrom hydropower. All these technologies are meant to deal with sit-uations when there are several hours such as at night when there isnot enough solar or wind [81]. Storage, though an expensive idea, is agood idea and thus this phenomenon is presented in figure 3.10.

3.13 HVDC Transmission

3.13.1 Germany’s HVDC Transmission Cable Length

There are several reasons that one would prefer High Voltage DirectCurrent (HVDC) transmission with the example of Freiburg case (Seefigure 3.11). The currently used transmission in Freiburg, Germany, isa line known as the Baltic Cable, which runs from German to Sweden


Figure 3.10: How energy is stored [144]

and is 250 km long [97]. The line carries a voltage of 450 kV and powerof 600 MW. The HVDC transmission line has been in operation since1994. This line is in the form of a submarine cable, which means that itruns under water.

Figure 3.11: Part of HVDC Baltic Cable [118]

3.13.2 Electric Design of HVDC systems

The principle behind the working of the HVDC system in Freiburg,Germany, is as simple as the basic system shown in figure 3.12. To


begin with, there are the various energy sources, renewable and non-renewable, that generate electricity that is an alternating form. HVDCtransmits electricity in direct current form. This condition means thatthe excess power in the form of an alternating current which the coun-try does not need is first altered to direct current before being trans-mitted. Before the conversion, the alternating current is first steppedup using a transformer so that its magnitude is increased to high levelsthat the HVDC transmission line demands [113]. The conversion fromalternating current to direct current is then done using rectifiers. Thepower is then fed into the HVDC line for transmission. Upon reachingthe other end, power is first converted back to alternating current andis then stepped down to levels that can be distributed to consumers.

Figure 3.12: How a basic HVDC system works [30]

When transmitting over longer distance like from one nation to an-other, High Voltage Direct Current transmission is preferred to HighVoltage Alternating Current (HVAC) transmission [29]. In the case ofthe transmission line from Germany to Sweden, the cable had to rununderwater. Cables that run underwater are known to experience veryhigh capacitances, which, in turn, lead to added AC losses [29]. Forthis reason, HVDC is a better alternative. To add to this, if the distanceof transmission is long and yet there are no consumers in the middle,then HVDC is preferred. Furthermore, there are situations when onewould want to increase the capacity of a power grid that already ex-ists. In such situations, wires may be difficult to install and at timeswill be expensive. HVDC comes in handy in such situations.


Another application is that one would want to transmit power fromone country to another yet the AC frequency of these countries is notsynchronized. HVDC will help to transmit power in this instant. Highervoltages have higher peaks and cause corona losses. HVDC has littleof these losses compared to HVAC. For long distances, the number ofconductors used in HVDC is way fewer than those used in HVAC.This greatly reduces the cost of the lines. Figure 3.13 shows the circuitinvolved in HVDC.

Figure 3.13 is a model showing a system of 320 kV, 200 MW HVDCthat is part of the Freiburg HVDC line. It has two modular multi-levelconverters (MMC) interconnecting two AC girds of 110 kV. The MMCsillustrated above works in both directions, which means that they con-vert AC to DC and vice versa. To get a harmonic performance that isdesired, one can use the sets of switching modules in each arm. Themodules have been connected in series.

Figure 3.13: HVDC circuitry [67]

3.14 Electricity Pricing in Freiburg, Germany

Not a single citizen in Freiburg, which is Germany’s solar village, ispaying electricity bills because people are producing their electricity.This aspect, coupled with the fact that the area has massive solar elec-tricity plants that generate excess energy, means that there is an over-


production of electricity. In fact, the locals are being paid to supplyelectricity to the grid [41].

3.15 Contingency plan

Most electronic devices currently depend on the existence of power.In the case that there is an outage, the everyday routine of people andbusinesses would be hugely disrupted due to the massive dependenceon power. Outages can be caused by unforeseen causes which mayinclude natural disaster. Some outages may also be humanmade. Allin all, it is important that one should have a contingency plan for sucha situation. There are steps which Freiburg has taken and that onecould take to be prepared for an unprecedented power outage, andthey include:

• The first step is to prepare a contingency plan. Such a plan entailshow one should back up data and the frequency of the backupoperation. After this, one needs to establish the appropriate ac-tions that should be taken in the case that equipment fails orpower is lost.

• If one has critical power issues, it is important that he plans withfacilities and services in advance.

• One should have an emergency power outlet on standby. Thepurpose for this is it allows that operating equipment to alwaysplug them into the outlet when the power outage lasts for a longtime.

• Computer systems and any other equipment that are sensitive tosurges and brownouts should be connected to surge protectors.

• There exists equipment that requires no downtime at all even forseconds. Such equipment should be connected to uninterrupt-ible power supplies.

• There are alarm systems that have been designed to notify onein case of a power outage or when a system malfunctions. Thealarm system should be installed on equipment that is sensitiveto power loss.


• It is advisable that one should continually save data and fre-quently back it up even as the work is in progress.

• It is important that there should be laid procedures that havebeen established to enable critical functions to keep running whena power loss occurs. These procedures need to be centered onthree main conditions. The first is whether on has a plan to miti-gate the losses that come with the outage of power. The second iswhether there exists a backup freezer arrangement for situationswhere there are specimens that require frozen conditions. Lastly,one needs to establish whether the plan will ensure that criticalfunctions keep on running even if the power outage period islengthy.

• The next step is to prepare a budget for the electrical back upplan and put it in a budget proposal.

• An audit of the electrical system, especially the most critical parts,should be carried out frequently.

3.16 Use of Clean Energy Solutions to Re-duce Long-term Energy Costs

The use of sources of energy that occurs naturally provides solutionsfor the reduction of power costs and for strengthening the economiesin a long-term, and this process requires dedication [41]. Fortunately,there are green cities in the world that have led the way and imple-mented processes that have allowed them to attain this goal. There areseveral approaches that can be used to cut energy costs in any particu-lar place. One of them could be to focus on optimizing the operation ofHVAC and related equipment using control systems and also upgrad-ing equipment that performs heating, air conditioning, and ventilationfunctions. Figure 3.14 indicates how HVAC works in the low and highsides.

To begin with, energy audits have to be carried out. Concerned per-sonnel can implement the knowledge of energy efficiency to audit fa-cilities of a local place. This aspect requires the audit of places thatthey are known to consume a lot of power. These include places such


Figure 3.14: Basic structure of a residential HVAC system [65]

as schools, public meeting places like the town hall, and any otherpublic facility that uses a lot of power. The next step is to then imple-ment energy efficiency measure [149]. The approach discussed abovecan be used and the procedure can be undertaken as follows:

• Upgrade of HVAC and Control Systems: The facilities on a lo-cal area can have their HVAC equipment improved extensivelythrough several methods. The first is by installing new and en-ergy efficient natural gas boilers. This is done in places that useoil boilers that are outdated. The next step is to install an overallenergy management system. This could be a combination of soft-ware and structure that are meant to monitor HVAC systems inthe local area by providing a central area for control and schedul-ing. With this done, the fan motors used in all these places needto be checked and their motors properly sized in terms of howefficient they are. There are currently new models of motorsfor fans that are energy efficient. All of the motors operating inthe area also need to be fitted with variable frequency drives.The purpose of these drives is to adjust the speed of the mo-tors according to the demanded output hence ensuring efficientuse of energy by the motors [14]. This may seem expensive atfirst. However, variable frequency drives are meant for long-term use and efficiently save energy and hence would help cutcosts by huge margins in the long run. Lastly, the ventilation se-tups within all public property need to be controlled. This meansthat control systems should be installed which allow the desired


amount of air to flow in and out while at the same time optimiz-ing the energy used.

• Steam System Maintenance: Areas that utilize steam for theirday to day functions need to have their steam traps checked andthose that are not working efficiently replaced.

• HVAC System Monitoring and Testing: With all HVAC equip-ment upgraded and their control systems put in place, it is im-portant to optimize how the control systems operate. For in-stance, the local area has to make sure that the EMS (EnergyManagement System) has been programmed to plan scheduledmaintenances. However, the EMS too needs maintenance. Be-ing highly software-based prevents it from losing its functional-ity easily. The maintenance of an EMS can be done once a yearto ensure that it controls the system as it should. Furthermore,there exists a fault detection and diagnostic software that can beused on the HVAC equipment. This software works by givingone feedback on how the equipment is operating in real time. Itis also able to detect whether there is a problem that is causing anequipment not to work properly and even diagnose the problem.

• Upgrade of Interior Lighting and its Controls: Current technol-ogy allows one to design the interior lighting of buildings tomake them go off automatically when no one is using them andturn on when one gets into a room. When installed in publicbuildings, this would greatly cut electricity bills.

• Upgrade on Exterior Lighting and its Controls: Exterior lightingrefers to equipment such as parking lot lights and streetlights.These lights can be set up in such a manner that they can auto-matically control their intensity depending on the amount of nat-ural light present during the day and night. Furthermore, LEDbulbs, which are more efficient through their ability to save en-ergy can be used. LED bulbs also bear the advantage that theycan be installed with the automatic light intensity control tech-nology.

• Major Building Renovation: Most of the ancient buildings, es-pecially in major towns, were constructed with their design notallowing them to fully utilize natural light. This way, those in the


buildings were forced to switch on lights even during the day. Arenovation of these buildings would allow them to take advan-tage of natural light. This can be done by appropriately placingthe windows and also using the reflective material on the shelvesand anywhere that is possible. Sensors can also be placed in thebuildings to control the light intensity of the lights based on thetime of the day in the case that they are switched off. This allowsthem to use less power more efficiently.

The results of this approach are overwhelmingly good. The approachmay seem expensive at first as it requires major renovations that wouldcost a lot of money. However, the energy to be saved by this approach,in the long run, would be more. The cost of energy would reducesignificantly. Figure 3.15 shows how a green community that imple-mented this approach reduced its annual energy consumption overthe years [132]. This reduction in consumption and cost significantlyboosted the local economy of the green community.

Figure 3.15: Annual energy consumption of a green community (Ar-lington, Massachusetts) [9]

Figure 3.15 indicates that the energy costs reduced by $354,000 in 6 fis-cal years. The local area took a loan and grants to run the approachdiscussed above. In the long run, the monies saved from less cost ofenergy were used to repay the loans in a span of less than two years.

Chapter 4

Case study of Masdar city re-newable energy

Chapter 4 introduces the case study of Masdar city renewable energy. Itstarts by explaining the challenges that encountered in implementing renew-able energy. Then the methodologies used to complete the renewable energyproject and the generating capacity are highlighted. The chapter ends by talk-ing about Masdar electricity (transmission losses and tariff) and contingencyplan.

Masdar city has pair solar panels and wind turbines to sufficientlylight up huge as well as vast extensions of energy grids that can storepower for generations. To achieve this sustainability objective, variousstrategies have been put in place. Firstly, Masdar’s developers haveshown this dedication in its architectural features to innovative urbanplanning, where they have taken advantage of the environmental ben-efits of traditional Arabian architecture and employing costly techno-logical solutions. These efforts must have started from some time backbefore the onset of the modern era, where the design of the settlementby people permitted the moderation of the desert heat, capitalizing onthe advantage of stronger winds. They constructed tall wind towersfor channeling the currents in the streets of the city. There is also ev-idence that the city is already running the biggest solar photovoltaicplant in the Middle East [73].

Moreover, the design of the modern buildings in the city and the Mas-dar Institute, such as the Knowledge Center (shown in figure 4.1), has

54

CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY OF MASDAR CITY RENEWABLE ENERGY55

iconic spherical roof which is covered with solar panels as well as zinccladding [86]. In spite of the residential buildings being designed tomeet the norms of Middle Eastern personal privacy, their wavy façadenature of concrete latticework (depicted in figure 4.2) have shieldedthe interior from direct sunlight and trapping solar energy using solarpanels. To advance the renewable energy vision for many generationsto come, the Masdar Institute has been utilized as a center of engineer-ing and research in sustainable technology. In general, the developersof the city have ensured diversification of the sources of renewable en-ergy to ensure that there is enough power that will sustain the futuregeneration.

Figure 4.1: The Knowledge Center at the Masdar Institute [86]

4.1 Challenges in Implementing RenewableEnergy in Masdar City

As regards to where the challenges come from, technical factors havebeen among the factors that affect implementation of renewable sourcesof energy in the city. The technological challenges comprise the is-sue of scaling up of the upcoming technologies to commercial level,storage, land use, and intermittency and back-up capacity [57]. Forinstance, renewable energy like solar and wind are believed to be vari-able, though they can be predictable and are cyclical as presented infigures 4.3 (a) and (b).Notwithstanding a large amount of solar radiation produced the city,

56 CHAPTER 4. CASE STUDY OF MASDAR CITY RENEWABLEENERGY

Figure 4.2: The view of concrete facade of the structures at the MasdarInstitute [86]

(a) Wind Power (b) Solar Power

Figure 4.3: Wind and Solar intermittency [57]

many issues related to the movements of dust and sand and their ac-cumulation on the solar panels have been experienced. As a result,the implementation of solar energy in the city and the entire MiddleEast has been affected since the installed solar panels are covered bydust, which in turn reduce their efficiency of absorbing solar energy.In most cases, the dust combines with fog and mist throughout theyear and thus hampering the output of the solar power stations, as il-lustrated in figure 4.4.

Another issue is associated with the formation of small networks, knownas microgrids, of the distributed generators (DG) of renewable energy.These networks need to constitute a key component of the incorpo-ration of the sources of renewable but variable energy into the elec-


Figure 4.4: Illustrations of dirty solar panels due to accumulation ofdust [57]

tric grid [119]. Nonetheless, the variability and uncertainty can be ad-dressed by switching in the fast-acting conventional reserves the wayit is required based on weather forecasts. Additionally, this challengecan be dealt with by energy storage systems aiding the facilitation ofthe smooth or seamless transitions and offering great robustness to thelocal supply.

In terms of how much power, the implementation of the renewableenergy in the city has been affected by the fluctuations in productionof wind energy and thus making it difficult to attain a target of 10 MWfrom the solar power plant.

4.2 Methodologies Masdar city used to com-plete the renewable energy project

Because of diversity of its projects, Masdar City has acted as a show-case for unconventional planning approaches and the technologies ofrenewable energy which other communities may have found hecticto implement without a vast oil wealth of Abu Dhabi. One of themethodologies that used by the city realized the benefits of the renew-able projects was the environmental protection. The developers of thecity have held that this strategy can be tangibly and firmly integrated


coupled with the development of and urban community that is moreattractive and livable. With this approach, there has been a substantialprogress in reducing the international ecological effect of cities sincethere has been a greater public support, leading to the improved qual-ity of life of the city residents.

Undoubtedly, the city has also employed a master planning method-ology that has been a presentation of its ambitious and immense un-dertakings to ensure sustainable energy for all the residents in MasdarCity as represented in figure 4.5. In Masdar, the design of all the build-ings is aimed at maximizing the utilization of natural light, adhering tostrict regulations on the use of insulation, energy-efficient appliances,and low-energy lighting [86]. This approach has resulted in the city’sprojected requirement of only 25 percent of the energy supply neededby a normal city having the same number of occupants [13]. Anotherbenefit of this approach is that it has brought about the reduction ofthe consumption of water by installation of appliances and fixtures ofhigh efficiency and the incorporation of a network of meters that is ad-vanced. Such considerations have also helped in the low consumptionof energy in the city.

Figure 4.5: The presentation of the master of Masdar City [86]

In the renewal project implementation, the city has also established thelargest solar photovoltaic plant, whereby mounting of solar panels onthe rooftops and projected over the streets and thus providing moreenergy to Masdar [104]. Additionally, there has been a plan of puttingup a geothermal energy project, which would be useful in pumping


water into the crust of the earth to generate steam for the production ofelectricity. Another methodology will be recycling of the wastes fromthe city, and some of it would be incinerated in the process of electric-ity generation that has significantly low emissions of carbon dioxidegas. There was also massive hydrogen plant provided electricity for adesalination facility that supplied water to the residents of the city.

