students’ expectation

Students’ expectation

“Today’s students expect of colleges and universities what they demand elsewhere: better service, lower costs, higher quality, and a mix of products that satisfy their own sense of what a good education ought to provide. They want the enterprises that serve them to be efficient – not for efficiency’s sake, but because efficiency promotes the flexibility and adaptability they seek in the marketplace”.

(quoted in Lewis & Smith, 1994, p. 4)

Quality Concepts

After completing this topic, you should be able to:• Understand various definitions of quality• Learn about dimensions of quality• Understand the forces affecting quality management• Understand the importance of quality

Readings:

Chapter 1 B. Janakiraman & R.K. Gopal, 2007

Maureen Brookes & Nina Becket, Quality Management in Higher Education

Contradictory objectives

In the academic world quality assessment has traditionally assumed two apparently contradictory objectives:

• Quality improvement

• Accountability

• Universities mostly emphasize quality improvement, while the government pays special attention to accountability, aiming at guaranteeing the quality of the services provided to society by higher education institutions.

• Alberto Amaral, 2006

Factors

• Emergence of markets as tools of public policy to increase efficiency and to maximize the provision of social benefits.

• The rise of New Public Management policy

• Globalisation

• Growing supranational organizations interference in higher education.

New Public Management

• Under NPM, students are referred to as customers or clients, and quality assurance and accountability measures have been put in place to ensure that academic provision meets the clients’ needs and expectations.

Globalization

• World wide organizations have produced codes of good practice.

• Countries that are exporters of higher education (US, UK, Australia) have established codes and/or principles of ethical and/or good practice for the assurance of academic quality and standards in the provision of education to foreign students.

3E• Economy in the acquisition of

resources,

• Efficiency in the use of resources, and

• Effectiveness in the achievement

• of objectives.

Quality

• The concept of quality is not new: it has always been part of the academic tradition. It is the outside world that now emphasizes the need for attention to quality. It is the relationship between higher education and society which has changed.

Quality

• By the end of the 1990s concern for quality and standards was global. From a UK perspective this was viewed in terms of ‘the withdrawal of trust’ (Trow, 1994) and the ‘drive towards managerialism’ (Kogan, 1989).

Confusion in Quality

• Becher (1989) - ‘a creature of political fashion’. • Neave (1986) - ‘elusive’ (vague)• Harvey and Green (1993) - ‘slippery’ and ‘value-

laden’• Scott (1994) - ‘No authoritative definition of

quality in higher education is possible’• (Westerheidjen, 1999) - ‘Lack of theory of

quality in higher education literature’

Higher Education Institution

• HEI means and educational institution whether or not established under any written law and including private educational institution providing higher education leading to the award of a certificate, diploma, degree or the equivalent thereof. (Akta Majlis Pendidikan Tinggi Negara 1996 - Akta 546)

• Institusi pendidikan tinggi ialah institusi pendidikan yang menyediakan pendidikan tinggi yang membawa kepada penganugerahan diploma, ijazah atau yang setaraf dengannya (Akta Pendidikan 1996)

University or University College

• University or University College means:(a) University or University College established under the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971; or(b) a private higher educational institution with the status of a University or University College, a branch campus of a foreign University or University College, established under the Private Higher Educational Institutions Act 1996 (Act 546)

Management as defined

• Management is defined as the effective use and coordination of resources such as capital, plant, materials, and labour to achieve defined objectives with maximum efficiency (International Dictionary of Management).

• Covers the relevant aspects of efficiency, effectiveness in the usage of resources, financial management and implementation of stated programs.

Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban

• The obligation to give answers and explanations concerning one’s action and performance, to those with a right to require such answers and explanations (Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid, 1991 – Perkhidmatan Awam Yang Berkualiti).

• Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).

• Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau keputusan yang diambil olehnya mengikut garispanduan dan peraturan yang ditetapkan.

Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban

• Therefore, an organization / university has the obligation to give answers and explanations concerning its own action and performance, to those with a right to require such answers and explanations (government, stakeholders).

• Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).

• Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau keputusan yang diambil olehnya mengikut garispanduan dan peraturan yang ditetapkan.

