stereotypes - a brief history

Stereotypes -A Brief History

• Dramatic Decrease in Expression of Stereotypes– Katz & Braly (1933) and replications– Survey Results

• Despite this evidence subtler forms of stereotyping still evident– Sagar & Schofield - Pencil poking study– Word, Zanna, & Cooper (1974) - interview study– Darley & Gross (1983) - SES and performance– Rogers & Prentice-Dunn - Insult study

• Dovidio & Gaertner’s Aversive Racism Explanation– Helping Study– Inadmissable Evidence Study

Stereotypes of Blacks in Four Generations

1933 1951 1967 1982

Superstitious 84% 41% 13% 6%Lazy 75% 31% 26% 13%Ignorant 38% 24% 11% 10%Happy-go-lucky 38% 17% 27%15%Musical 26% 33% 47% 29%Ostentatious 26% 11% 25% 5%Very Religious24% 17% 8% 23%Stupid 22% 10% 4% 1%

Stereotypes of Jews in Three Generations

1933 1951 1967

Shrewd 79% 47% 30%Mercenary 49% 28% 15%Industrious 48% 29% 33%Grasping 34% 17% 17%Intelligent 29% 37% 37%Ambitious 21% 28% 48%

Survey Results Indicating Prejudice

Percent saying "Yes"

020406080

100

1960 1970 1980 1990Would you move if Blacks moved into your neighborhoodShould Whites be able to keep Blacks out

Rogers & Prentice-Dunn (1981)

Intensity of Shock

75

100

125

150

175

No Insult Insult

Black "Victim"White "Victim"

Seeking Help from Others and Aversive Racism

Percent Helping

30405060708090

African-American European-American

Help OfferedHelp Solicited

The Weighting of Inadmissable Evidence and Aversive Racism

Rated Guilt

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

African-American European-American

Without EvidenceWith Evidence

Recent Models

• Devine (1989) - The argument– Study 1 - everyone knows the stereotype– Study 2 - everyone automatically activates the

stereotype– Study 3 - low prejudice people but not high prejudice

people control the application of the stereotype• Does everyone automatically activate the

stereotype?– Lepore & Brown (1997) - category does not

automatically activate the stereotype for all people– Fazio et al. (1995) - there are reliable difference in

how people automatically activate the stereotype

Stereotype Activation

• Do people automatically activate stereotypes?– It depends on what you mean by automatic;

without awareness yes; without intention, yes; without effort, no•Gilbert & Hixon (1991)•Spencer, Fein, Wolfe, Fong, & Hodgson

(1998); Study 2– It depends on people’s motivation - when

motivated to stereotype effort is not needed either•Spencer, Fein, Wolfe, Fong, & Hodgson

(1998); Studies 1 & 3

Gilbert & Hixon

# of Ster. Completions

2

3

4

Not Busy BusyCognitive Busyness Condition

Asian AssistantWhite Assistant

Spencer et al. (1998) - Study 3

# of Ster. Completions

00.20.40.60.8

11.2

African-American European-AmericanEthnicity of the Prime

Positive FeedbackNegative Feedback

Stereotype Inhibition

• Activation of another stereotype can lead to stereotype inhibition– Macrae, Bodenhausen, & Milne (1995)

• When motivated to inhibit stereotypes they are inhibited– Sinclair & Kunda (1998)

Stereotype Application

• Can people control their use of stereotypes - this is actually trickier than you might think– Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne, & Jetten (1994) - stereotypes

on the rebound• Motivated application of stereotypes

– Fein & Spencer (1997)•Study 1 - self-affirmation and stereotype

application•Study 2 - negative feedback and stereotype

application•Study 3 - feeling better about yourself after

stereotyping

Fein & Spencer (1997) - Study 1

Rating of Target

5060708090

100

Jewish ItalianEthnicity of the Target

Self-AffirmedNot Self-Affirmed

Fein & Spencer (1997) - Study 2

Rating of Target

5

5.5

6

6.5

7

Gay StraightSexual Orientation of the Target

Neutral FeedbackNegative Feedback

Fein & Spencer (1997) - Study 3Stereotyping

Rating of Target

50

60

70

80

90



Fein & Spencer (1997) - Study 3 Self-Esteem Change

Change in Self-Esteem

012345



The Target’s Perspective -Attributional Ambiguity

• Stigma and Self-Esteem– The findings– The explanations

•Attributions to prejudice•Disengagement•Within group comparisons

• Crocker, Voelkl, Testa, & Major (1991) - Blinds up/Blinds down study

• Major, Spencer, Schmader, Wolfe, & Crocker (1997) - Priming bias leads to disengagement

Major, et al. (1997) - Study 2

Self-Esteem after Failure

5

5.25

5.5

5.75

6

Blacks Whites

Race PrimeNo Race Prime

Target’s Perspective -Stereotype Threat

• What is stereotype threat?• Its relation to academic performance• Steele & Aronson (1995)

– Study 1 - the effects of test diagnosticity– Study 2 - relation to stereotype activation and avoidance– Study 3 - the effect of the subtle priming of race

• Spencer, Steele, & Quinn (1998) - stereotype threat and women’s math performance

• Stereotypic commericals and women’s math performance

• Steele, Spencer, Hummel, Schoem, & Nisbett (1998) - stereotype threat in the real world

A Model of the Origin and Effects of Stereotype Threat

Cultural Stereotype Stereotype Threat

Performance Deficits

Disidentification withStereotyped Domains

Steele & Aronson (1995) -Study 1

Score on Test

2

4

6

8

10

12

Diagnostic Non-diagnostic

Whites Blacks


Stereotype Activation

0

1

2

3

4

Diagnostic Non-diagnostic Control

Whites Blacks


Stereotype Avoidance

15

20

25

30

35

40

Diagnostic Non-diagnostic Control

Whites Blacks


Score on Test

2

4

6

8

10

12

Race Primed Race not Primed

Whites Blacks

Spencer, et al. (in preparation)

Score on Test

0

10

20

30

40

Stereotypic Counter-StereotypicType of Commercial

Men Women

Steele, et al. (1998)First Semester GPA

22.22.42.62.8

33.2

Control Group Program Participants

European-AmericansAfrican-Americans

Changing Stereotypes

• The Contact hypothesis– The evidence is now in that it works– Factors that make it work better

•between group friendships are particularly important•endorsement of integration by authorities•no inter-group competition•equal status among students

• The Robber’s Cave Studies• Jigsaw Classroom and Superordinate Goals• Subtyping as a limit on the effectiveness of contact

– Kunda & Oleson (1995) - using information to subtype– Kunda & Oleson (1997) - extreme people get subtyped

stereotypes - a brief history

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