4.3 Masdar Generating Capacity

4.3.1 Wind Turbine

Wind energy has been used to diversify energy sources in the Masdarcity, leading to the realization of a tremendous growth worldwide ofmore than 30 percent [74]. The first size of horizontal axis wind turbineis the HAWT that is characterized by the Weibull distribution that en-hances its annual energy production to about 3307.08 MWh at a heightof 50 m for large turbines. To have an understanding of wind capac-ity, the annual wind data was gathered and analyzed through modelscomprising the available wind power, normal wind speed probabilitydensity, distribution of Weibull wind speed, Wavelet analyses, FourierTransform (spectrum), and turbulence intensity. The wind turbines arerepresented in figure 4.6.

4.3.2 Solar

The city of Masdar utilizes clean energy which is produced on sitefrom both the solar power plant of 10MW and rooftop solar panels in-stalled on the buildings of Masdar Institute giving 1MW, constitutinga predominant supply of the national grid [74]. Janajreh, Su, and Alan([74]) also holds that the current energy production occurs throughconcentrated photovoltaic and thermal solar energy in the city exceed-ing the energy consumed by approximately 10 MW [74].

4.3.3 Combined Generating Capacity of the Wind Tur-bine and Solar

When the two source of energy are combined, the energy generated isnearly 19,100MWh of electricity on an annual basis, with the displace-


Figure 4.6: Wind turbines [101]

ment of 11,450 tonnes of carbon emissions per annum. This energy issufficient to power 500 households in the city.

4.4 Best Energy Solution for Masdar City thatMade it Powered by Renewable Energy

The best solution that Masdar City offered with its renewable energyprojects is the implementation of solar energy projects. This choice isbased on the fact Masdar is powered by a huge field where numeroussolar panels have been installed with additional panels on rooftops ofhouses with façade designs [92]. The annual insolation, which is theaggregated sunny hours adjusted for solar intensity, indicates that theGulf region has the highest solar potential in worldwide. The city hasshown commitment in investing in solar projects, which are split be-tween solar thermal and solar photovoltaic applications. In this case,what is depicted in the entire GCC region is a replica of what is hap-pening in the Masdar City in terms of preferences of the sources of re-newable energy [22]. This situation is indicated in the feasibility com-parison of diverse renewable energies in the GCC area as illustrated in


figure 4.7.

Figure 4.7: The feasibility comparison of various renewable energieswithin the GCC region [57]

Based on figure 4.7, it is important to note that both the solar PV andthermal appliances have been widely used in the region, includingthe Masdar City. In spite of the fact that wind energies are the mostpromising resources of renewable energy, solar energy is the potentialresource in the city. Furthermore, it has proved to be more efficientto construct solar panels in the middle of the desert where the city islocated. The International Energy Agency reports that the utilizationsolar PV technology is current widespread, and as well involve the de-velopment of the roofing tiles with PV cells incorporated in them. Thiscondition has made it possible for the maintenance of the traditionaldesigns and functions of roofing.


4.5 Needs/challenges on the implementationof renewable energy in Masdar City

4.5.1 Masdar City Renewable Energy Projects and Ini-tiatives

It is worth noting that Masdar City has taken part in various renew-able energy projects and initiatives. The first one is the solar energyprojects, which includes PV and thermal solar energy. There is evi-dence that the city has invested in Masdar Institute to bolster the ad-vances of research and engineering in the aspects of renewable energysustainability [31]. The initiative has helped the institution developa new solar platform that is dedicated to researching and develop-ing concentrated solar power (CSP) and thermal energy storage sys-tems [25]. With this platform, the institute seeks to establish the cost-efficient solutions of CSP, boost and as well test solar energy technolo-gies in adverse desert conditions, and also come up with local exper-tise in this field. The pictures of the platform are as shown in figure 4.8(a) and (b).

(a) (b)

Figure 4.8: Photos of the Masdar Institute Solar Platform [25]

Another project is the wind energy project, which has capitalized onthe sizeable wind resources, though at less advanced stage as com-pared to the solar energy technologies. Stronger winds have beentrapped and tall wind towers have been built for channeling air cur-rents in the streets. Additionally, the residents of the city have con-


structed wind turbines in the area to convert wind energy into elec-tricity for use. Masdar City is also known for its initiatives of diver-sification and thus has diversified these forms of renewable resourcesof energy with geothermal power generations plants. The water fromthe desalination plants has been directed to earth’s crust to producesteam, which is turn used to generate electricity.

Another part of the Masdar Initiative is the Carbon Management Unit(CMU). This initiative is involved in two key activities, which com-prise reduction and monetization of carbon emissions and carbon cap-ture and storage (CCS). CMU has enhanced value creation by moneti-zation of greenhouse gas emission minimization and the Clean Devel-opment Mechanism (CDM) framework of the United Nations of theKyoto Protocol controls its operations. Moreover, Masdar’s plan hasbeen to establish a large-scale CCS project in Abu Dhabi, which com-prises a network of carbon capture plants at the sites and pipelines ofemission to transport the carbon dioxide to oil-fields at the onshore.This process could also be performed by injection system that pumpsthe carbon underground for the enhancement of oil recovery in theregion.

4.5.2 The Challenges that Faced the Implementationof Renewable Energy in Masdar City

One of the greatest challenges facing the implementation of the renew-able energy in the city is remoteness, which has affected the produc-tion and delivery of power. Seeking to developing solutions to makethis area self-sufficient for energy has become challenging too becauseof extremely high costs of fuel delivery and grid extension for the con-sumer base [87]. There has also been the issue of blowing sand forthe solar panels of Masdar City. Masdar City is using smaller pores toclean the solar panels.

4.5.3 Solutions to the Challenges Facing Masdar City

The sand and or dust problem has been solved with the City’s ad-ministration has brought other stakeholders on board to develop solarsurfaces with small pores similar to dust particles. The objective is toprevent sand and dust from sticking on the solar panels. Researchers


have further been involved in developing bacteria repellant coatingsas well as those resistant to sand and dust specifically used in enhanc-ing the effectiveness of the solar panels.

4.5.4 The best Renewable Energy Projects that Mas-dar City has done

The best renewable energy project that Masdar City has ever done issolar energy project. This idea is evidenced by the city’s commitmentadopting innovative solar energy technologies such as the use of solarpanels and the buildings that are designed to contain solar panels aswell the zinc lagging to tap the solar energy. Additionally, many solarpanels have been mounted on the roofs of the buildings to utilize solarenergy. Because of these approaches, the city has emerged the leaderin the Middle East in terms of solar photovoltaic energy production[86].

4.6 Assessment of the Equipment that madethe Project Possible

4.6.1 Kind of Wind Turbine and Solar Cells EquipmentNeeded

It is notable that wind energy appears to be a mature technology thatoffset a large part of power in the world using diverse kinds of windturbine sizes and configurations. The two forms of turbines that havebeen used to produce power in the regions are the small size andlarge size horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT). These turbines arecoupled with the Weibull distribution equipment. The collection andanalysis of the annual wind data has been through models that in-clude turbulence intensity, available wind power, Fourier Transform(spectrum), normal wind speed probability density, Wavelet analyses,and Weibull wind speed distribution [104]. "The wind turbines aredeveloped in a manner that they are between two to three woodencomposite blades on a horizontal axis"[104]. The position helps themdrive a generator using a rotor or a gearbox. This design is useful inthe reduction of the noise as well as the levels of maintenance. Theeffectiveness of the strategy is attained using direct electricity from the


grid or batteries. "Smaller generators can also be used to generate al-ternate current (AC) that is thereafter converted to direct current usingthe battery’s system controller" [138].

In the perspective of solar cells, Masdar City utilized both solar photo-voltaic and solar thermal equipment. The solar PV plant has been con-sidered as the biggest of its kind in the Middle East region. The planthas the capability of generating about 17,500 MWhs of clean electric-ity and offsetting about 15,000 tons of carbon emission annually. Theplant has an inbuilt 87,780 thin-film and multi-crystalline modules thatare developed and supplied by SunTech and First Solar. Many solarpanels have been installed in this plant as shown in figure 4.9.

Figure 4.9: Solar PV plant [49]

4.6.2 Assessment of the Wind Turbine Equipment andtheir Output during Summer and Winter

It is no secret that wind energy has the potential to meet the ever-increasing energy demands in areas that are making efforts to min-imize carbon emission, including Masdar City. The first step in thewind energy project deployment has been to measure and analyze thewind data at a given site. It is worth noting that the production of windenergy varies depending on the season. For instance, some renewableenergy sources such as wind and solar have issues with energy vari-ability especially in instances of increasing energy supply to matchelectricity demand as illustrated in figure 4.10. "Figure (a) shows an


elevated demand of electricity during winter (depicted as MWh perhalf hour intervals within periods of a day)" [138]. The peak is reachedin July during evenings and reduces at night and mid-afternoons [138].The displayed outcome is in line with the nature of the local wind re-source as illustrated in figure (b) on the right side below. "The meanannual wind speeds for the intervals of a half an hour are usually high-est in summer evenings while the autumn and spring seasons realizetheir peaks in the afternoons"[138].

(a) (b)

Figure 4.10: The electricity demand comparison [138]

4.6.3 Assessment of the Solar Cells Equipment andTheir Output During Summer and Winter

The city has abundant insolation during the winter and thus has highperformance indicators of solar energy. In this region, the Global Hor-izontal Irradiance (GHI), which is a measure of the average electricityproduced from the solar PV power station, approximately amounts to2,160 kWh per m2 per year [12]. On the other hand, while the DirectNormal Irradiance (DNI), which is important for the systems of Con-centration Solar Thermal Power (CSP), nearly amounts to 2,050 kWhperm2 per annum. Thus, during the midwinter, solar PV generation isalmost 50 percent of the amount realized during summer. Dependingon location, a house design that is energy efficient and passive dur-ing the winter, whose consumption is nearly 4,500 kWh/year (AbuDhabi consumption is nearly 52841.037 GWh/year [142]). of electric-ity for supplying all the power required for various purposes [138].Such functions include the appliances, heating or cooling, hot waterback-up, and lighting.


4.6.4 Comparison of the Equipment of the Wind Tur-bine Versus Solar Cells and their Output DuringSummer and Winter

The solar energy equipment performs highly during the winter wherethere is no a lot of wind that disrupts the reception of the solar energyby the panels [12]. On the other hand, the wind energy equipmentworks efficiently during summer since it is the time characterized byincreased production of wind power. In spite of these differences, stillsolar energy equipment perform better in terms of output as comparedto the winter equipment in both seasons because of the designs of thebuilding with façades which have the solar panels at the rooftops.

4.7 The Amount of Power that Masdar Citycan Deliver to the State (other cities)

To address this question, is quite unclear how much power is deliveredto the state or other cities by Masdar, but the city has played a substan-tial role in ensuring sustainable energy in the cities within Abu Dhabistate and the neighboring nations in the GCC. The research findings re-veal that in 2009, Abu Dhabi exported power up to 1,356 MW to otheremirates in comparison with what was delivered in 2008 at a maxi-mum of 854 MW. Masdar City is known to be one of the largest solarPV plant in the world and thus immensely solves the power shortagesthat are experienced in other cities as well as other neighboring coun-tries within the GCC region [122]. Currently, Masdar City is placedamong the outstanding cities that supply a large amount of clean en-ergy to the state as opposed to its consumption. Perhaps, Masdar hadinvested substantial amounts of resources in the approaches of pro-ducing clean energy in Masdar and other cities such as Shams that aremost cost-effective. It is worth noting that Masdar has worked in part-nership with Shams since 2013 in the CSP plant, whose effects havebeen felt in other parts of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA)region. Because of this association, a 100-MW solar thermal projectwas initiated between Total and Abengoa, in which Masdar had a lionshare. Masdar’s has also delivered power to the state through the ini-tiative of the Carbon Capture, Usage, and Storage (CCUS), which hasbeen a joint business between the Abu Dhabi National Oil Company


and Masdar. A huge amount of carbon dioxide (800,000 tonnes) hasbeen captured on a yearly basis from the existing emissions in steelplants in Emirates, and carried through the pipeline network for theuse in oil fields of Abu Dhabi [49]. The gas has been injected into thereservoirs to improve the recovery of oil. In general, carbon dioxidehas been utilized as a media of power deliver in such parts of the state.

4.8 The Amount of Power Masdar City CanReceive from the State (other cities)

4.8.1 Wind Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity

It is not clear about the amount the Masdar City receives from the stateor other cities when the wind systems fail to reach the required, but thealternative sources have been identified. The main source to supple-ment wind energy has been solar power and geothermal power. It isnotable that there are advanced geothermal plants in the state whichare driven by water supplied by desalination plant to produce powerthat helps in meeting the demands of the city residents.

4.8.2 Solar Systems Fail to Reach the Capacity

Other cities within Abu Dhabi have solar PV plants which supplypower to the city in case both wind and solar systems fail. It is alsoreported that the country is putting up the largest solar farm in theworld in Dubai, and to construct the solar panels at the tops of roof ofeach house in the emirate by the year 2030. It is also undeniable thatShams is among the largest CSP plants in the world and thus has sup-plied substantial amount of power to Masdar in case the solar systemsdo not attain the required capacity (10 MW).

4.8.3 Both Wind and/or Solar Systems Fail to Reachthe Required Capacity

There is evidence that the electricity consumption in Abu Dhabi, andparticularly in Masdar has been increasing year for over one-and- ahalf decade ago. This situation has led to the need for more generationof power to ensure sustainability is the city. In case both systems fail,


the Abu Dhabi also has other sources of energy such as oil and elec-tricity generating plants. The UAE has also invested huge amountsof money in a nuclear power plant, though still under construction,which is expected to generated about a quarter of its electricity in thenext two years.

4.9 How Masdar City can Deal with this Sce-nario where there is no Wind and Solar

The issue of this nature may be dangerous to the entire city as wellas the state or other cities that rely on wind and solar energies fromMasdar. In this case, Masdar can address this problem by ensuringthere is energy sustainability, implying that, it has to produce whatis enough to take care of any future eventualities during the day ornight. However, there is a need for a back-system to be put in placethat will continue created electricity using the available wind and solarpower. Such systems should be connected to the main grid to supplypower in case there is power failure for some hours. It might alsorequire the city to have automatic back-up generators, which use oilto supplement power when there is no wind and solar power at all forsome hours, though this is deemed a costly option.

4.10 HVDC Transmission between Masdar Cityand Other Cities

4.10.1 How much time the Transmission occurs

The lines of High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) transmission fromMasdar City to other cities have been utilized to facilitate the reduc-tion of the loss of power when transmission is taking place, and isexpected not to go beyond nearly 3 percent for every 1000 km. Fur-thermore, there is elevated radiation of solar in the deserts of UAE,and particularly double the one in Southern Europe, which is moreby between 10 to 15 percent of the transmission losses between Eu-rope and MENA region. This implication of this scenario is that thesolar thermal power plants in the states and cities of MENA that areoccupied by deserts are economic than the similar ones in Southern


Europe.

4.10.2 Electrical Design of HVDC Systems in MasdarCity

The HVDC transmission systems have been used in the establishedcost-effective renewable energy resources to provide electricity as wellas renewable hydrogen to the areas of demand like large urban areasin developing and industrialized nations. HVDC transmission linesare viewed as the most efficient means of transmitting electricity forlong distances with no power losses realized in the lines of alternat-ing current (AC) power. The cables of HVDC, on the other hand, cantransport more power in comparison with AC lines of similar thick-ness. Nevertheless, they can only be appropriate for transmission atlong distances since they need costly devices for the conversion of elec-tricity (produced as AC), into DC. The contemporary HVDC systemsare designed to reduce the energy losses to nearly 3 percent for ev-ery 1,000km. Another important function of HVDC systems to trans-fer electricity between different nations that might use AC at differingfrequencies, and because of this role, Masdar City has been able to ef-fectively and efficiently use this system. Further, HVDC cables havebeen utilized in synchronizing AC generated by the sources of renew-able energy in the city.

4.11 Masdar Electricity

4.11.1 Transmission Losses

Every part of the utility transmission as well as the distribution sys-tem is associated with losses. Thus, there is a need to avoid a loss atthe end-use or meter compounds of the customers by backing up thesystem to the level similar to generation point as indicated in figure4.11. An understanding of the typical line losses at every stage belowthe transmission point of reception as indicated in the table in figure4.12 is important.It is worth noting that the losses in the transmission system line occurin two or more additional transformation stages, together with one ormore additional group of lines. In this case, transmission line lossesvary from two to five percent, based on distance and voltage.