Accountability

• It implies an agreementAn exchange between two parties in which one says essentially, “You give me the means and I will do what we agreed upon.” The other says, “Fine, as long as you demonstrate you are doing it well.”Based on the above definition, an accountability relationship has the following elements:(a) Resources and/or authority conferred conditionally,(b) Agreement to use what ism given to carry out particular responsibilities(c) Obligation to demonstrate that what is given is used conscientiously for the agreed purposes

Government commitment

The Malaysian Public Service Commitments 2008• Launched by Tan Sri Mohd Sidek Hassan – Chief

Secretary to the Government of Malaysia January 2008.

• Towards a Customer Centric Malaysian Public Service

Government commitment

Mewujudkan budaya perkhidmatan yang berfokuskan pelanggan berdasarkan ciri-ciri berikut:

• Kebolehpercayaan dan kebolehjangkaan (reliability and predictability)

• Responsif (high level of responsiveness)• Menepati masa (timeliness of responsiveness)• Berbudi bahasa dan cekap (courtesy and

competence)• Persekitaran mesra pelanggan (customer friendly

environment)

Factors for the Increase inPublic Demand for Accountability

• Fiscal pressuresCompetition in fundsFaced with tighter budgets

• Rise in perceived importance of the function of postsecondary institutionsThe benefits of postsecondary educationIncrease in students’ employability – “value added” – the value that is added to students’ capabilities and knowledge as a consequence of their education at a particular college or university.

Factors for the Increase inPublic Demand for Accountability

• Human resource development and knowledge-based economy

• Non-financial value to individuals, society and the nation

• Postsecondary education can contribute to enhanced cultural integrity, tolerance, and respect, which are all highly valued in the global society

The Big Questions of Quality

Some of the questions:• How do higher education institutions satisfying

stakeholders’ demands on their education?• What is the role of quality management?• What factors exert influence on higher education

institutions?• Through what kind of mechanisms do higher

education institutions react?• What are the effects of the reactions taken by higher

education institutions?• Is/Are there any model(s) suitable for higher

education institutions?

The Pressures

Some of the pressures:• State of uncertainty faced by educational leaders.• Expectations for greater performance in a climate of

increase financial accountability.• The existence of alternatives to public education

providers.• The expectation on universities as change agent. • 1990s has been the decade of quality in higher

education (changes in approaches to achieve quality in higher education).

• External quality monitoring and procedures.

Quality Concepts

What is quality?• In simple form quality answers two questions: “What is

wanted?” and “How do we do it?”• Quality means staying in business.• Quality means optimizing the whole system of value

exchange.

Two dominant meanings of quality:• Quality consists of those products features, which meet

the needs of customers, hence provides product satisfaction.

• Quality consists of freedom from deficiencies.(Janakiraman & Gopal, 2007, p.2)

Quality Management System (QMS)

Quality• An expectation of other products and services we all use.

• A product or service delivered to a very high specification at a very high price, only accessible to customers or clients who have high incomes and wealthThe totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needsAbility of a set of inherent characteristics of a product, process/system to fulfill requirements of customers and other interested parties (ISO9001:2000)

Quality Management System• Well documented system that ensures consistency and

improvement of working practices, including products and services produced.

Quality Management (QM)

• Quality management (QM) refers to structures within a higher education institution that assist in the management of quality issues (Luxton, 2005).

• Quality improvement (refers to process) is concerned with an ongoing cycle of agreeing on a set of standards and/or goals, gathering relevant information, evaluating feedback and ensuring the implementation of change.

Various Definitions of Quality

• Fitness for purpose or use - Juran• Conformance to requirements – Crosby• Total composite of product and services characteristics

of marketing, engineering, manufacturing and maintenance through which the product and service in use will meet the expectation by the customer – Feigenbaum

• Should be aimed at the needs of the customers, present and future – Deming

• The degree of excellence at an acceptance price and control of variability at an acceptable cost - Broh

Various Definitions of Quality

• The totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs – ISO 840: Quality vocabulary

• Meets the requirements of customers, both internal and external, the organization for defect-free product, services and business processes – IBM

• Quality as exceptional (Lee & Diana, 1993) – something special, distinctive, excellent (exceeding very high standards), passing a set of required standards.