Figure 4.11: A simple diagram showing transmission and distributionsystem of electricity [1]

Some losses occur in the step-up transformers during the process ofconverting the generated at the production plant to the voltages thatare needed for the lines of transmission. Such transformers are sizedto the production units, associated with losses at normal levels of op-eration. This situation occurs because they move more power as com-pared to their initial expected capacity, leading to a rise in power losses[1]. In addition, at the distribution stations, there are transformer lossesthat arise twice at the substations. "While first loss is encountered inpower transformation from the high-voltage transmission to an inter-mediate voltage, the other one occurs at the substations when trans-forming the power down to the original voltage" [1]. Therefore, theprincipal losses in distribution stations turn out to be transformer losses.Additionally, voltage regulators have power losses because they havetransformers that also cause some power losses during the transmis-sion. There are also losses emanating from the transmission systemconductors. "The conductors have low resistance, but the sizing of theconductors and the length of the lines create power losses" [1].

4.11.2 Transmission Tariff

Currently, there is a global push cut down the price of CSP to 6 UScents per kilowatt-hour by the end of the next two years from its cur-rent average of nearly 20 cents. "This price would put the power pro-duced from the technology in the United Emirates (UAE) at grid par-ity, or similar price to of the power from natural gas. It is worth notic-ing that solar (PV) has already reached grid parity at the projects like


Figure 4.12: Losses at every stage of electricity transmission [1]

the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park project being un-dertaken in Dubai" [38]. There is a need for the governments of AbuDhabi to select an appropriate feed-in tariff rate, which is high enoughto attract the public, though not to an extent that would need high gov-ernment expenditure as well as a demand that cannot be controlled.Figure 4.13 below shows the feed-in tariffs utilized in various coun-tries of the world since 1990 to 2011, which shows that around 63 %more countries are choosing to use feed-in tariffs than quota systems(i.e. Renewable Portfolio Standards).

4.11.3 Access to Parties Wanting to Connect to theGrid

Where there is a need for the utility firms to pay feed-in tariffs, partic-ularly if such tariffs are higher as opposed to their conventional powertariffs, it is likely that they will be required to increase their overallprices to cover such costs. Nonetheless, the increase in the demandfor the installations of solar power, resulting from increased incentivesgained by consumers in terms of feed-in tariffs and because the de-cline in the prices of PV panel, may lead to a drop in the cost of solarpower generated. In this case, the decreasing costs of solar power and


Figure 4.13: The feed-in tariffs that are used in different nations aroundthe world [38]

the increasing prices of electricity converge for the prices of electric-ity yielded from PV panels to be competitive with the prices of gridelectricity. In effect, this phenomenon offers an opportunity for a hugedemand increase [38].

4.12 The Contingency Plan

There are ten major steps describing the actions that will be takeninto account if the power is lost or the equipment stops working [70].The contingency plans starts with reviewing of the different functionalcomponents of the facility, their reliance on power, and the potentialeffect of the loss on the equipment or users. This step helps in un-derstanding the operations of the facility and quantifying its financialeffect to determine the areas that need to be dealt with [59]. In thenext step, which is the equipment identification, all the power systemsor equipment, together with the conditions of operation will be docu-mented with the help of the account manager. Through this action, itwill be possible to identify the weaknesses of the system that shouldbe tackled before the plan implementation. The subsequent action willbe to conduct an evaluation of the facility loads that are most critical as


well as the requirements of the process for the imperative operations.They comprise those having the highest financial implications for aperson’s business. Load polarization or load shedding may be takeninto account at this stage for the reduction of the amount of capacityneeded. The system connection is then done, involving determininghow and where connections to cut down money and time requirement.

The other steps of the contingency plan include documentation of poweravailability, electrical connection, location of temporary equipment,creation of the plan, and implementation and reviewing of the plan[70]. The action of electrical connection involves the establishment ofthe location of temporary connection of the electrical wires and otherappliances and the manner in which they have to be made. Plan cre-ation, is the second last step, which involves a plan proposal. Finally,implantation and review are done to in the ordering as well as deliv-ering the temporary system in a state of emergency.

Chapter 5

Results and Analysis

Chapter 5 concentrates on results and analysis . It starts by explaining the as-sumptions and considerations. It also shows the calculations of Wind Turbineand Solar Power.

5.1 Assumptions and considerations

The main assumptions and considerations made during the study ofNEOM city renewable energy mix and balance problem:

1. Assume the size of the wind power farm is 110km2. We assumed110km2 in order to reach to the desired power capacity based onthe wind turbine parameters and their effects on dynamic behav-ior.

2. Ideal wind speed (an average of 10.3m/s). This assumption istaking from the NEOM Facts Sheet [51].

3. Assume a wind farm contains 240 wind turbine units. We as-sumed 240 wind turbine units in order to reach the desired powercapacity based on the wind turbine parameters.

4. Assume we are using MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW model for thewind turbines [68]. We assumed MHI Vestas V164-9.5MW basedon the best current technology so far.

5. Assume that we are building 4 wind farms with total capacity of9.1373GW .

75

76 CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

6. Assume Power coefficient for wind calculations is Cp = 0.267

because the power coefficient in the limit real world is well belowthe Betz Limit. The Power coefficient is taking from MHI VestasV164-9.5MW data sheet [68].

7. Assume we are using AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Re-sources model for the tidal turbines. We assumed AR1500 TIDALTURBINE - Atlantis Resources model based on the best currenttechnology so far [8].

8. Assume Saudi–Egypt Causeway is 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3mWidth) for tidal power calculations [7]. We assumed the Saudi–EgyptCauseway size after the Egyptian minister of transport IbrahimAl-Dimairi (the project mastermind) announced the size [7].

9. Assume Power coefficient for tidal calculations is Cp = 0.428.The Power coefficient is taking from AR1500 TIDAL TURBINEdata sheet [8].

10. Perennial solar resources (20MJ/m2), which is equal to 5555.5Wh/m2.This assumption is taking from NEOM Facts Sheet [51].

11. Assume the size of the solar power station is 100km2. We as-sumed 100km2 in order to reach to the desired power capacitybased on the solar panel parameters.

12. Assume we are using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM2 model forthe solar panels [88]. We assumed LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM2model based on the best current technology so far.

13. Assume a single solar panel has a capacity of 375W .

14. Assume a solar station contains 51.02 Million solar panel units.This assumption is based on the calculation in Appendix A.3.

15. Assume that we be building 3 solar power stations with totalcapacity of 57.398GW . We assumed 3 solar power stations inorder to reach to the desired power capacity.

16. Assume that a single solar tower power is 370MW through threetowers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towers is surrounded by about100,000 heliostat mirrors. This assumption is based on the casestudy of Ivanpah Project in south-eastern California.

CHAPTER 5. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 77

17. Assume that we be building solar tower power plants with a totalcapacity of 1.11GW .

18. Assume we are using brine4power battery with a capacity of120MW [117]. This assumption is based on the case study ofbrine4power battery in Germany.

19. Assume that we be building 6 brine4power batteries with totalcapacity of 720MW .

20. Saudi Arabia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17GW each).This assumption is after the announcement of the Gulf Coopera-tion Council in December 2006 [108].

21. Saudi Arabia nuclear plants will give a total capacity of 272GW .

5.2 Challenges in implementing renewableenergy in NEOM

Renewable energy is a solution to climate change because it reducesthe greenhouse gases emitted. However, it is evident that a wide rangeof challenges and issues derail the exploitation of the alternative en-ergy. Consequently, renewable energy resources are not exploited totheir full capacity. It is important to identify the issues and comeup with solutions to enhance the utilization of the resources in com-plementing and where possible substitute the fossil energy sources.Therefore, the discussion seeks to provide solutions to various issuesfaced in the process of generating the energy and setting up of windand solar resources.

5.2.1 Challenges and Solutions

The Problem of Variability in Alternative Energy and the Integrationof Alternative Sources to the Main Grid

The variability of the output from the wind and solar energy arise fromthe changes in the weather patterns and the time of day. Variation, inthis case, refers to the challenges involved in the integration of theoutput from the alternative sources into the grid [19]. The issue arises


from the fact that the grid is expected to supply the energy consis-tently to the consumers for stable economic productivity. In addition,the variations can be a threat to the main grid because the massive de-viation can de-capacitate the systems.

Some strategies can be used to reduce the implication of the challenge.The first solution would be based on the improved planning and co-ordination, such that the demand for energy is matched with the pro-duction capacity. For instance, since the solar energy output is at max-imum during the day, solar-powered plants should optimize their pro-duction capacity at that time. The matching of the demand and supplywould enhance the reliability of the alternative energy sources.

The second solution is the application of the storage technology [43].The essence, in this case, is to assist in matching the output to thedemand during the high production intervals and release the storedenergy during the low or no output intervals. The technologies thatare likely to be used in this setup include the molten-salt storage andthe underground natural batteries. The storage facilities are connectedto the production plant to store the excess energy. The stored energywould then be released at the appropriate intervals to fulfill the de-mand during the no/low output intervals.

The third solution is the interconnected transmission networks. Thesolution entails to the aggregation of power output from plants locatedin a broader region [76]. For instance, a country with a vast land masswhere different regions have diverse sunlight intensity patterns canhave solar plants in the various regions to have a complemented out-put level. The same approach can be adopted with the wind plantsbeing located in different regions. As a result, a variation in outputfrom either of the plants does not entirely affect the power supply intothe grid.

Challenge of the Weather Change, Inability to Predict the Amountof Cloud Cover by The Grid Operator

A grid operator is concerned about the weather patterns because itaffects the output capability of the wind and solar power plants. Re-garding the solar energy, the difficulties experienced when predicting


the cloud cover is a significant concern because it leads to variationin sun light and lays reaching the surface of the solar panels. Amidthe difficulties in predicting the cloud cover, it is important to mitigatethe variation of the solar plant output by installing solar panned withthe capability of converting both the heat and light from the sun intoenergy. At the time of cloud cover, the heat from the sun remains inthe air and hence could still be converted into electric energy [141].The second strategy will be achieved by interconnecting energy out-put from the solar plants from different regions or locations that arefar apart. Therefore, at the intervals when some of the solar plantsare affected by the clouds, the other plants would be producing a highamount of energy to achieve the needs of the main grid.

Furthermore, a grid operator, where possible, can recommend or as-sist in the installation of hybrid plants. In this case, the solar pan-els and wind turbine are placed in the same location and their outputcombined before being connected to the grid or being used for inter-nal purposes within the system. In a most likely incidence, especiallyat the cloudy intervals, the speed and strength of wind could be highand hence yield high output from the wind turbines [141]. At the time,the wind strength would be weak, but optimal sun radiations wouldreach the solar panels. Therefore, the hybrid system would assist inreducing the impact of variation of output from the solar panels on acloudy day.

The Difficulty of Capturing Wind Energy Due to Nature of the Ter-rain

Wind energy is best exploited in terrain that the speed and strength ofthe wind can drive the turbines consistently and effectively for the out-put level to be reliable. Therefore, it is imperative to ensure that beforesetting a wind power plant, the wind patterns should be comprehen-sively explored. First of all, it should be clear about the leeward andwindward side of the terrain. The leeward side is the terrain facing thewind, while the windward side is the area facing the wind. Therefore,to optimize the amount of wind utilized, a wind plant should be set onthe windward side of the terrain [85][105]. The second solution to theproblem is setting up of the energy plants in a terrain characterized bya few number obstacles, including trees, building, or mountains/hills.


In fact, this consideration is important because it will ensure that thespeed and strength of the wind driving the turbines remain high atall times for optimal energy generation. Thirdly, sometimes it is notpossible to avoid some obstacles due to lack of control on propertyrights by other parties. As a result, it is advisable for a wind powerplant management to elevate the wide turbines in heights higher thanthe obstacles to reduce the impact of the obstruction. According toQuaschning, turbines placed 10 meters higher than the obstacles cantrap the optimal energy output [120]. In another approach, a turbineplaced at a distance 35 times the height of an obstacle away is preferredfor optimal energy output [120].

Challenge of Dust and Sand Accumulation on the Solar Panels

Dust and sand are inevitable in arid and semi-arid areas. As a result,the output from the solar panel plants in the cities in the entire MiddleEast has been adversely affected. The dust and sand on the surfaceof the solar panels reduce the effectiveness to generate electric energybecause the absorption levels are reduced. The issues should be ad-dressed to assist in optimizing the energy output from the solar plants.First of all, the problem could be addressed effectively by having inplace a system that would assess and detect the accumulation of thedust and sand on the panels.

Energy solution firms have come up with technology-driven gadgetsthat can be used in the evaluation of the amount of radiations absorbedby the solar panels. For instance, Kipp and Zonen company have man-ufactured a gadget regarded as CHP1 Pyrheliometer, which is a ra-diometer system connected to the solar panel to evaluate the changesin the amount of solar energy absorbed. The data from gadgets such asCHP1 Pyrheliometer can be transmitted to the control center throughthe GPS system. In case there is a significant reduction of energy, themanagement can check out to find out whether the capacity of the pan-els is affected by the accumulation of dust and sand particles [28]. Thesubsequent step, in this case, would be to undertake a cleanup exer-cise to remove the obstacles on the service of the panels. The dust andparticle removal exercise can best be undertaken using dry blowers foreffective removal with no effect of moisture on the electric system. It isimportant to note that the exercise should be done regularly to ensure


that the solar panel plants are at their optimum levels.

In larger scale projects, removing dust obstacles through blowers wouldbe expensive and tedious. The problem can be addressed using therobot technology for the cleanup. For instance, a company named No-madd has successfully designed and marketed waterless robots withthe capability of crawling over the panels [36]. The robots are effectivein undertaking the cleaning exercise fast and at limited cost. The factthat they do not need to be manned leads to saving on labor costs [36].Furthermore, since no water is required, it makes the gadgets effectivein water-scarce areas such as in major parts of Saudi Arabia. Therefore,the robots are effective in cleaning panels in large solar projects. Withthe technology such as CHP1 Pyrheliometer identified above, projectsmanagers can detect accumulation of dust remotely and undertake thecleanup exercise using robots effectively and efficiently. The combina-tion of the technology is considered effective in addressing the dustand sand accumulation on the panels.

Challenges in the Implementation of the Renewable Energy in aCity in a Remote Area

The implementation of renewable energy in some cities are adverselyaffected by the aspect of remoteness. In fact, grid extension costs andresources required to deliver fuel to such areas would be astronomi-cally high. Therefore, it is difficult for such cities to become self-energysufficient. Nevertheless, there are two strategies upon which the issuescan be addressed. First, small-scale renewable energy firms should belicensed to set up wind and solar plants in the remotely located cities.The energy produced from such plants should be supplied within thecities without necessarily being connected to the national grid. Sec-ondly, the consumers, including homes, commercial business, and in-dustries in such a city should be encouraged to install their solar pan-els and where possible wind turbines to generate energy at the capac-ity of their needs [129]. As a result, the demand for energy from thelocal suppliers would be reduced. Overall, the city would become self-sufficient, and the high cost of supply from the national grid would bereduced.


5.3 NEOM Generation Capacity

5.3.1 Wind Turbine Power

Wind Turbine Power Analysis

The operation of wind turbines is based on the transformation of thekinetic energy into electrical energy for public use. Wind turbines con-vert the kinetic energy into rational kinetic energy in the turbine. Thenthey convert rational kinetic energy into electrical energy [16]. Thenational grid supplies electrical energy to the public and corporateuse. The wind speed and the swept area of the turbine determine theamount of available energy for conversion. The planning of a windfarm requires an estimation of the expected power and energy outputof each turbine. These data are crucial for economic viability calcula-tion. Figure 5.1 shows an artificial wind farm located in NEOM.

Figure 5.1: Artificial wind farm in NEOM [106]

NEOM management is using wind data to evaluate the potential oflocation Facts Sheet, NEOM [51]. It is necessary to know the expectedpower and energy output of each turbine in different conditions foreconomic purposes. The analysis includes calculations related to theproduction of the rotational kinetic in a wind turbine according to itswind speed [125]. It is the lowest wind speed that is necessary for awind turbine to operate and produce power.

The mathematical model includes different variables. Table 5.6 in-cludes the definition of these variables: The kinetic energy of a bodywith a mass m, maintaining a constant acceleration, while moving at


Table 5.1: Variables definitionDefinition Variable UnitKinetic Energy E J

Density ρ kgm3

Mass m kg

Swept Area A m2

Wind Speed v ms

initial velocity u ms

Power Coefficient Cp unitless

Power P W

Radius r m

Mass flow rate dmdt

kgs

Distance x m

Energy Flow Rate dEdt

Js

Time t s

a velocity v can be equated to the work accomplished W when the ob-ject was being displaced from rest to a distance s with a force F [17],according to Newton’s Law, we have:

F = may

Hence,E = mas (5.1)

Using the third equation of motion:

v2 = u2 + 2as

we obtain:

a =v2 − u2

2s

considering that the initial velocity of the body, which is at rest, is zero,i.e. u = 0 , we obtain:

a =v2

2s

The above expression is then substituted in equation (5.1), where weobtain the kinetic energy of a moving mass to be:

E = 0.5mv2 (5.2)


The degree in which the energy changes gives us the power in thewind:

P =dE

dt= 0.5v2

dm

dt(5.3)

While the mass flow rate is represented by:

dm

dt= ρA

dx

dt

And the degree of shift of distance is depicted by:

v =dx

dt

We obtain:dm

dt= ρAv

Thus, deducing from equation (5.3), the definition of power is givenby:

P = 0.5ρAv3 (5.4)

In 1919, Albert Betz, a German physicist, indicated that any wind tur-bine cannot convert more than 16/27 (59.3%) of the kinetic energy intomechanical energy that is capable of turning a rotor [16]. Nowadays,the Betz Limit or Betz‘ Law serves to calculate the kinetic energy. Thetheoretical maximal power efficiency of any wind turbine is 0.59. It iscalled “power coefficient” (Cmax = 0.59).

Moreover, it is impossible for the wind turbines to run at this topmostlimit. Each turbine possesses a distinct Cp value, which also repre-sents the function of the speed of wind that the turbine is working in.After the incorporation of different engineering necessities of a windturbine, particularly durability and strength, the conventional worldthreshold reduces well below the Betz limit with values of 0.35 to 0.45depicted even in the best designed wind turbines [17]. Moreover, bytaking into consideration all the attributes inn a comprehensive windturbine system such as the generator, bearings, and gearbox, only tento thirty percent of wind power is really turned into useful electricity[125]. Therefore, the power coefficient needs to be incorporated intoequation (5.4) resulting in an extractable wind power represented as:

Pavail = 0.5ρAv3Cp (5.5)


Making use of the equation for the surface area of a circle, the areabeing swept by the turbine can be computed by from the length of theturbine blades as depicted below:

A = πr2 (5.6)

As depicted by figure 5.2, the length of the blade is equated to the ra-dius.

Radius= Blade length

Hub height=80 or 100 m

Figure 5.2: Wind turbine: swept area, blade length, and hub height

The resulting value always stipulated by the manufacturers of the tur-bines. However, it is significant to comprehend the association be-tween all these factors and to make use of the equation to compute thepower at the speed of wind other than the stipulated wind speed. Itis important to have ample information regarding the behavior of tur-bines in varying wind speeds, as it will help to understand the amount


of money lost by any downtime of the turbine [125]. Understandingthe power that a turbine should produce is also important because itwill allow picking up of any problem signaled by a lower then esti-mated energy values. It is vital to predict the amount of energy thatwill be generated by a turbine in an energy market considering thatenergy is valued and sold to consumers before being generated. Thisimplies that precise computations of the energy are very significant toharmonizing the energy in the market and to projecting a firm’s in-come.

Wind Turbine Power Calculations

The calculations is for one wind farm (110km2) and we assumed wehave 240 wind turbines. The data below is provided as an example ofthe calculation [68]:

Table 5.2: Wind Example DataDefinition Variable ValueDiameter d 164mRadius r d

2= 82m

Blade length L 82mAir density ρ 1.23 kg

m3

Power Coefficient Cp 0.267Ideal Wind Speed vwind.ideal 10.3m

s

Rated Wind Speed vwind.rated 14ms

Cut-out Wind Speed vwind.cutout 25ms

Number of total wind turbines Turbinetotal 240 units

To calculate the area, we first have to replace radius r of the sweptarea in equation (5.6) with the length of the blade L as shown below:

A = πL2 = 21124.069m2

Therefore, the power coming from the ideal wind and transformedinto rotational energy can then be computed based on equation (5.5):

Pwind.ideal = 0.5ρAv3wind.idealCp = 3.7903MW

The following equation shows the power with rated wind speed:

Pwind.rated = 0.5ρAv3wind.ratedCp = 9.5MW


Figure 5.3 shows the power curve for a range of wind speeds for asinge wind turbine. Please see Appendix A.1: MathCAD calculationfor more information.

Figure 5.3: Singe wind turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds

Table 5.5 shows the total power with different wind speed:

Table 5.3: Total power vs. different wind speedTotal Power Equation ValuePwind.ideal.total Turbinetotal Pwind.ideal 0.9097 GWPwind.rated.total Turbinetotal Pwind.rated 2.2843 GWPwind.total.4farms 4 Pwind.rated.total 9.1373 GW

NEOM Wind Turbine Capacity

Assume the size of the wind power farm is 110km2 and we have ratedwind speed (an average of 14m/s). Assume that we have 4 wind farmsand each one of them contains 240 wind turbine units and we are usingMHI Vestas V164-9.5MW model for the wind turbines [68]. With thisscenario, NEOM will have a capacity of 9.1373GW from wind turbines.


5.3.2 Tidal Turbine Power

Tidal Turbine Power Analysis

Tidal power is known as an effective tool which can be used in gen-erating electricity process. In this section, various methods which usetidal power are discussed and analyzed. In addition, the most efficientmethods of calculating tidal power are introduced. The potential ofthis method and possibility of its implementation in the near futureare also discussed widely in this section [147].

Tidal power, or tidal energy, converts the energy of tides into electric-ity or other forms of power. The energy was first harnessed by RanceTidal Power Station in 1966 [147].

Tidal power is less typical; however, it becomes rather clear that suchpower has considerable potential for the further use [37]. There areseveral causes of such trend. First of all, tides are more predictablein comparison with wind energy and solar power. Secondly, it nowbecomes much more available than previously. Until recently, tidalpower was expensive to use in addition to the limited availability ofsites with sufficiently high tidal ranges or flow velocities, which madethe possibility of their use even less [27]. Nowadays, however, designimprovements (such as dynamic tidal power, tidal lagoons) along withthe turbine technology introduction (for instance, new axial turbines,cross-flow turbines) made tidal power both more available and morecost-efficient.

To harness tidal energy, a dam is built at the point where the tidalbasin opens. In the dam, there is a sluice through which the tide canflow into the basin [147]. Electricity is generated through processesthat follow after the basin water rises as a result of closure of sluiceand drop of sea water.

Tidal power is the only in its essence as it appears directly from themotions of Earth-Moon system rather than from the Earth-Sun one,which is more typical for other forms of energy. Tides are caused bythe forces produced by the rotation of both the earth and the moon aswell as the sun [27]. Nuclear energy is derived from fossil remains.Geothermal power is harnessed from 80% Earth’s heat caused by ra-


dioactive decay and 20% residual heat produced through planetaryaccretion [147].

The movement of large volumes of water in oceans and seas is causedby gravitational forces of the sun and the moon [37]. Several factorswhich determine the magnitude of the tide include the following: thevarying position of the moon and sun in respect to the position ofEarth, the rotation of planet the earth, and the physical attribute ofthe floor of large water bodies where the tides are forming.

In its essence, tidal power is considered renewable energy resourcesas it is practically inexhaustible. Such classification is received becausetides emerge only from gravitational interaction with the Sun and theMoon and the Earth’s rotation, which is itself eternal process.

A tidal generator is used to harness this kind of energy. It producesmore power when the variations and speeds are huge [27].

The movement to tides is associated with the loss of earth’s mechanicalenergy which is as a result of dissipation at the bottom of the sea andbarriers on the edge water bodies. The Earth has been slowed downby 4.5 billion years since the time it was formed and its rotation energystands at 83% in the past 620 million. There is an increase of period ofrotation which means the tidal power will become noticeable in time.

There are three methods of tidal power: Tidal barrage, Dynamic tidalpower, and tidal stream generator [147].

Tidal stream generator, also known as tidal turbine, is based on theextraction of the moving masses of water. It works similarly to an un-derwater wind turbines. Among all the major forms of tidal power,tidal stream generators are proved to be the most cost-efficient andecologically friendly [37].

Due to the considerably short time of tidal stream generators use, thistechnology faces lots of experiments in its utilization and, therefore,many varieties in its design and functions [27]. As a result, althoughthere are several types close to large-scale deployment, there is stillno specific winner among different kinds of tidal stream generators.


Nowadays, there exist several successful prototypes with high possi-bility of implementation in the nearest future. At the same time, thistype of tidal power is still not commercialized and produced in largeamounts [37].

Various designs of turbines have different efficiencies and power out-put. If the efficiency of turbine is known, equation (5.5) can be used todetermine the available energy from the kinetic systems [99].

The tidal barrage is used to generate energy from the moving in andout water masses, pushed out of river or bay because of the tidal forces.Although it has a dam-like structure, tidal barrage does not dam wateron only one side as it releases water to the bay or river when the tide ishigh. When the tide subsides, it allows the water to flow out. Control-ling the sluice gates at crucial moments and measuring the tidal flowsenable this process. Turbines are strategically placed where the sluicesare placed to tap the energy.

As stated earlier, a barrage is built across a water body. When thewater flow in and out of the water area, the barrage turbines start gen-erating power. The process is identical to that of the hydro power aspower generation takes place only when there is a difference in vol-ume of water on either side of baggage to allow it to flow. The mostsignificant parts of the system include the turbines embankments ofthe baggage, sluices, caissons, and the ship locks [99].

Ebb generation is named in such a way because it presupposes gen-eration of power through the change of tidal direction. Water flowsthrough the sluices during high tides; and then the sluices are shut.When the sea level falls to the sufficient level, the turbine gates areopened so that the turbines could generate the power. This processtakes place until the head becomes low again: then, the basin is filledagain when the sluices are opened, and the turbines are disconnected.In such a case, the cycle is continuously repeated [99].

In flood generation, the tide flood is used, caused by the filling thebasin through the turbines. A bigger volume of water on the upperside of basin allows formation of a flood. The difference in water levelbetween basin and sea side of baggage lowers faster than it would


have done in the ebb generation. The challenge is dealt with by usingthe “lagoon” model [147].

The basin water is increased when the tide is high by reversing ex-cess energy. As power output is connected to the head, the energy insuch a case is returned. When pumping of a high tide is raised by 10feet, the water is raised by 2 feet. Consequently, the revised low tide isincreased by 12 feet [63]. The linear relationship is related to square ofthe differentiation of tidal height.

The dual basin type is another form of energy barrage configuration.The two basins in this system work in the different regimes: whenthe first one is emitted at low tide, the second one is filled at a hightide. In such a way, the turbines placed between the basins providegeneration of energy appears with high flexibility and almost contin-uously all over the time. However, it should be noted that two basinschemes are expensive to create. At the same time, this scheme can beconstructed in a specific geography, where the costs could be loweredsignificantly [27].

Tidal pools have the structure of the enclosing barrages. Those arebuilt on the high level tidal estuary land that generate power (approxi-mately 3.3W/m2) from the trapped high water. Two lagoons which op-erate at varying time intervals have the capability of producing 4.5W/m2.Tidal series of lagoons has an ability to raise the higher water levelthan its alternative, high tide. They also deliver constant output of7.5W/m2, using intermittent renewable for pumping. They can beused instead as an alternative to the Seven Barrage [147].

Being a relatively new method of tidal power generation, dynamictidal power is based on building specific structure, which is alike tobig dam. These kind of structures lead to ‘T’ shape that extends fromthe position of the coastline [63].

Dynamic tidal power (DTP) dam extends for thirty to sixty kilome-ters, built perpendicular to the coast without enclosing any area. TheDTP dam hinders the acceleration of tides. As in the majority of theareas, tidal movements runs parallel to the coast, accelerating all thewater in one direction. The dam is extensive enough to create a size-


able impact on the movement of the tides[27].

With the capacity factor of about 30%, a single dam can generate over 8GW (8000 MW) of installed capacity. As a result, the estimated annualpower of each dam equals 23 billion kWh (83 PJ/yr). For the betterunderstanding, the average European consumes around 6800 kWh peryear. Therefore, one dynamic tidal power dam can provide energy for3.4 million Europeans. If to install two dams at 200 km distance fromeach other, they can help each other to level the output. There is noneed in high natural tidal range, which enables considerably big num-ber of suitable sites. The most suitable conditions are found in China,Korea, and the UK [147].

The primary issue of dynamic tidal power presupposes almost no powerof the demonstration project, even situated on the long dams as thepower generation capacity increases as the square of the dam length.Moreover, the economic benefit may arise with the dam length of ap-proximately 30 km long. In addition, the issue with the marine ecol-ogy, shipping routes, storm surges, and sediments may appear [147].Nevertheless, this method has excellent potential for the future usewith several countries willing to utilize it in the nearest future.

Tidal Turbine Power Calculations

The calculations is for one tidal farm with the size of the Saudi–EgyptCauseway 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3m Width) [7]). We assumed theSaudi–Egypt Causeway size after the Egyptian minister of transportIbrahim Al-Dimairi (the project mastermind) announced the size [7].Also, we assumed we have 1579 tidal turbines. The data below is pro-vided as an example of the calculation [8]:

To calculate the area, we first have to replace radius r of the sweptarea in equation (5.6) with the length of the blade L as shown below:

A = πL2 = 254.469m2

Therefore, the power coming from the ideal tidal and transformed intorotational energy can then be computed based on equation (5.5):

Ptidal.ideal = 0.5ρAv3tidal.idealCp = 0.447MW


Table 5.4: Tidal Example DataDefinition Variable ValueDiameter d 18mRadius r d

2= 9m

Blade length L 9mWater density ρ 1025.18 kg

m3

Power Coefficient Cp 0.428Ideal tidal Speed vtidal.ideal 2m

s

Rated tidal Speed vtidal.rated 3ms

Cut-out tidal Speed vtidal.cutout 5ms

Number of total tidal turbines Turbinetotal 1579 units

The following equation shows the power with rated tidal speed:

Ptidal.rated = 0.5ρAv3tidal.ratedCp = 1.5MW

The Power coefficient Cp is estimated to be 0.428, which is taken fromAR1500 TIDAL TURBINE data sheet as an ideal value [8]. Figure A.6shows the power curve for a range of tidal speeds for a singe tidalturbine. Please see Appendix A.2: MathCAD calculation for more in-formation.

Table 5.5 shows the total power with different tidal speed:

Table 5.5: Total power vs. different tidal speedTotal Power Equation ValuePtidal.rated.total Turbinetotal Ptidal.rated 2.38 GWPtotal.2sides 2 Ptidal.rated.total 4.76 GW

NEOM Tidal Turbine Capacity

Assume the size of the tidal power farm is the size of the Saudi–EgyptCauseway 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3mWidth) and we have rated tidalspeed (an average of 3m/s). Since the Saudi–Egypt Causewa has twosides, then we will be building one tidal farm on each side (total of2 farms) and we are using AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Re-sources model for the tidal turbines [8]. With this scenario, NEOMwill have a capacity of 4.76GW from tidal turbines.