Quality as something special

• Quality as special refers the traditional view of quality.• Implies the exclusiveness or the elitist view.• It is judged based on distinctiveness (unattainable for

most people).• Education provided by Cambridge, Oxford, Yale,

Harvard is always viewed as something special.

Quality as excellence

• Only possible in limited circumstances.• The best is required if excellent is what you want.• A lecture by a Nobel Prize Winner is an example of

quality excellence.• Ivory towers universities are status given only to those

widely reputable universities in the USA and UK.• Institutions that take only the best students is an

example of quality in terms of input and output.

Quality as fitness for purpose

• Ensures products or services meet the specifications of the customers.

• Quality products meet the customers requirements.• For HEI, is the system providing the right number of

required workforce?• Is the course providing the right balance of

knowledge, skills and understanding?• How about the degree offered by universities?• Who actually are the customers in HEI?

Defining Quality in Higher education

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Defining quality is a challenging task (Becket & Brookes, 2006)

What is meant by quality?

Basic concepts:• Continuous improvement – an ongoing effort to improve

products, services or processes. Incremental improvement• Four step quality model – plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle

• Cost of quality (COQ) – the cost of not creating a quality product or service. Isn’t the price of creating a quality product.

• Quality costs are the total cost incurred by investing in the prevention of non-conformance to requirements, failing to meet requirements.


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Harvey & Knight (1996)

Quality can be broken into five dimensions: - Quality as exceptional (high standards)- Quality as consistency (zero defects)- Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer specifications)- Quality as value for money (efficiency and effectiveness)- Quality as transformative (an ongoing process that includes

empowerment and enhancement of customer satisfaction)


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Campell & Rozsnayi (2002)

Quality can be defined as: - Quality as excellence (goal to be the best)- Quality as zero errors - Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer specifications)- Quality as transformation (an ongoing process that includes

empowering students with skills, knowledge and attitudes which enable them to live and work in the k-society)

- Quality as threshold (setting certain norms and criteria)- Quality as value for money (accountability)- Quality as enhancement or improvement (pursuit of

continuous improvement)

Eight Dimensions of Quality

Performance:• The primary operating characteristics of a product. An

example is about television, should have clear sound, picture, colour and able to receive distant stations.

Features:• Secondary characteristics of products that

supplement the basic functioning of the products. An example would be automatic tuners on a colour tv and power steering in a car.


Reliability:• It reflects the probability of a product failing within a

specified period of time.

Conformance:• The degree to which product design and operating

characteristics match pre-established standards.

Durability:• A measure of product life – the period of use one gets

from a product before it physically deteriorates.


Serviceability:• The speed, competency and efficiency of repair – the

elapsed time before service is restored.

Aesthetics:• How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes or smells.

Perceived quality:• Indirect measures when comparing brands on

products attributes.

Determinants of Service Quality

Reliability:• Involves consistency of performance and

dependability. The performance of service should be right the first time and provider honours promises. It must ensure accuracy in billing, keeping records correctly and performing the service at the designated time.

Responsiveness:• Concerns the willingness or readiness of employees

to provide service (timeliness of service, giving prompt service).


Competence:• Possessing the required skills and knowledge to

perform the service.

Access:• Involves approachability and ease of contact

(accessible by phone, convenient hours of operation, convenient location of service facility).

Courtesy:• Involves politeness, respect, consideration, and

friendliness of contact personnel.


Communication:• Keeping customers informed in the language they can

understand (explain the service, how much is the cost, trade-off between service and cost, problem will be handled).

Credibility:• Involves trustworthiness, believability and honesty.

Security:• The freedom from danger, risk or doubt (physical

safety, confidentiality).


Understanding / knowing the customer:• Making the efforts to understand the needs of the

customer (learning customers’ specific requirements, providing individual attention, recognizing regular customer).

Tangibility:• Includes the physical evidences of the service such as

physical facilities, appearance of personnel, other customers in the service facility).

Why is Quality Important to HEI?