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

0.17

0.34

0.51

0.68

0.85

1.02

1.19

1.36

1.53

1.7

Power curve for a single tidal turbine

Tidal speed (m/s)

Pow

er (M

W)

Ptidal.range 10 6-

vtidal.range

Figure 5.4: Singe tidal turbine: power vs. range of wind speeds

5.3.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power

Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Analysis

The sun provides four thousand times more energy every year onEarth than the one consumed in the whole world. The German sci-entists Gerhard Knies and Franz Trieb affirm that it would suffice tocover with solar collectors a small part (0.5%) of the hot deserts to sat-isfy the electrical needs of the whole world. As indicated by its ownname, solar energy is based on the use of radiation from the sun. Oneof the possibilities is to transform this energy into electricity. However,the generation of electricity is not the only way to take advantage ofsolar energy. It is also possible to use it in the form of heat, that is,to use it in heating systems or domestic hot water. According to theaforementioned report, the installed global capacity was 77 GW at theend of 2004. In spite of this, in the global calculation the contributionof solar energy to electricity generation is still small, although it is ex-pected that, due to its strong growth, it will become one of the energypillars in the world in the coming years.

Currently, there are two different technologies for generating electric-


ity from solar radiation. The first of these, called photovoltaic technol-ogy, consists in transforming solar radiation directly into electricity.The second possibility, called solar thermal technology, is based on us-ing solar radiation to heat a fluid and use it in a conventional thermo-dynamic cycle. A photovoltaic panel is a type of solar panel designedfor the use of photovoltaic solar energy [127]. The photovoltaic cellis a device formed by a thin sheet of a semi-conductor material, of-ten silicon. Generally, a photovoltaic cell has a thickness that variesbetween 0.25 and 0.35 mm and a generally square shape, with a sur-face approximately equal to 100 cm2.Figure 5.5 shows a PV Panel. Forthe realization of cells, the material currently used mostly is the samesilicon used by the electronics industry, whose manufacturing processhas very high costs, not justified by the degree of purity required forphotovoltaics, which are lower than those needed in electronics. Othermaterials for the realization of solar cells are:

• Mono-crystalline silicon: Energy efficiency up to 15-17%.

• Polycrystalline Silicon: Energy efficiency up to 12-14%.

• Amorphous Silicon: With energy efficiency less than 10%.

• Other materials: Gallium arsenide, indium and copper di-selenide,cadmium tellurium [139].

The photovoltaic system is defined as the set of mechanical, electrical,and electronic components that concur to capture and transform theavailable solar energy, transforming it into usable as electrical energy.These systems, regardless of their use and power size, can be dividedinto two categories: isolated (stands alone) and connected to the net-work (grid connected). Isolated systems, due to the fact that they arenot connected to the electricity grid, are usually equipped with accu-mulation systems of the energy produced. Accumulation is necessarybecause the photovoltaic field can provide power only during day-time hours, while often the greatest demand on the part of the useris concentrated in the afternoon and evening hours. During the inso-lation phase, it is, therefore, necessary to foresee an accumulation ofenergy not immediately used, which is proportional to the load whenthe available energy is reduced or even nil. A configuration of this typeimplies that the photovoltaic field must be dimensioned in such a wayas to allow, during the hours of insolation, the feeding of the load and


Figure 5.5: PV Panel [90]

the recharging of the accumulation batteries. Networked systems, onthe other hand, usually do not have accumulation systems, since theenergy produced during the hours of insolation is channeled to theelectric network. On the contrary, during the hours of little or no inso-lation, the load is fed by the network [127]. A system of this type, fromthe point of view of continuity of service, is more reliable than one notconnected to the network which, in case of failure, has no possibilityof alternative power.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Solar PV In general, both solarphotovoltaic and, above all, solar thermal energy has a very good ac-ceptance in modern world. However, it is convenient to know the


advantages and disadvantages of solar energy to reinforce or contrastour opinion. When we talk about energy sources, most people are po-sitioned in favor or against a certain type (solar energy, nuclear energy,wind energy, etc.). The arguments for positioning are varied: energyefficiency, pollution, safety, cost, etc. Therefore, we will try to analyzethe advantages and disadvantages of solar PV in the most objectiveway possible [127]. These pros and cons are mentioned below:

Advantages Of Photovoltaic Solar PV

• It is inexhaustible: We can consider the sun as a source of inex-haustible energy, its rays reach the earth while the planet exists,so it is logical to consider it as an inexhaustible source of energy.

• It is clean: It does not emit any type of pollutant to the environ-ment.

• Ideal for remote areas: It is the adequate technology to supplyelectricity to areas where the power line does not reach or is in-accessible, for example remote rural areas, islands or small cities.

• It is everywhere: In any part of the world where the sun shines,we can have access to this technology, it is a very important ad-vantage since it gives us independence from the important im-plementation zone, if we compare it for example with the hydro-electric dams that can only be installed on rivers that are highlyflowing, it represents a great advantage [96].

Disadvantages Of Photovoltaic Solar PV

• Great initial investment: The costs of the initial investment arehigh, although over time they are amortizing, a large amount ofmoney is needed to face the first stage of investment, perhapsfor a small household with little demand the cost will be morereduced but in the same way it represents a high value.

• Great territory for panel placement: Like wind energy, if peoplewant to implement a system for large consumption, at the levelof a small city for example, they need a large area of land for theplacement of solar panels. It can be a problem if they do not havethat space.


• Instability of solar radiation: Depending on the area, the time ofyear and the climate the amount of radiation can only vary, thusmaking the amount of solar energy that we can store unstable,this can be a problem if we do not have enough storage capacity(batteries) to cover the season of low solar radiation [96].

Functionality of System Components

PV Module Solar cells are an intermediate product of the photo-voltaic industry: they provide limited voltage and current values, com-pared to those normally required by conventional devices. They areextremely fragile, electrically non-isolated and without mechanical sup-port. Then, they are assembled in the proper way to form a singlestructure: the photovoltaic modules. The photovoltaic module is arobust and manageable structure on which the photovoltaic cells areplaced. The modules can have different sizes (the most used have sur-faces ranging from 0.5 m2 to 1.3 m2) and usually consist of 36 elec-trically connected cells in series. The modules formed have a powerthat varies between 50Wp and 375Wp [Wp = Watt power], dependingon the type and efficiency of the cells that compose it [90]. Figure 5.6shows components of PV system. Figure 5.7 shows PV system, its bat-tery and grid connection. Figure 5.8 shows Flow chart for PV moduleset-up.

Figure 5.6: . Components of PV system [90]


Figure 5.7: PV system, its battery and grid connection [90]

Figure 5.8: Flow chart for PV module set-up [96]

Photovoltaic Generator It consists of all the photovoltaic modules,suitably connected in series and in parallel, with the right combinationto obtain the current and voltage needed for a given application. Thebase element is the photovoltaic module. Several modules assembledmechanically between them form the panel, while modules or panelselectrically connected in series, to obtain the nominal generation volt-age, form the branch. Finally, the electrical connection in parallel ofmany branches constitutes the field. The photovoltaic modules thatform the generator are mounted on a mechanical structure capable ofholding them and that is oriented to optimize the solar radiation. Theamount of energy produced by a photovoltaic generator varies duringthe year depending on the insolation of the locality and the latitudeof it. For each application, the generator will have to be dimensionedconsidering the following aspects:

• electric charge.

• peak power.

• possibility of connection to the electricity network.

• latitude of the place and average annual solar radiation thereof.


• specific architectural features of the building.

• specific electrical characteristics of the load [96].

Comparison Between Types Of Solar Panels The pollution producedin the manufacture of the components of the photovoltaic panels andthe emissions of pollutants they produce depend on the technologyused. The most used photovoltaic systems are those based on silicon(extremely abundant element in the earth) monocrystalline, polycrys-talline and thin film. Variation in the constituent of silicon determinesthe different panels of photovoltaic technology. It is a fact that around90% of these panels utilizes silicon as a major constituent, especiallyin those panels used for domestic purposes, the percentage of Si goeshigher. The silicon used in photovoltaics can have various forms. Thebiggest difference between them is the purity of the silicon used. Thepurer the silicon, the better aligned its molecules are, and the betterit converts solar energy into electricity. Therefore, when choosing agood panel, it is best to consider the cost-efficiency ratio per m2. Crys-talline silicon is the basis of monocrystalline and polycrystalline cells[96]. Figure 5.9 shows compounds in solar panels.

Figure 5.9: Compounds in solar panels [96]

Monocrystalline Silicon Cell Panels The solar cells of monocrys-talline silicon (mono-Si), are quite easy to recognize because of theircoloration and uniform appearance, which indicates a high purity insilicon. The monocrystalline solar panels are formed by solar cells areobtained from cylindrical bars of monocrystalline silicon produced inspecial ovens. These bars are cut into thin square wafers (0.4-0.5 mm


thick) to make the solar panel. If they are well oriented, they usuallymanage to produce more energy than polycrystalline solar panels withthe same panel surface, so they are potentially more productive. Theyare more expensive to manufacture, and therefore, their selling pricecan sometimes be higher than polycrystalline solar panels [96].

Advantages of monocrystalline solar panels

• Monocrystalline solar panels have the highest efficiency ratessince they are manufactured with high purity silicon. The effi-ciency in these panels is above 15% and, in some brands, it ex-ceeds 21%.

• The lifespan of monocrystalline panels is longer. In fact, manymanufacturers offer guarantees of up to 25 years.

• They usually work better than polycrystalline panels of similarcharacteristics in low light conditions.

• Although the performance in all panels is reduced with hightemperatures, this occurs to a lesser extent in polycrystalline thanin monocrystalline [96].

Disadvantages of monocrystalline panels

• They are more expensive. Assessing the economic aspect, fordomestic use it is more advantageous to use polycrystalline oreven thin-film panels.

• The damage is likely to happen if the panel is covered with dirtor snow, and the damaging consequences become obvious if thecovering is around 50%. If it is decided to put monocrystallinepanels but could foresee that they may be shaded at some point,it is best to use micro solar inverters instead of chain invertersor exchanges. The micro inverters ensure that not all the solarinstallation is affected by only one affected panel.

• As a result of the manufacturing process, cylindrical blocks areobtained. Subsequently, four sides are cut out to make the siliconsheets. A lot of silicon is wasted in the process [96].


Polycrystalline silicon panels The first polycrystalline silicon solarpanels appeared on the market in 1981. Unlike monocrystalline pan-els, the Czochralski method is not used in its manufacture. The siliconis taken in its raw shape which is then melted. This liquid silicon isthen molded into a square shape. After that, the last stage of circuitmaking and cutting take place [96].

Advantage of polycrystalline panels Simpler manufacturing processthat reduces the overall production cost. Much less silicon is lost in theprocess than in the monocrystalline [139].

Disadvantages of polycrystalline panels

• Polycrystalline panels usually have less heat resistance than monocrys-talline ones.

• The efficiency of a polycrystalline panel is typically between 13-16%, because they do not have a silicon as pure as monocrys-talline.

• Greater need for space. It is necessary to cover a larger sur-face with polycrystalline panels than with monocrystalline ones[127].

Thin-film photovoltaic solar panels The foundation of these panelsis to deposit several layers of photovoltaic material in a base. “De-pending on the material used we can find thin-film panels of amor-phous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper, indium, gal-lium and selenium (GIS / CIGS) or organic photovoltaic cells (OPC).Depending on the type, a thin layer module has an efficiency of 7-13”[139]. Because they have great potential for domestic use, they are in-creasingly in demand.

Advantages of thin-film photovoltaic panels

• They can be manufactured very easily and in large shipments.This makes them cheaper than crystalline panels.

• They have a very homogeneous appearance.

• They can be flexible, allowing them to adapt to multiple surfaces.


• Performance is not affected so much by shadows and high tem-peratures.

• They are a great alternative when space is not a problem [127].

Disadvantages of thin-film panels

• Despite its low cost, it covers more space and produces less elec-tricity than monocrystalline.

• When more panels are needed, it is utmost necessary to investmore in metallic structure, wiring, etc.

• Prone to speedy degradation [127].

PV Combiner Box The PV combiner box is also known as array com-biner which is used to parallelly combine the PV module strings. Thistype of system is usually utilized in the off-grid connections. How-ever, for the on-grid connection, the only condition for the incorpora-tion of combiner box is if the connection is large. Each module strings,as per the input functionality of the system, contains a positive andnegative terminal; whereas, the positive terminal connects with thebreaker of that string (commonly called as fuse). The output wiresfrom the breaker are also connected to the positive wires, and the neg-ative ones are allocated and connected to the negative output knownas common bus bar. On the contrary, concerning the battery less grid-tied inverters, the integration of this array combiner is completely dif-ferent. In such case, the combiner box is already incorporated on theinput side; thereby, leaving out the necessity for any separate combinerbox. Apart from that, if there any on a few PV module strings, suchas less than or equal to 3, then the system does not require a combinerbox at all [127] [139].

Inverter The inverter is one of the most important components ingrid-connected systems, since it maximizes the current production ofthe photovoltaic device and optimizes the passage of energy betweenthe module and the load. It is a device that transforms the continu-ous energy produced by the modules (12V, 24V, 48V, . . . ) into alter-nate energy (usually 220V), to power the system and / or introduceit into the network, with which it works under an exchange routine.


The inverters for the connection to the electrical network are generallyequipped with an electronic device that allows to extract the maximumpower, step by step, from the photovoltaic generator. This device fol-lows the point of maximum power (MPPT) and has just the function ofadapting the production characteristics of the photovoltaic field to thedemands of the load. The exchange device with the network servesso that the electrical energy introduced into the network has all thecharacteristics required by it. Finally, the energy meter measures theenergy produced by the photovoltaic system during its period of op-eration [96]. Figure 5.10 shows wave function.

Figure 5.10: Wave functions [96]

Central inverter Central Solar Inverters are the most common optionfor inverters currently. They can be recommended when the solar in-stallation has a roof that is not shaded at any time during the day anddoes not have multiple addresses (Roof with two waters). Their solarpanels are grouped and connected by "chains". Each series or chainof panels is connected to a single inverter. This transforms the directcurrent electricity produced by the panels, into electricity AC Alter-nating current. It is a system with high conversion efficiency (DC /AC). However, it is not prepared to work with shaded panels or dif-ferent capacities or positioning. If they include monitoring system butnot very advanced since experts can only see how much the systemproduced in total and not each individual solar cell [96].

String Inverter In String convertor, the chains are interposed betweencentralized inverters. Furthermore, Only one string is connected to itsinput, so that the maximum power point (MPPT) follower is indepen-dent for each string. They allow the design of PV generators whose


strings do not have the same orientation or where there are shadingcomplications. On the other hand, its price is higher (in relation /kW). They are further divided into two classifications: Single Chainand Multi-chain. In the first type, each chain, composed of differentmodules in series, has its inverter representing an independent mini-installation; thanks to this configuration, higher yields are obtainedwith respect to the centralized inverters by means of each MPPT de-vice, reducing the losses due to shadows. It is suitable for articulatedsolar fields with different radiation conditions. It can also be used forinstallations made up of more geographically distributed solar fields.However, in multi-chain typology is interposed between centralizedinverters and chain inverters allowing the connection of two or threechains for each unit with orientations, inclinations and different pow-ers. On the side of the DC generator the chains are connected to spe-cific inputs controlled by independent MPPT and on the side of theintroduction in the network they function as a centralized inverter op-timizing the performance [90].

Micro Inverter The photovoltaic microinverters are devices for in-verting the energy generated by solar photovoltaic panels that canonly feed one or two panels. An inverter is a device needed to con-vert electrical energy into direct current produced by solar panels.

Conventional inverters, to which a group of panels is connected, usu-ally have a minimum power of approximately 1500 W, although thereare smaller ones, while these photovoltaic micro-inverters feed a panelof approximately 250 W or two in parallel. For a correct operation of aconventional solar inverter, each independent input (with solar track-ing point) must have modules connected with the same inclination,orientation and without shading problems of part of the panel field.These devices are designed for use in photovoltaic installations thatmeet one or more of the following characteristics:

• Small domestic installations, when the total power of panels isless than 1000 W.

• Systems where any of the panels may have shading problems.

• Locations with different orientation or inclination for the panels.


• The microinverters are emplaced attached to the panels, whichavoids having a device of a considerable size in some other place[90][139].

Power Optimizer Inverter Power optimizers offer many of the samebenefits as micro inverters, they tend to be a bit less expensive andmore efficient. Power optimizers combine the benefits of the most ex-pensive micro inverters and the standard chain inverter. Power op-timizers can be considered as a compromise between chain invertersand microinverters. Like the microinverters, the power optimizers arelocated on the roof next to - or integrated with - the individual solarpanels. However, systems with power optimizers continue to sendpower to a centralized inverter. Power optimizers do not convert DCelectricity into alternating current at the solar panel site. Rather, they"condition" the electricity in direct current by setting the voltage of theelectricity, at the moment it is sent to the photovoltaic inverter [139].An installation of solar panels with power optimizers is more efficientthan one that only uses a chain inverter. Systems that use optimizerstend to be more efficient and even more affordable than those that usemicro-inverters [127][139].

Types of Inverter Connection Figure 5.11 shows a basic circuit of PV.

Figure 5.11: Basic circuit of PV [139]

On-Grid Inverter The On-Grid inverter or installation connected tothe network convert the continuous electrical current of the solar pan-els to alternating current (AC), it is a system designed to interact di-rectly with the electrical network, that is, when the energy is distributed


in its home, business or industry, generates a significant saving in elec-tricity consumption. This On-Grid system does not require the use ofbattery banks, it produces energy directly to the network and fromthere it feeds everything connected to it. It is used in small installa-tions that only use electricity during the day, which means that it can-not be installed in areas where the electricity grid does not exist. ThisPhotovoltaic Inverter also monitors the volume, frequency and phaseof the home line. It produces a pure Sine wave, whose frequency andphase equals home electricity but with a larger volume [96].

Off-Grid Inverter Insulated inverters (with batteries) are used in in-stallations without connection to the electricity grid. They are able toconvert the direct current (DC) of the battery to alternating current(AC) of 110V-220V to feed the consumption of the house. They nec-essarily require the use of batteries and are capable of generating amodified or sinusoidal wave, directly extracting energy from the bat-tery. They are used to provide light in locations without connectionto the electrical network such as country houses, ships, pumping sys-tems, etc. For the sizing of an Off-Grid inverter, experts should haveparameters, such as the nominal power is the power that can be pro-vided by the inverter in normal operation and use. While the peakpower is the one that the inverter will be able to provide for a shortperiod of time, and that some electrical devices will need which, whenswitched on, need a high power at the start. This is the case of appli-ances with engines, such as pumps, refrigerators, freezers, blenders,drills, compressors, etc. Within this group we can find several types ofisolated inverters:

Isolated inverter Its purpose is to transform the direct current (DC)of the batteries in alternating current (AC) to 110Vac - 220Vac to powerthe appliances. To protect the battery are programmed to stop the sup-ply when the battery voltage is too low and avoid over discharges.They also incorporate protections against overvoltage, output shortcircuit, reversal of polarity and excessive temperature. For inverters inisolation , there are two types of inverters "Modified Wave and PureWave."

• Modified wave. Modified wave inverters have a higher perfor-mance compared to square wave, provide good value for money


in lighting, televisions, radiators or universal motors. These Mod-ified Wave inverters are used for practically all types of devicesalthough in some high-tech or inductive loads they may not workcorrectly since the wave is generated electronically (See Figure5.10).

• Pure wave. Pure Wave Off-Grid inverters are designed not togenerate interference or noise in electronic equipment, such astelevisions, sound equipment, among others. They are gener-ally used where there is no electricity or electrical network. Puresinusoidal wave inverters generate the same wavelength as theone we receive at home. They are more expensive than the mod-ified wave but can be used with all types of equipment [96].

Hybrid Inverter The hybrid inverters also incorporate an internalcharger able to charge the battery using an external 220V power sup-ply, such as generator sets, mains or gasoline engines. The advantageof the inverter-chargers is that the system becomes independent of theweather conditions and can work even on rainy or cloudy days orwhen the consumption in the home is much higher than expected andthe battery is discharged [139]. By incorporating the internal charger,when an auxiliary power source is present, all the energy supplied tothe house comes from the auxiliary source and at the same time thebatteries are charged, in this way the auxiliary source energy is usedto the maximum. They allow the start of generator automatically [96].Figure 5.12 shows the grid connection.

Figure 5.12: Grid connection [96]


Charge Controller The charge controller serves mainly to preservethe accumulators of an excess of charge by the photovoltaic generatorand of the discharge by the excess of use. Both conditions are harmfulfor the correct functionality and duration of the accumulators. Sincenormally the power required by the user is not proportional to the so-lar radiation (and, consequently, to the electrical production of a pho-tovoltaic system) a part of the energy produced by the photovoltaicfield has to be stored in order to be reused when the user needs it [139].This is the purpose of the accumulation system. An accumulation sys-tem is formed by a set of rechargeable accumulators, dimensioned insuch a way as to guarantee sufficient power autonomy of the electriccharge. The batteries used for this purpose are stationary type accu-mulators and only in very special cases it is possible to use automotivetype batteries. In this context, charge controller control and regulatethe system to not over charge [96].

DC Breaker This type of breaker is an essential component in a PVsolar system as it comprises the functionality to disconnect the flowof electricity from the array modules safely. Integrating it plays a vi-tal role, especially during troubleshooting process or if the system re-quires any maintenance. These issues can be examined by the inspec-tors and the corresponding action is taken. In DC circuits, the breakeris usually integrated already in the system, which can further be com-bined with the fuse or circuit breakers for more protection [96].

Charger A charger is a main part of the PV system. By its name, onecan perceive the meaning as if it is utilized to store the charge (thephotonic charge) from the solar source. However, in actuality, it iscompletely opposite. The PV system, like other system, require somepotential to start working. The charger is the source that provide theelectric source to charge the system and enabling it to perform photo-voltaic operation. It is usually a battery. This process is similar to theUPS system, although the overall operation of PV is different [96].

DC/AC Inverter As discussed earlier in the description of the in-verter. The basic principle of the inverter is to transform the DC cur-rent to AC current, which means converting Direct Current to Alter-nating Current. The DC / AC converters can convert the 12, 24, 48


V DC that produce the solar panels and stored in the battery, in al-ternating current of 125 or 220 V (currently, 230 V), as the which isnormally used in places where the conventional electrical network is.Main characteristics that define this type of inverter are following.

• Input voltage (VDC): This value must be equal to that of the ac-cumulator (12, 24, 48 V).

• Output voltage (VAC): This value must be normalized (230 VAC).

• Stability of the output / input voltage: variations of up to 10%for square wave converters and 5% for sinusoidal wave convert-ers are allowed. They are values that the norms admit for thevoltage of the conventional electrical networks, independentlyof the power demanded by the consumption. On the other hand,in installations with accumulators, the input voltage may not behigher than 125% nor lower than 85% of the nominal input volt-age of the converter.

• Wave type: At present, inverters must present a standard ACtype format with a pure sine wave.

• Overload capacity (peak power) and thermal protection: Veryuseful in installations with motors, since at the moment of start-up, the power needed for nominal operation can be doubled,even if only for a few seconds. It must be borne in mind thatany motor, when starting up, can consume a current up to fivetimes the rated current and that, as a rule, approximately threetimes.

• The energy efficiency or performance of the converter is the ra-tio between the energy that the converter facilitates to the con-sumptions in alternating current and the energy that this input(battery) converter needs. If the converter designed for a givenpower works at a fraction of this power, the performance will godown. A sinusoidal converter must be required to have a perfor-mance of 70% working at 20% of the rated power and 85% whenworking at a power greater than 40% of the rated power.

• Automatic start and standby state: Allows the power parts of thesame converter to be disconnected in the absence of consumption


and reconnected at the moment they detect an energy demandabove a previously fixed threshold.

• Protection against reversal of polarity and short circuits: Basicoptions, given the possibilities of error or faulty operation ofthe consumption circuits that are high during the life of the con-verter.

• Low harmonic distortion: Parameter related to the quality of thegenerated wave. Harmonics are normally eliminated by meansof filters, although this leads to losses. The variation of the fre-quency of the output voltage will be less than 3% of the nominal.

• Possibility of being combined in parallel: It will allow a possiblegrowth of the installation and the power consumption.

• Good behavior with temperature variation: Operating range be-tween -5oC and 40oC [96][139].

AC Breaker Like any other connections, the solar panel utilized breaker(differential switch) at both AC source and DC source. The input andoutput currents have a very small differential, when this differentialexceeds the sensitivity for which the switches are calibrated, a currentis created that activates the electromagnet which in turn enables theopening of the switch contacts, preventing the current passage. If thereis no earth connection, or is not connected to the socket, the differentialwill be activated when such a bypass occurs in the electrical appliancethrough a person who touches its metal parts, and is on a conductorfloor, will cause a discharge that would be dangerous or even deadlyif the current exceeds 30mA. In the differential switch there is a testbutton that simulates a defect in the installation and therefore, whenpressed, the installation must disconnect, it is recommended to test theswitch periodically. There are different degrees of sensitivity to estab-lish the value of the current with which the flow will be disconnected:

• Very high sensitivity: 10 mA.

• High sensitivity: 30 mA.

• Normal sensitivity: 100 and 300 mA.

• Low sensitivity: 0.5 and 1A [96].

Figure 5.13 shows the overall classification and grid.


Figure 5.13: Overall classification and grid [96]

Best Examples

The Solar Schools project of Greenpeace In Spain, the environmen-tal organization Greenpeace has launched the Solar Schools projectsince 1997. The Solar Schools network is a group of educational centersof all the autonomous communities interested in the installation of so-lar roofs in their buildings. Although these facilities report economicbenefits, they open up a wide range of possibilities: pedagogical, cur-ricular (allowing students to learn the operation and advantages ofsolar energy and getting used to seeing it as a reality), and vindicating(demonstrating that there is a demand for solar energy, requiring pub-lic administrations to put in place the means to satisfy that demand,and the electricity companies that facilitate their connection to the elec-tricity grid). At present there are almost 300 educational centers of allkinds: schools, institutes, faculties, universities, nurseries, etc. Somehave already made these installations, and others are interested in do-ing so [40]. At the initiative of Greenpeace, the centers registered inthe Network act in three directions:

• Demonstrative: with the installation of a photovoltaic solar roof,the viability of solar energy becomes evident in practice. Green-peace provides the necessary information (Solar Guide) and of-


fers the centers of the Network the centralized coordination andmanagement necessary to achieve the project, including the searchfor funding sources. For this, it has the collaboration of special-ized entities.

• Claim: Realization of activities in support of the Greenpeace cam-paign in favor of solar energy, such as: Manifesto in favor of solarenergy in schools, participation in Solar Week.

• Educational: Currently, different educational activities are beingprepared to give continuity to those already carried out [40].

Experience in Germany A simple project that proved to be extremelyeffective in promoting the photovoltaic solar energy sector was carriedout in Germany, where, in the first months of 2000, a national programbegan, characterized by:

• Does not provide for non-reimbursable grants.

• On the other hand, it foresees financing at a 10-year interest-ratesubsidized rate.

• Facilities related to the electric power produced by the photo-voltaic system are granted: in fact, each kWh produced is soldat a price of 0.5 (approximately 3 times the purchase cost of thekWh of the network) [98].

This program has allowed the implementation of photovoltaic systemsconceived as an investment. Secondly, it has allowed the realization ofsystems of high efficiency and quality so that they get the highest pos-sible production. Finally, it stimulates a punctual and efficient mainte-nance on the part of the users [98]. Figure 5.14 shows the Developmentof PV power generation in million kWh 2000-2012. Figure 5.14 showsPV system prices decrease steadily.

Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calculations

The calculations is for one solar power station (100km2) and we as-sumed we have 51.02 Million solar panels (This assumption is basedon the calculation in Appendix A.3). The data below is provided asan example of the calculation (using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM2model for the solar panels) [88]:


Figure 5.14: Development of PV power generation in million kWh2000-2012 [98]

To calculate one solar power station capacity, we need to the product ofthe total number of sol and ar s neededpanelModule Type (MaximumPower Points) as shown below:

Ptotal.1station = PaneltotalPmpp = 19.133GW

The following equation shows the power of 3 solar power stations:

Ptotal.3stations = 3Ptotal.1station = 57.398GW

Figure A.12 shows the maximum Power, maximum power points cur-rent, and short circuit current for a range of voltages for a singe solarpanel. Please see Appendix A.3: MathCAD calculation for more infor-mation.

Figure A.13 shows the maximum Power, range of currents for a rangeof voltages for a singe solar panel. Please see Appendix A.3: Math-CAD calculation for more information.

NEOM Solar Panel Capacity

Assume the size of the solar power station is 100km2 and we have Max-imum Power Points of 375W . Assume that we have 3 solar power sta-tions and each one of them contains 51.02 Million solar panel units and


Figure 5.15: PV system prices decrease steadily [98]

Table 5.6: PV solar Example DataDefinition Variable ValueLength Length 1960mmWidth Width 1000mmSize of 1 solar panel Sizepanel=Length Width 1.96 m2

Module Type (Maximum Power Points) Pmpp 375 WMaximum Power Pmax = Pmpp 375 WMaximum Power Points Voltage Vmpp 39.6 VMaximum Power Points Current Impp 9.5 AOpen Circuit Voltage Voc 48.3 VShort Circuit Current Isc 10.04 ANumber of total solar panels Paneltotal 51.02*106units

we are using LG315N1C-G4 | LG NeONTM2 model for the solar pan-els [88]. With this scenario, NEOM will have a capacity of 57.398GWfrom solar panels. Figure 5.18 shows an artificial solar station locatedin NEOM.

5.3.4 Solar Power Tower

Solar energy is one of the renewable and sustainable sources of powerwhose exploitation is assisting the world in reducing greenhouse ef-fect and destruction to the environment. In the contemporary world,technological advancements, including the development of solar pan-


Figure 5.16: Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximum powerpoints current and short circuit current vs. range of voltages

els and solar towers are making it possible for the solar energy to betrapped and used. Solar towers constitute an indirect solar powertechnology system. Through the system, energy from the sun is cap-tured and converted using a concentrated solar power tower [93].

Solar Power Tower Design and how it Works

In solar power tower system, the collection and concentration of solarradiation is facilitated by two fundamental components, including he-liostats and the thermal heat receiver. Heliostats are highly reflectivemirrors used in reflecting sunlight located in the thermal heat receiverat the top of the tower. The heliostats are strategically arranged on theground around the solar tower such that the sunlight and heat is re-flected to the tower throughout the day [42]. The thermal heat receiveris trough-shaped to increase the surface on which reflected heat fromthe heliostats is trapped.

The concentrated heat exceedingly rises in temperature to above 300◦C.The heat is used to heat thermal liquid, including oil or molten salt.The thermal liquid is then used to heat water running into a boiler toproduce steam. In addition, the steam is used in turning turbines to


0 5.4 10.8 16.2 21.6 27 32.4 37.8 43.2 48.6 540

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Irange2A

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Figure 5.17: Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of currentsvs. range of voltages

produce electricity [52]. In this case, the electricity is then transmit-ted into the grid or power storage facilities. After turning the turbine,the steam is passed through a condenser and then to the boiler for an-other cycle of the electricity generation. The heated thermal liquidsretain the temperatures, making it possible for the electricity produc-tion even at night. Figure 5.19 shows a Solar Power Tower system.

Solar Power Tower Electrical Capacity

The solar tower electrical capacity is dependent on the sunlight trendswithin the day. On a regular day, the electrical capacity of the systemstarts in the early morning in which the amount of power generatedincrease towards the afternoon. The production capacity in the morn-ing hours is usually low because the heat from the sun is considerablyweak (see figure 5.20 and 5.21). The generation reaches the maximumin the afternoon when the sun radiations are at the optimal heat levelsand start declining and reaches the lowest level at about 6.00 pm [91].


Figure 5.18: Artificial solar station in NEOM [106].

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How Power Tower Works

Power towers use large, flat mirrors called heliostats to reflect sunlight onto a solar receiver at the top of acentral tower. In a direct steam power tower, water is pumped up the tower to the receiver, whereconcentrated thermal energy heats it to around 1,000 degrees Fahrenheit. The hot steam then powers aconventional steam turbine. In this case, the medium that transfers heat from the receiver to the power blockis steam. Some power towers use molten salt in place of the water and steam. That hot molten salt can beused immediately to generate steam and electricity, or it can be stored and used at a later time.