Four assumptions reflect the environment of HEI:• Conditions and conventions within the environment are changing• Changes are faster than in the past• Changes will continue to rapidly occur in the 21st century• Changes are essential and their implications to HEIs must be

anticipated (Lewis & Smith, 1994)

• If in companies quality leads to efficiency and profitability, in HEIs it leads to better learning and experiences on the parts of students

Factors affecting the assumptions whether HEIs are quality driven

• The perception of quality in HE is becoming a problem for many outside the HEIs.

• Economic conditions have generated increasing concern about career opportunities and economic well-being.

• General public is increasingly concern about access to HE as a mean towards employment and economic security.

• Students, parents, legislators and employers have increasing expectations on HEIs and willing to commit funds to evaluate the performance of HEIs.

• Decreased in trust on institutions of higher education.• (Lewis & Smith, 1994)

Characteristics of HEI that focus on quality

• Open culture to constructive evaluation and to change.

• High level of satisfaction from students, employees and external customers.

• Institution-wide embracing of the concept of quality improvement, including commitment to participate in institutional improvement

and growth.• Measurable improvement in institutional performance in agreed

areas of need.• Open communication within and between different areas of

operation.• Self-confidence of the institution in its ability to manage its own future, and evidence of its success in doing so, particularly in

relation to any external accreditation bodies.

Some Questions on Quality

• What are the determinants of quality?

• Differentiate between service quality and product quality.

• How globalization affect quality?

• What dimension of service quality is more critical in education service?

Quality Management in Higher education

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• Issue of quality management – agenda of HEIs• Higher education is viewed as international business

Forces for effective quality management:

1. Growing concern on accountability

2. An expansion of student populations

3. Diverse student population

4. Diminishing resources

5. Increasing competitive nature of higher education

6. Greater expectations of students as paying customers

7. More flexible provision of higher education

8. Increase collaborative provision between institutions

Drivers of change in Higher education

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Political forces:

1. Government initiatives to widen access

2. Government development of more HEIs

3. Government control over curriculum and management

4. No unified or centralized system for government control

Economic forces:

1. Reduced or limited funding per student

2. Reliance on private sector funding

3. Reliance on international student fees

4. Rising cost per student

5. Increase in number of private HEIs

6. Greater emphasis on internationalization


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Socio-cultural forces:

1. Greater demand for student places

2. Greater diversity of student population

3. Greater diversity of provision

4. Consumer pressure for greater accountability or value for money

Source: Brookes & Becket, 2006


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Access and diversity

The democratization of higher education through financial assistance, affirmative action, employer expectations for educational credentials, and etc.

Technology and distance learning

Technology has allowed for the expansion of distance learning, E-learning


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Assessment

Accountability to the public, governing boards, accrediting agencies, and etc.

Growing emphasis on teaching and learning issues

Student-Centered Learning (SCL)

Teaching vs. research

What are the basic missions?

Privatization

Privatization was an emerging trend: Student housing, management information system and etc.


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Emphasizing career preparations over liberal education

A trend to emphasize specific career preparation over a quality liberal education

Rising costs and changing finances

The economic of higher education

Commercialization

University becomes more entrepreneurial and enter new markets

The impact of corporate values: Corporate colleges/university alliances or collaboration

Key quality management dimensions

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Comprehensive audit tool as suggested:

1. Internal and external stakeholder perspectives

2. Education as a system of inputs, processes and outputs

3. Different quality dimensions - conceptualization

4. Qualitative versus quantitative

5. Quality snapshot or longitudinal benchmarking

6. Quality assurance or quality enhancement

Source: Brookes & Becket, 2006

Higher education in South-East Asia

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An overview of higher education in South East Asia.• Higher education is greatly influenced by the

countries’ historical past, nation-building efforts, and current global trends.

• Among the less-developed countries, higher education systems are chronically under-funded and face escalating demand, under qualified academic staff, poorly planned curricula.

• Higher education systems face similar problems and challenges – have budgets to balance, faculties to satisfy, social demands to meet.

Massification of Higher education in South-East Asia

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• Massification reflects developments and trends in higher education reform to increase access.