In power tower CSP systems, numerous large, flat, sun-tracking mirrors, known as heliostats, focus sunlightonto a receiver at the top of a tall tower. A heat-transfer fluid heated in the receiver is used to generate steam,which, in turn, is used in a conventional turbine generator to produce electricity.

A large power tower plant can require thousands of computer-controlled heliostats that move to maintain pointfocus with the central tower from dawn to dusk. Because they typically constitute about 50% of the plant'scost, it is important to optimize heliostat design; size, weight, manufacturing volume, and performance areimportant design variables approached differently by developers to minimize cost.

Figure 5.19: Solar Power Tower system [66]

With the thermal liquid heat storage capacity, the output of power ex-tends up to the midnight (see figure 5.20).

The implication of this is that the electricity generation capacity of asolar power tower would be optimal during summer but lower duringthe winter seasons. Nevertheless, it is important to note that optimalradiation reflection influences the capability of the solar tower powerplant by keeping the heliostat panels clean and reflective.

Despite the fact that the capability of solar is dependent on the amountof solar radiation, technological innovation is used to assist in extend-ing power generation even at night. The thermal liquid heated at thesolar tower trough is made up of oil or salt. By design, the salt liquidis used in heating the water to steam and also as storage of heat to


Figure 5.20: Thermal liquid heat storage capacity [46]

Figure 5.21: Large-scale PV Integration study [91]

extend the generation into some hours at night. As a result, the solartower can produce electricity for about 20 hours a day. It means thatwith the storage of power generated during the pick hours, the energyfrom the tower system can be relied upon for 24 hours.

Solar Power Tower Size Versus Capacity

Evidently, the solar energy trapping takes place in two levels beforethe radiation is converted into heat for power generation. The highlyreflective heliostats concentrate the reflected radiations into a singlepoint; the surface of the tower trough. The number of the heliostats/mirrorsand the surface areas of the trough are the first components to definethe size of a power tower [46]. The number of mirrors and the size ofthe trough would, therefore, have a direct influence on the amount ofheat energy available for heating the thermal liquid (see figure 5.22).


The other aspect of size is the volume of the water boiler because itdetermines the amount of steam produced and used in turning theturbine for the generation of electricity. Therefore, a project developershould consider the size of the power tower system to ensure that ithas the capacity to produce the target amount of electricity.

Figure 5.22: The Size of Heliostat Field and impact on Capacity [46]

Examples of Solar power Tower Projects

The first example of solar tower power plant is the Ivanpah Project insouth-eastern California (see Figure 5.23). The plant was completedin 2010 and was designed to produce 370 Megawatts through threetowers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towers is surrounded by about100,000 heliostat mirrors. The project is capable of supplying electric-ity to 140,000 homes [52].

The second example is the PS 20 plant located near Seville, Spain (seefigure 5.24). The tower is 531 feet and is expected to produce 20 megawattsof electricity. The project involves about 1,255 mirrors.The size of oneheliostat mirror is occupying 120 square meters.

The third example of a solar power tower is the Solar Two Power Plantin Daggett, CA (see figure 5.24). The station had 1,926 heliostats, andits tower is 300 feet tall. The electricity output from the plant is ade-quate to meet the power demand for about 10,000 homes [93].


Figure 5.23: Aerial view of Ivanpah Project [32]

Figure 5.24: PS20 solar thermal power plant, Spain [89]

NEOM Solar Power Tower Plants

Assume that NEOM will build 3 solar tower power plants with a sizeof 3,500 acres (14.164km2) each [72]. Each solar tower power plant is370 Megawatts and has three towers of 459 feet tall. Each of the towersis surrounded by about 100,000 heliostat mirrors. The 3 solar towerpower plants will have a capacity of 1.11GW . Figure 5.26 shows anartificial solar power tower located in NEOM.


Figure 5.25: Airier view of Solar Two Power Plant in Daggett, CA [93]

Figure 5.26: Artificial solar power tower in NEOM [106].

5.4 In case NEOM does not reach demandcapacity

5.4.1 Natural battery

Design and how it works

Energy batteries play a critical role as storage facilities for excess en-ergy when not in use. In addition, some batteries are used as portableenergy banks. Worth noting is that the battery expertise undergoestechnological advancement from time-to-time. Natural battery un-derground is a recent technological advancement in which energy isstored below the ground level. A battery, in this case, is used in thestorage of renewable energy using the carbon dioxide from the powerplant. The system involves the pumping of high-pressurized and con-


centrated carbon dioxide into porous and permeable sedimentary rock[102]. The pressurized liquid, in this case, the carbon dioxide pushesthe brine on the rock. Consequently, the rock is also heated by energyfrom the power plant.

The heated and pushed brine is forced to enter into the battery reser-voirs to store the thermal energy [102]. The geothermal heat and thehuge amount of pressure, which is underground prevent the signifi-cant loss of heat, hence the optimal storage of the thermal energy. Theprocess is continuous, particularly during the low demand for the gridpower. The energy stored, in this case, is ready for use when the de-mand for electricity is high. When the power generated and suppliedto the grid falls below the demand, the thermal energy is convertedinto electricity to bridge the gap. In this case, the brine is used inturning steam-powered generator, while the pressurized and heatedcarbon dioxide is used in driving turbines by itself. The two fluidsuse up their heat after turning the turbine and hence are reheated andpumped back into the reservoirs. However, it is important to note thatthe electricity generated is connected to the grid (see figure 5.27).

Figure 5.27: Design of Natural Battery Underground [102]


The capacity of a Natural Battery Underground

The capacity of a natural battery underground is not yet ascertainedbecause the technology is still in the development phase. Neverthe-less, it is important to predict that its capacity would be relativelyhigher than on the open ground battery. The prediction is based onthe fact that energy loss from the underground facility would be lowcompared to a storage placed on the ground. The use of pressurizedliquefied carbon dioxide in the combination of brine would optimizethe heat generation and storage [102]. A small sized underground bat-tery can, therefore, be used in the storage of a relatively high amountof thermal energy, which enhances its capacity. The potential capacityof natural battery underground can be based on projected output ofbrine4power battery [117]. The battery is expected to have a powercapacity of up to 700 MWh and the power output of up to 120 MW[117].

The Advantages and Disadvantages of a Natural Battery Underground

The first advantage of the natural battery underground is that it is usedas a stabilizer between the demand and supply and electricity fromrenewable energy plants. For instance, at the time the generation ishigher than the demand, the excess energy does not go to waste, as itis stored in the batteries. On the similar perspective, when the energyoutput goes below the average demand, the energy stored in the un-derground batteries is used in complementing the shortage.

The second advantage is that the underground batteries do not occupythe space on the ground, making it a space-friendly facility. The spacesaved, in this case, can be used for other purposes. For instance, if thebattery is connected to a solar power plant; some panels can be placedon the ground after the battery is installed. Similarly, a wind turbinecan be mounted on the saved space.

Thirdly, the batteries largely involve the use of carbon dioxide, the gaslargely associated with global warming and air pollution. Therefore, itis an environmentally friendly project. With the optimal developmentand absorption of the technology, at least four million tons of carbondioxide would be stored underground and be used for over 30 yearsfor the purpose of energy storage. The carbon dioxide locked per year,


in this case, is equivalent to the amount emitted from a 600-negativecoal plant [102]. The battery would, therefore, assist in elevating theemission of the gas in two ways. First, by stabilizing the energy out-put from the renewable sources, hence reducing the demand for fossilsources of energy. Secondly, by extracting the gas emitted from thecombustion of fossil energy. It implies that the negative environmen-tal impact of the fossil energy would be reduced substantially.

However, the battery underground could have two fundamental dis-advantages. First of all, despite the fact that it saves on space, for thebatteries to be installed, the ground should be evacuated until the un-derground rocks are reached. The implication of this aspect is that itwould be a relatively expensive undertaking compared to when anon-ground battery is used. A close a look at figure 5.27 indicates thatthe underground height of about 3-5 kilometres may be required [102].The second disadvantage is that the technology used in the battery un-derground is not yet fully developed. Hence, it infers that just a fewentities have the grip of the innovation, understand how to install thebatteries, and offer maintenance services. In essence, it is, therefore,not yet an accessible technology.

Examples of the Best Natural Battery Underground around the World

The natural battery underground technology is still in the develop-ment phase [102]. Therefore, the technology is not yet translated intoan existing project. According to Morra, the technology is based onproven technical systems, and hence its feasibility is not questionable[102]. The first example of the best battery around the world (which isnot underground battery) is the lithium-ion battery set to be built in inAustralia by Tesla. The battery project has the capacity of 100MW bat-tery and can provide 129 megawatt-hours energy (MWh) to the region[44]. At its full capacity, the project can supply power to about 30,000homes for 1 hour and 18 minutes.

The second example is the 80 megawatt-hour underground battery lo-cated at Mira Loma, California with a power capacity of 80 megawatt-hour (Dunn). The battery has the power capability to serve about15,000 homes for 4 hours or 2,500 homes for a whole day [44].


The third one is the redox flow battery referred as brine4power beingset up in Germany by the Ewe Gasspeicher GmbH [71].Brine4poweris to be located in a Jemgum gas storage facility, in Friedrich SchillerUniversity in Jena and will have a capacity of 700 MWh and the poweroutput of up to 120 MW [71]. The battery system can store the powerfor several months; when fully charged it can supply a large city suchas Berlin with electricity for an hour [71]. Figure 5.28 shows the site onwhich brine4power is been constructed. Figure 5.29 shows the Designof brine4power.

Figure 5.28: The site on which brine4power is been constructed [71]

Figure 5.29: The Design of brine4power [71]


NEOM batteries capacity

Based on the current and best technology so far, a single brine4powerbattery has a capacity of 120 MW [117]. Therefore, we are assumingthat NEOM will build 6 brine4power batteries that will have a totalcapacity of 720 MW.

Fundamentally, further research would be required to ensure that thegeological factors such as the nature of rocks in the target sites are re-liable. For instance, the United States is considered as one of the mostsuitable places to adopt the underground technology because of thewidespread sedimentary rock formations required for the system. Thepotential sites for the batteries are within or adjacent to renewable en-ergy power plants, including solar, wind, and nuclear among others.

5.4.2 Nuclear Power Plants in Saudi Arabia

The world is experiencing an increased exploitation of renewable andgreen energy to complement and possibly replace the conventionalsources of energy. Nuclear energy is one of the many energy alter-natives that countries are in the process of exploiting. However, thetechnology requires massive capital investment. On the other hand,there are controversies surrounding the exploitation of new technol-ogy connected to developing weapons of mass destruction. The re-view of the exploitation of the nuclear power in Saudi Arabia providesthe overview of the steps made so far in exploiting the energy sourcein the national power mix.

Locations and Capacity

Saudi Arabia has not yet invested substantially in nuclear energy ex-ploitation projects, but has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants. Theprojects are projected to be completed in 20-25 years. In fact, the costis expected to stand at $80 billion. The power plants are expected tocontribute 17 GW, projected to 15% of the energy mix in the countryupon completion [109]. Plans are in place for the construction of firstnuclear power plant; senior officials have confirmed that the projectis in the final planning stage [10]. The plant will be made up of twonuclear reactors with a total capacity of 3.2 Gigawatt. Five countries;U.S., China, France, and Russia, as well as South Korea have made pro-


posals to take up the construction role. Indeed, the winner is due tobe announced and engaged early in 2019 [10]. In addition, Saudi Ara-bia is planning to build two small reactors, each with the capability ofproducing 120 megawatts [10]. The reactors would be commissionedby 2023, upon whose completion would contribute around 5% to thenational energy mix.

The government has not yet provided a precision location of the nu-clear energy plants. The reason behind this move might be the cautionrequired to reduce the negative implications of the plants. However,the authorities are assessing two sites considered appropriate for set-ting up the nuclear power plant. The kingdom is however yet to signcontracts for the site characterization study to determine the most pre-ferred setting for the plant. Nevertheless, the two sites are located atUmm Huwayd and Knor Dumeuihin [128]. The two areas are locatedon the coastal line near the UAE and Qatar borders.

The Design of Nuclear Power Plant

The design of a nuclear power plant is defined by the components ofthe reactor. First, the fuel is obtained from Uranium in the highly pres-surized vessel. The second component inside the reactor is the controlrods, which are made of neutron-absorbing material. The third com-ponent is the coolant, which plays two roles, including reducing theheat from the reactor and for the condensation of steam after turn-ing the turbine in the power generator. The third component consti-tutes the pressure vessel/tube; it is the vessel usually made of steel andholds the fuel element and the control rods (see figure 5.30). The othercomponent is the steam generator in which steam produced from thereactors is used in turbines to produce energy [110]. The last compo-nent is the containment, which is the reinforcement used in protectingthe reactor from external intrusion as well as cautioning the outsideagainst radiations from the reactor.

How Nuclear Power Plants Work

The Uranium heated in the reactor core under high pressures releasesatoms, which are attracted by the control rods. The movement of theatoms and fusion to the rods creates a lot of thermal energy, whichheats water (in the chambers) into steam. The steam is used in turn-


Figure 5.30: Design of Nuclear Power Plant [110]

ing the turbine used in the generation of the electricity. The steamproceeds (after turning the turbine) to the cooling chamber where itis cooled again into water. The water is recycled back to the reactionchamber and the electricity generation continues. From the figure 5.31,the output from the steam generator is the thermal energy, which isused in generating gross electricity energy [110]. Worth noting is thatsome of the energy is used in the plant in running the internal compo-nents while the net electric energy is supplied to the grid.

Figure 5.31: How nuclear power plants work. [110]


The Advantages and Disadvantages of Nuclear Power Plants

The first advantage of nuclear power is that it does not produce green-house gasses [111]. In fact, steam is the only gas emitted from the re-actors to the atmosphere. The second advantage is that nuclear energyis a reliable and efficient source of energy. A small amount of nuclearfuel produces a large amount of energy. The reliability of the energyis relatively higher compared to solar and wind energy sources whoseoutput depends on the weather conditions. A nuclear plant producesenergy throughout the year, for 24 hours a day unless there are techni-cal issues. As a result, the cost and supply of energy from the nuclearenergy is reliable. It is, therefore, a reliable energy source for sustain-able economic growth and development. As an alternative source ofenergy, it reduces the consumption of conventional fuels such as coalor oil. Therefore, the green energy is part of the key solutions to thereduction of global warming. The quality of air would be improvedand diseases arising from contaminated atmosphere reduced.

Despite the appealing advantages, there are some setbacks of nuclearenergy. The first disadvantage is that the technology required in set-ting up a nuclear technology is highly sophisticated. Therefore, it isnot easily exploited as a source of energy; this explains the reasonsthere are only few countries that have successfully exploited the powergeneration source. Secondly, despite the technological application ofsafety measures, the safety of nuclear power plant is highly compro-mised by the human factor involved in the management of the plants.Mistakes made, in this case, may lead to massive destruction and lossof life. For example, nuclear power plant accidents at Chernobyl andFukushima are highly associated with wrong decisions. The funda-mental problem is that a radioactive explosion, as a result of a mistakeor an error in handling a nuclear plant would be impossible to contain[111]. Furthermore, the development of nuclear energy technology ishighly subjected to international surveillance. The international com-munity would be keen to ensure that the technology is not used in theproduction of weapons of mass destruction.

Saudi Arabia Nuclear Power Plants Capacity

Since Saudi Arabia has plans to set up 16 nuclear plants (17GW each),then nuclear plants will give a total capacity of 272 GW, which will be


more than enough to cover NEOM electricity demand.

Chapter 6

Conclusions and Future Work

This chapter shows the derived conclusions with recommendations on futurework.

6.1 Conclusions

The world is shifting from the fossil energy dependence to renewableand sustainable mix. Solar and wind energy systems are particularlyimportant in the energy mix in the contemporary time. Despite thelack of appropriate government’s policies and legal framework, coun-tries in the Middle East, including Saudi Arabia have reformed theirenergy policies leading to increase in the number of renewable projectsinitiated. Continued efforts to attract more investment in research anddevelopment, human resource training, and the uptake of the newtechnology are highly recommended moving forward. The efforts, inthis case, would assist the countries such as Saudi Arabia to realizetheir renewable energy mix objectives.