• Transforming higher education systems from being elitist to ensuring mass participation across different social, income and geographical groups.

• Some countries have achieved significant increases in participation rates and tackled social exclusion.

• Escalating demand was brought about by population growth, democratization of secondary education, growing affluence, social mobility.

Massification of Higher education in South-East Asia

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• At the national level, it is a key instrument for human capital development to sustain economic growth, restructure society, promote national unity.

• Higher education to maintain the countries’ competitiveness in a globalized knowledge economy (Malaysia, Singapore).

Expansion of Higher education by gross enrolment ratios (%)

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Country 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000

Singapore 10 9 12 34 na

Thailand 2 4 20 20 32

Philippines 19 18 38 30 30

Malaysia 2 3 6 11 23

Indonesia 3 2 7 11 na

Brunei na na na 7 14

Vietnam na na na 4 10

Myanmar 1 2 na 6 8

Cambodia na na na 2 3

Lao PDR na na na 2 3

Diversification of Higher education

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• Various types of higher education institutions have emerged with different missions or purposes.

• Many countries witness rapid expansion of private sector.• Levels of differentiation - traditional teaching and research

universities, virtual universities, polytechnics, technical institutes, open learning institutes, community colleges.

• Higher education runs by for-profit corporations, non-profit organizations and religious bodies.

• Open and distance learning universities and regional universities widening participation and access to HE.

• Trend towards transnational education has been noted , Malaysia one of the most developed and experienced in the region.

Internationalization of Higher Education

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• Mobility of students and academics around the world have become common.

• The increasing development of foreign branch campuses reveals that HE can be exported to give access to students who otherwise may not be able to afford or obtain scholarship

• Transnational education is defined as any teaching or learning activity in which students are in a different country to that in which the institution providing education is based.

• Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam are importers of transnational education from Australia, UK.

• Some countries have national objectives to become educational hubs in the region.

Marketization of Higher Education

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• The rapid expansion calls for restructuring of HE involving privatization of HE, corporatization of public universities, implementation of student fees and formation of strategic partnerships between public and private sectors.

• Market forces led to more entrepreneurial universities whereby universities market their teaching, research and other knowledge-based services as well as setting up commercial enterprises or joint ventures with business firms.

• The development of private HE expands enrolments in many countries. In Philippines and Indonesia the private HE outnumbered public HE.

Implications on Institutions of Higher Education

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• HEs become more bureaucratic and regulated to ensure consistency in the management of HE systems.

• HEs become more complex, creating a variety of institutions with different missions and scattered in different places.

• Many governments are reducing their public and social expenditure on universities. Universities need to seek alternative sources of funding.

• Universities need to be more market oriented, flexible and able to respond quickly to market signals and pressures. Academic leaders have to find ways to make their universities more entrepreneurial and autonomous.

• Limited resources have made stakeholders including the state to be more concerned with the quality of education.

Implications on Institutions of Higher Education

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• Universities are increasingly subject to external pressures to achieve greater accountability for their performances, and are encouraged to develop systems for self-evaluation and assessment.

Trading autonomy for accountability

• States and universities are constantly redefining their interactions and relationships.

• An increase in autonomy is coupled with more accountability.• Restructuring has led to changes in governance and

management.

Changing academic profession

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• Academics are subjected to more rules and regulations, tighter control to increase productivity, more rules and regulations, rigorous assessment procedures.

• The development of corporate culture has required academics to behave like entrepreneurs and to market their expertise, services and research findings.

• Academic freedom in some countries remains limited on what can be researched and what can be disseminated to public.

Future developments and challenges

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• Continuing expansion of universities.• Universities need to seek different sources of funding.• Growing diversity of higher education institutions.• More calls for institutional autonomy, financial diversification

and quality control will be made.• Greater pressure for relevance and flexibility curriculum

development and adaptability to changes in the society.• The emergence of multiple competitors as knowledge

disseminator from corporate universities, research institutes, industrial laboratories, think tanks and consultancies.

• Universities have to promote multiculturalism and universal values.

students’ expectation

Documents

higher quality

quality assurance

quality managementunderstand

quality conceptsafter

higher education institutions

good education

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assurance of academic