Freiburg, Germany and Masdar city have proved that a country doesnot need other complex structures such as nuclear plants to providesufficient energy for a nation. Naturally existing sources of energy,which not only provides clean energy but is also friendly to the envi-ronment, can be depended upon effectively. All that is required arestrict policies imposed by the government and also citizens that arewilling to work to achieve it. Although challenging to implement, re-newable energy sources are better than any other energy sources.

132

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 133

The wind turbine designers frequently define this values. Nonethe-less, it is important to realize the connection between all of these fac-tors. It is also necessary to use the equation to calculate the powerat wind speeds. The knowledge of the differences in a turbine oper-ation in various wind speeds significantly influence the income lost.It is also necessary to understand the theoretical maximal power ofa turbine to be able to indicate potential problems. The energy mar-ket requires to make predictions about the potential of a turbine toproduce certain amount of energy since the sell of energy goes firstthan its production. The accurate calculations are significant for thebalanced distribution of energy in the market and for the company‘sincome forecasting.

Solar power tower system is one of the innovations that are makingit possible for the world to carry on with the objective of the shift-ing from the conventional to renewable sources of energy. The solartower and the heliostat/mirror field assist in trapping solar energyfrom which it is converted into electricity. The size of the heliostatfield defines by number and sizes, and the surface area of the towerdetermines the amount of solar trapped and generated. Solar powertower plants such as Solar Two Power Plant, PS 20 plant in Spain, andIvanpah Project are the attestation of how successful solar towers canassist in the utilization of green energy.

Nuclear energy is a highly reliable alternative power supply comparedto coal and oil sources. In Saudi Arabia, the government is in the plan-ning phase of implementing the first nuclear power plants. The en-ergy source is highly efficient and reliable because it does not dependon weather conditions. Nevertheless, the power plant developers andmanagers should be aware of the risks associated with the potentialexplosion. Appropriate technology and effective management of nu-clear reactors are fundamentally required.

Natural battery underground is a technology that is in the develop-ment phase. The technology is likely to assist in addressing the chal-lenges associated with fluctuation in energy generation in some of therenewable energy sources such as wind and solar. The technology in-volves the use of brine from the sedimentary rocks and carbon diox-ide in the storage of thermal energy, which is then used in generating

134 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

electricity when the demand is high. It is imperative to note that thetechnology would play an important role in reducing the greenhouseimpact of fossil energy by locking huge amount of carbon dioxide inthe underground system. However, since the technology is not yetfully developed, there is no tangible example of such facilities. Re-searchers and developers involved should speed up the developmentphase and assist in the spread of the technology as soon as possible.

The exploitation of the alternative energy, particularly the wind andsolar energy sources are characterized by a wide range of challenges.Some of the challenges arise from the nature of the sources while oth-ers arise from the capability to exploit the sources into energy. How-ever, considering the importance of the renewable energy in the reduc-tion of the greenhouse effect, strategies to reduce the challenges havebeen developed. As discussed in the solution to the issues, the en-ergy sector stakeholders, including innovators, grid operators, privateenergy producers, and suppliers as well as domestic and commercialconsumers should play their respective roles towards this end. Thecontinuous exploitation of the alternative energy sources should behighly encouraged for optimal reduction of the effects connected toconventional/fossil energy production and consumption.

6.2 Future Work

Although the rigorous qualitative analysis has been drawn while ex-tracting the scholarly opinions and research results, still due to thetime constraints, several experiments, tests, and techniques were notincorporated. It is important to note that experiments regarding solarpanels require standardized materials, expensive coatings and pan-els, and time-consuming methods. For instance, for a single run, sev-eral days are required on each sample. Therefore, the empirical andmore vigorous analysis based on different mechanisms, techniques,and methods are taken into consideration for the future work.

The quantitative approach whilst utilizing the experiments and em-pirical work is important to understand the relationship between dif-ferent methods and their relative accuracy. Since the green energy isadvancing rapidly, the up-to-date methods are necessary to be em-

CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK 135

ployed (even those under consideration). The most natural and or-ganic means should be adapted to produce energy-efficient appliancesthat consume less energy and follow eco-friendly regulations. The bestrecommendation for future work is building NEOM Institute of Sci-ence and Technology as will be discussed below.

6.2.1 NEOM Institution

The NEOM Institute of Science and Technology will be an indepen-dent, research-driven, graduate-level institution focused on advancedenergy and sustainable technologies. NEOM Institute will providea valuable platform for learning, exploring, and critical thinking inthe field of practical sciences and technology. Its’ graduate programparticularly will be focused on the principle of exposing students toresearch-driven atmosphere, where they can analyze the culture of in-novation and entrepreneurship. Incubating the diversity in culturepromotes the leadership skills among the students. Furthermore, sincethe faculty instills the power of curiosity among students to find, ex-plore, and solve the challenges related to climate change in today’sworld with research, it enable the peers to work with new approachesto achieve their entrepreneurial goals.The world-class faculty and top-tier students are expected to come up with new approaches,smart ideas,and involve in intensive studies regarding the NEOM city. The follow-ing will show examples of a smart idea and an intensive study involveNEOM renewable energy that NEOM Institution faculty and studentscan contribute. The following ideas could be tested:

Smart Ideas

Example Idea NEOM will be pumping sea water in the near moun-tains at the morning using the solar and wind. Then using hydro atnight.

Considerations The following are considerations needed to be takeninto account:

1. How much power needed to pump sea water in the near moun-tains?

2. What is the expected generation capacity?

136 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE WORK

3. Is it cheaper to store the energy instead of using it to pump seawater in the near mountains?

4. Detailed financial analysis of this idea includes cost of the project,cost of equipment and maintenance, the expected rate of return.

5. Comparison between the overall capacity of the system with pump-ing sea water in the near mountains vs. the system with not in-cluding pumping sea water in the near mountains.

Transmissionn lines between NEOM and Saudi Arabia main gridand Egypt and Jordan

Intensive Study There is a need for intensive study of the transmis-sion lines between NEOM, Saudi Arabia main grid, Egypt, and Jor-dan. The intensive study is aim to know the best case scenario for theamount of power that can exchange between them and reduce powerlosses.

Considerations The following are considerations needed to be takeninto account:

1. Layout of the best case scenario for linking NEOM, Saudi Arabiamain grid, Egypt, and Jordan.

2. Detailed modeling, simulation, and optimization of transmissionlines.

3. How to improve the power transfer capability (PTC) of transmis-sion lines.

4. Reliability analysis of transmission protection.

5. Study of protection scheme for transmission lines.

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Appendix A

MathCAD Calculations

MathCAD is an engineering math software that allows you to do cal-culations and convert units.

A.1 Wind Turbine Calculations

The Calculations is for wind power farms with a size of 110km2. Theideal wind speed with an average of 10.3m/s taking from Facts Sheet,NEOM [51] and the rated wind speed is 14m/s. One wind farm con-tains 240 wind turbine units. We are using MHI Vestas V164-9.5MWmodel for the wind turbines [68]. The Power coefficient for wind cal-culations is Cp = 0.267 because the power coefficient in the limit realworld is well below the Betz Limit. Building 4 wind farms will give usa capacity of 9.1373GW . Figure A.1 shows the wind turbine data andequations used for calculations and graphing. Figure A.2 shows thetwo matrices that have been used to graph the power curve. FigureA.3 shows the power curve.

151

152 APPENDIX A. MATHCAD CALCULATIONS

Data:Diameter: Diameter 164m:= GW 109W:=

Raduis: rDiameter

282m=:=

Blade length: L r 82m=:=

Air densiy: ρ 1.23kg

m3:=

Accurding to Beltz' Law, Cp is below Betz limit, so the follwoing Cp is assumed:

Power coefficient: Cp 0.267:=

Swept area: Area π r2 21124.069m2=:=

Cut-in wind speed: vwind.cutin 4ms

:=

Ideal wind speed: vwind.ideal 10.3ms

:=

Rated wind speed: vwind.rated 14ms

:=

Cut-out wind speed: vwind.cutout 25ms

:=

Number of total windturbines:

Turbinetotal 240:=

Calculations:Power with cut-inwind speed: Pwind.cutin 0.5 ρ Area vwind.cutin

3 Cp 0.222 MW=:=

Power with idealwind speed: Pwind.ideal 0.5 ρ Area vwind.ideal

3 Cp 3.7903 MW=:=

Power with ratedwind speed: Pwind.rated 0.5 ρ Area vwind.rated

3 Cp 9.5181 MW=:=

Total power withideal wind speed: Pwind.ideal.total Turbinetotal Pwind.ideal 0.9097 GW=:=

Total power withrated wind speed: Pwind.rated.total Turbinetotal Pwind.rated 2.2843 GW=:=

Assume we have 4farms:

Pwind.total.4farms 4 Pwind.rated.total 9.1373 GW=:=

Figure A.1: Wind turbine data and equations

APPENDIX A. MATHCAD CALCULATIONS 153

Graphing:

Range of Wind speed:Power for one turbie with range of wind speed:

vwind.range

0

2

4

6

8

10.3

12

14

16

18

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

ms

:=

Pwind.range

0MW

0MW

0.5 ρ Area vwind.range2 0, 3 Cp














0MW

0MW

:=

Figure A.2: Wind turbine matrices


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 280

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10Power curve for a single wind turbine

Wind speed (m/s)

Pow

er (M

W)

Pwind.range 10 6-

vwind.range

Figure A.3: Power curve


A.2 Tidal Turbine Calculations

The Calculations is for tidal power farms with a size of Saudi–EgyptCauseway is 30km2 (30km Length, 11.3mWidth). The rated tidal speedis 3m/s. One wind farm contains 1579 tidal turbine units. We are us-ing AR1500 TIDAL TURBINE - Atlantis Resources model for the tidalturbines [8]. The coefficient for tidal calculations is Cp = 0.428. Sincethe Saudi–Egypt Causewa has two sides, then we will be building onetidal farm on each side (total of 2 farms) and that will give us a capac-ity of 4.76GW . Figure A.4 shows the tidal turbine data and equationsused for calculations and graphing. Figure A.5 shows the two matricesthat have been used to graph the power curve. Figure A.6 shows thepower curve.


Data: GW 109W:=

Diameter: Diameter 18m:=

Raduis: rDiameter

29 m=:=

Blade length: L r 9 m=:=

Water densiy: ρ 1025.18kg

m3:=

Accurding to Beltz' Law, Cp is below Betz limit, so the follwoing Cp is assumed:

Power coefficient: Cp 0.428:=

Swept area: Area π r2 254.469 m2=:=

Cut-in tidal speed: vtidal.cutin 1ms

:=

Ideal tidal speed: vtidal.ideal 2ms

:=

Rated tidal speed: vtidal.rated 3ms

:=

Cut-out tidal speed: vtidal.cutout 5ms

:=

Calculations:

Saudi-EgyptCauseway Length:

Causewaylength 30km:=

Number of total tidalturbines: (we willleave 1 m between thetidals)

TurbinetotalCausewaylengthDiameter 1m+

1.579 103=:=

Power with cut-intidal speed: Ptidal.cutin 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.cutin

3 Cp 0.056 MW=:=

Power with idealtidal speed: Ptidal.ideal 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.ideal

3 Cp 0.447 MW=:=

Power with ratedtidal speed: Ptidal.rated 0.5 ρ Area vtidal.rated

3 Cp 1.507 MW=:=

Total power withrated tidal speed: Ptidal.rated.total Turbinetotal Ptidal.rated 2.38 GW=:=

Since there are 2sides of thecauseway:

Ptotal.2sides 2 Ptidal.rated.total 4.76 GW=:=

Figure A.4: Tidal turbine data and equations


Graphing:

Power for one turbie with range of tidal speed: Range of tidal speed:

vtidal.range

0

0.25

0.5

0.75

1

1.5

2

3

3.25

3.5

3.75

4

4.25

4.5

4.75

5

6

7

ms

:=

Ptidal.range

0MW

0MW

0.5 ρ Area vtidal.range2 0, 3 Cp














0MW

0MW

:=

Figure A.5: Tidal turbine matrices


0 1 2 3 4 5 6 70

0.17

0.34

0.51

0.68

0.85

1.02

1.19

1.36

1.53

1.7

Power curve for a single tidal turbine

Tidal speed (m/s)

Pow

er (M

W)

Ptidal.range 10 6-

vtidal.range

Figure A.6: Power curve


A.3 Photovoltaics (PV) Solar Power Calcula-tions

The Calculations is for solar power stations with a size o 100km2 anda single solar panel has a capacity of 375MW . One solar power stationcontains 51.02 Million solar panel units. We are using LG315N1C-G4 |LG NeONTM2 model for the solar panels [88]. Building 3 solar powerstations with a capacity of 19.133GW each, NEOM will have a totalcapacity of 57.398GW from solar panels. Figure A.7 shows the solarpanel data and equations used for calculations and graphing. FigureA.8, A.9, A.10, and A.11 show the matrices that have been used tograph the power curve. Figure A.12 shows the maximum Power,maximum power points current, and short circuit current for a rangeof voltages for a singe solar panel. Figure A.13 shows the maximumPower, range of currents for a range of voltages for a singe solar panel.


Data:GW 109 W:=

*STC (Standard Test Condition):Irradince 1000 W/m2, 25 C.

Solar Power Stationsize:

Area 100km2:=

Mechanical properties:

Length 1960mm:=Length:

Width 1000mm:=Width:

Size of 1 solar panel(LG375N2W-G4)

Sizepanel Length Width 1.96m2=:=

Electrical properties:

Module Type (MaximumPower Points):

Pmpp 375W:=

Vmpp 39.6V:=Maximum Power PointsVoltage:

Impp 9.5A:=Maximum Power PointsCurrent:

Voc 48.3V:=Open Circuit Voltage:

Short Circuit Current: Isc 10.04A:=

Calculations:

Number of solar panelneeded:

PaneltotalArea

Sizepanel51.02 106=:=

Solar Power StationCapacity: Ptotal.1station Paneltotal Pmpp 19.133 GW=:=

Assume Neom willbuild 3 stations: Ptotal.3stations 3 Ptotal.1station 57.398 GW=:=

Figure A.7: Solar panel data and equations


Graphing:

Range of voltagevalues:

Maximum Power PointsCurrent:

Short Circuit Current:

Vrange

0V

20V

25V

30V

35V

Vmpp

40V

45V

Voc

50V

60V

70V

:= Impp

Impp

Impp

Impp

Impp

Impp

Impp

0A

0A

0A

0A

0A

0A

:= Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

Isc

0A

0A

0A

:=

Max Power equation:

Pmax

Impp 0 0, ( )Vrange0 0,









0W

0W

0W

:=

Figure A.8: Solar panel matrices


Irange2A

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

0

0

0

A:=

Prange2A

Irange2A 0 0, ( )Vrange0 0,









0W

0W

0W

:=

Irange4A

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

4

0

0

0

A:=

Prange4A










0W

0W

0W

:=



Irange6A

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

6

0

0

0

A:=Prange6A










0W

0W

0W

:=

Irange8A

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

8

0

0

0

A:=Prange8A










0W

0W

0W

:=



Irange10.04A

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

10.04

0

0

0

A:=Prange10.04A

Irange10.04A 0 0, ( )Vrange0 0,









0W

0W

0W

:=


Figure A.12: Singe solar panel: maximum power and maximumpower points current and short circuit current vs. range of voltages


0 5.4 10.8 16.2 21.6 27 32.4 37.8 43.2 48.6 540

1.5

3

4.5

6

7.5

9

10.5

12

13.5

15

0

100

200

300

400

I.range.2AI.range.4AI.range.6AI.range.8AI.range.10.03AI.mppI.scP.max

Voltage (V)

Cur

rent

(A)

Pow

er (W

)

Irange2A

Irange4A

Irange6A

Irange8A

Irange10.04A

Impp

Isc

Pmax

Vrange

Figure A.13: Singe solar panel: maximum power vs. range of currentsvs. range of voltages

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